Chapter V: H. S (5)

A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 1818; but the
first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published, with a
key, in 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray's
character, but even on his genius, appeared in the _Athenaeum_ for
October 1, 1831, which was successfully refuted by J. Landseer in the
_Athenaeum_ a fortnight later. In 1851 Henry G. Bohn put out an
edition, from the original plates, in a handsome folio, the coarser
sketches being published in a separate volume. For this edition Thomas
Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable commentary, which is a good
history of the times embraced by the caricatures. The next edition,
entitled _The Works of James Gillray, the Caricaturist: with the Story
of his Life and Times_ (Chatto & Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas
Wright, and, by its popular exposition and narrative, introduced
Gillray to a very large circle formerly ignorant of him. This edition,
which is complete in one volume, contains two portraits of Gillray,
and upwards of 400 illustrations. Mr J. J. Cartwright, in a letter to
the _Academy_ (Feb. 28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a
MS. volume, in the British Museum, containing letters to and from
Gillray, and other illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were
used in a valuable article in the _Quarterly Review_ for April 1874.
See also the _Academy_ for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874.

There is a good account of Gillray in Wright's _History of Caricature
and Grotesque in Literature and Art_ (1865); See also the article
CARICATURE.

GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers, but principally to the clove, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_, of which the carnation is a cultivated variety, and to the stock, _Matthiola incana_, a well-known garden favourite. The word is sometimes written gilliflower or gilloflower, and is reputedly a corruption of July-flower, "so called from the month they blow in." Henry Phillips (1775-1838); in his _Flora historica_, remarks that Turner (1568) "calls it gelouer, to which he adds the word stock, as we would say gelouers that grow on a stem or stock, to distinguish them from the clove-gelouers and the wall-gelouers. Gerard, who succeeded Turner, and after him Parkinson, calls it gilloflower, and thus it travelled from its original orthography until it was called July-flower by those who knew not whence it was derived." Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the _Popular Names of British Plants_, very distinctly shows the origin of the name. He remarks that it was "formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre with the _o_ long, from the French _giroflee_, Italian _garofalo_ (M. Lat. _gariofilum_), corrupted from the Latin _Caryophyllum_, and referring to the spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used in flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly clove of India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants of the pink tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England been transferred of late years to several cruciferous plants." The gillyflower of Chaucer and Spenser and Shakespeare was, as in Italy, _Dianthus Caryophyllus_; that of later writers and of gardeners, _Matthiola_. Much of the confusion in the names of plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use of the French terms _giroflee_, _oeillet_ and _violette_, which were all applied to flowers of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The use made of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine is alluded to by Chaucer, who writes:

"And many a clove gilofre
To put in ale";

also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine, which was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the liquor. In both these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower which is intended, as it is also in the passage from Gerard, in which he states that the conserve made of the flowers with sugar "is exceeding cordiall, and wonderfully above measure doth comfort the heart, being eaten now and then." The principal other plants which bear the name are the wallflower, _Cheiranthus Cheiri_, called wall-gillyflower in old books; the dame's violet, _Hesperis matronalis_, called variously the queen's, the rogue's and the winter gillyflower; the ragged-robin, _Lychnis Flos-cuculi_, called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower; the water-violet, _Hottonia palustris_, called water-gillyflower; and the thrift, _Armeria vulgaris_, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate designation it is nowadays usually applied to the wallflower.

GILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908), American educationist, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831. He graduated at Yale in 1852, studied in Berlin, was assistant librarian of Yale in 1856-1858 and librarian in 1858-1865, and was professor of physical and political geography in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University and a member of the Governing Board of this School in 1863-1872. From 1856 to 1860 he was a member of the school board of New Haven, and from August 1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut Board of Education. In 1872 he became president of the University of California at Berkeley. On the 30th of December 1874 he was elected first president of Johns Hopkins University (q.v.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on the 1st of May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the 22nd of February 1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1901 to 1904 he was the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C. He died at Norwich, Conn., on the 13th of October 1908. He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St John's, Columbia, Yale, North Carolina, Princeton, Toronto, Wisconsin and Clark Universities, and William and Mary College. His influence upon higher education in America was great, especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of administration, the plan of bringing to the university as lecturers for a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of a singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willingness to recognize workers in new branches of science were all largely due to him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins hospital, of which he was made director in 1889, he contributed greatly. He was a singularly good judge of men and an able administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had an immense influence, especially in the promotion of original and productive research. He was always deeply interested in the researches of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him that his attention as president was turned inside and not outside the university. He was instrumental in determining the policy of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University while he was a member of its governing board; on the 28th of October 1897 he delivered at New Haven a semi-centennial discourse on the school, which appears in his _University Problems_. He was a prominent member of the American Archaeological Society and of the American Oriental Society; was one of the original trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was secretary, and from 1893 until his death was president of the board); from 1891 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educational Fund (being the vice-president of the board); and was an original member of the General Education Board (1902) and a trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation for Social Betterment (1907). In 1896-1897 he served on the Venezuela Boundary Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901 he succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers and addresses are collected in a volume entitled _University Problems in the United States_ (1888). He wrote, besides, _James Monroe_ (1883), in the American Statesmen Series; a _Life of James D. Dana_, the geologist (1899); _Science and Letters at Yale_ (1901), and _The Launching of a University_ (1906), an account of the early years of Johns Hopkins.

GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIELD (1829-1892), American bandmaster, was born in Ireland, and settled in America about 1850. He had been in the band of an Irish regiment, and he had great success as leader of a military band at Salem, Massachusetts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased his reputation during the Civil War, particularly by organizing a monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans in 1864; and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar performances. He was enormously popular as a bandmaster, and composed or arranged a large variety of pieces for orchestra. He died at St Louis on the 24th of September 1892.

GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the "Apostle of the North," was descended from a Westmorland family, and was born at Kentmere in 1517. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in 1542 and B.D. in 1549. He was elected fellow of Queen's and ordained in 1542; subsequently he was elected student of Christ Church. At Oxford he first adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines of the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat shaken by another public disputation which he had with Peter Martyr. In 1552 he preached before King Edward VI. a sermon on sacrilege, which was duly published, and displays the high ideal which even then he had formed of the clerical office; and about the same time he was presented to the vicarage of Norton, in the diocese of Durham, and obtained a licence, through William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom as long as the king lived. On Mary's accession he went abroad to pursue his theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp and Paris; and from a letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554, we get a glimpse of the quiet student rejoicing in an "excellent library belonging to a monastery of Minorites." Returning to England towards the close of Queen Mary's reign, he was invested by his mother's uncle, Tunstall, bishop of Durham, with the archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of Easington was annexed. The freedom of his attacks on the vices, and especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not only dismissed the case, but presented the offender with the rich living of Houghton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was again brought forward, he again protected him. Enraged at this defeat, Gilpin's enemies laid their complaint before Bonner, bishop of London, who secured a royal warrant for his apprehension. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom; and, having ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long garment, that he might "goe the more comely to the stake," he set out for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg on the journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news of Queen Mary's death freed him from further danger. He at once returned to Houghton, and there he continued to labour till his death on the 4th of March 1583. When the Roman Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the see of Carlisle; but he declined this honour and also the provostship of Queen's, which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to Edinburgh. His hospitable manner of living was the admiration of all. His living was a comparatively rich one, his house was better than many bishops' palaces, and his position was that of a clerical magnate. In his household he spent "every fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt and an ox, besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions." Strangers and travellers found a ready reception; and even their horses were treated with so much care that it was humorously said that, if one were turned loose in any part of the country, it would immediately make its way to the rector of Houghton. Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter was a public day with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he had three tables well covered--one for gentlemen, the second for husbandmen, the third for day-labourers; and this piece of hospitality he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continuance difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a cost of upwards of L500, educated and maintained a large number of poor children at his own charge, and provided the more promising pupils with means of studying at the universities. So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school that there was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at the ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy permitted to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used every year to visit the most neglected parts of Northumberland, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Westmorland and Cumberland; and that his own flock might not suffer, he was at the expense of a constant assistant. Among his parishioners he was looked up to as a judge, and did great service in preventing law-suits amongst them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he delighted to make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at need is well illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Finding one day a challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church where he was to preach, he took it down with his own hand, and proceeded to the pulpit to inveigh against the unchristian custom. His theological position was not in accord with any of the religious parties of his age, and Gladstone thought that the catholicity of the Anglican Church was better exemplified in his career than in those of more prominent ecclesiastics (pref. to A. W. Hutton's edition of S. R. Maitland's _Essays on the Reformation_). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan settlement, had great respect for the Fathers, and was with difficulty induced to subscribe. Archbishop Sandys' views on the Eucharist horrified him; but on the other hand he maintained friendly relations with Bishop Pilkington and Thomas Lever, and the Puritans had some hope of his support.

A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carleton, bishop of
Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin's at Houghton, will be
found in Bates's _Vitae selectorum aliquot virorum_, &c. (London,
1681). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister, was
published at London, 1629; and in 1852 it was reprinted in Glasgow,
with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms one of the lives
in Christopher Wordsworth's _Ecclesiastical Biography_ (vol. iii., 4th
ed.), having been compared with Carleton's Latin text. Another
biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds little to Bishop Carleton's,
was written by William Gilpin, M.A., prebendary of Ailsbury (London,
1753 and 1854). See also _Dict. Nat. Biog._

GILSONITE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City), or UINTAHITE, or UINTAITE, a description of asphalt occurring in masses several inches in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah) valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah. It is of black colour; its fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous surface. When warmed it becomes plastic, and on further beating fuses perfectly. It has a specific gravity of 1.065 to 1.070. It dissolves freely in hot oil of turpentine. The output amounted to 10,916 short tons for the year 1905, and the value was $4.51 per ton.

GILYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread throughout the Lower Amur district, but now confined to the Amur delta and the north of Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some authorities to the Ainu of Sakhalin and Yezo; but they are more probably a mongrel people, and Dr A. Anuchin states that there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek-bones and flat face, and a Caucasic with bushy beard and more regular features. The Chinese call them _Yupitatse_, "Fish-skin-clad people," from their wearing a peculiar dress made from salmon skin.

See E. G. Ravenstein, _The Russians on the Amur_ (1861); Dr A.
Anuchin, _Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc._ xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877); H.
von Siebold, _Uber die Aino_ (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue
d'ethnographie (Paris, 1884); L. Schrenck, _Die Volker des Amurlandes_
(St Petersburg, 1891).

GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so that it should keep a horizontal and constant position, while the body from which it is suspended is in free motion, so that the motion of the supporting body is not communicated to it. It is thus used particularly for the suspension of compasses or chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually consists of a ring freely moving on an axis, within which the object swings on an axis at right angles to the ring.

The word is derived from the O. Fr. _gemel_, from Lat. _gemellus_, diminutive of _geminus_, a twin, and appears also in _gimmel_ or _jimbel_ and as _gemel_, especially as a term for a ring formed of two hoops linked together and capable of separation, used in the 16th and 17th centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They sometimes were made of three or more hoops linked together.

GIMLET (from the O. Fr. _guimbelet_, probably a diminutive of the O.E. _wimble_, and the Scandinavian _wammle_, to bore or twist; the modern French is _gibelet_), a tool used for boring small holes. It is made of steel, with a shaft having a hollow side, and a screw at the end for boring the wood; the handle of wood is fixed transversely to the shaft. A gimlet is always a small tool. A similar tool of large size is called an "auger" (see TOOL).

GIMLI, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven whither the righteous will go to spend eternity.

GIMP, or GYMP. (1) (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but probably a nasal form of the Fr. _guipure_, from _guiper_, to cover or "whip" a cord over with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk or cotton woven around a firm cord, often further ornamented by a metal cord running through it. It is also sometimes covered with bugles, beads or other glistening ornaments. The trimming employed by upholsterers to edge curtains, draperies, the seats of chairs, &c., is also called gimp; and in lace work it is the firmer or coarser thread which outlines the pattern and strengthens the material. (2) A shortened form of gimple (the O.E. _wimple_), the kerchief worn by a nun around her throat, sometimes also applied to a nun's stomacher.

GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit, the characteristic flavour of which is derived from the juniper berry. The word "gin" is an abbreviation of Geneva, both being primarily derived from the Fr. _genievre_ (juniper). The use of the juniper for flavouring alcoholic beverages may be traced to the invention, or perfecting, by Count de Morret, son of Henry IV. of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom in the early days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from fermented liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such as ginger, grains of paradise, &c., to take off the nauseous flavour of the crude spirits then made. The invention of juniper wine, no doubt, led some one to try the juniper berry for this purpose, and as this flavouring agent was found not only to yield an agreeable beverage, but also to impart a valuable medicinal quality to the spirit, it was generally made use of by makers of aromatized spirits thereafter. It is probable that the use of grains of paradise, pepper and so on, in the early days of spirit manufacture, for the object mentioned above, indirectly gave rise to the statements which are still found in current text-books and works of reference as to the use of Cayenne pepper, _cocculus indicus_, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of adulterating spirits. It is quite certain that such materials are not used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern conditions of manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a reason for their use. The same applies to the suggestions that such substances as acetate of lead, alum or sulphate of zinc are employed for the fining of gin.

There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch _geneva_ or _hollands_ and the British gin. Each of these types exists in the shape of numerous sub-varieties. Broadly speaking, British gin is prepared with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the manufacture of Dutch gin a preliminary rectification is not an integral part of the process. The old-fashioned Hollands is prepared much after the following fashion. A mash consisting of about one-third of malted barley or bere and two-thirds rye-meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high temperature. After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small quantity of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete, and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate (the low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring matter (juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the juniper berries were ground with the malt, but this practice no longer obtains, but some distillers, it is believed, still mix the juniper berries with the wort and subject the whole to fermentation. When the redistillation over juniper is repeated, the product is termed _double_ (_geneva_, &c.). There are numerous variations in the process described, wheat being frequently employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British gin,[1] a highly rectified spirit (see SPIRITS) is redistilled in the presence of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander), and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The product so obtained constitutes the "dry" gin of commerce. Sweetened or cordialized gin is obtained by adding sugar and flavouring matter (juniper, coriander, angelica, &c.) to the dry variety. Inferior qualities of gin are made by simply adding essential oils to plain spirit, the distillation process being omitted. The essential oil of juniper is a powerful diuretic, and gin is frequently prescribed in affections of the urinary organs.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The precise origin of the term "Old Tom," as applied to
unsweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English case
of _Boord & Son_ v. _Huddart_ (1903), in which the plaintiffs
established their right to the "Cat Brand" trade-mark, it was proved
before Mr Justice Swinfen Eady that this firm had first adopted about
1849 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat on a barrel
with the name of "Old Tom"; and it was at one time supposed that this
was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into one of the vats,
the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the term "Old Tom" had
been known before that, and Messrs Boord & Son inform us that
previously "Old Tom" had been a man, namely "old Thomas Chamberlain
of Hodge's distillery"; an old label book in their possession (1909)
shows a label and bill-head with a picture of "Old Tom" the man on
it, and another label shows a picture of a sailor lad on shipboard
described as "Young Tom."

GINDELY, ANTON (1829-1892), German historian, was the son of a German father and a Slavonic mother, and was born at Prague on the 3rd of September 1829. He studied at Prague and at Olmutz, and, after travelling extensively in search of historical material, became professor of history at the university of Prague and archivist for Bohemia in 1862. He died at Prague on the 24th of October 1892. Gindely's chief work is his _Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Krieges_ (Prague, 1869-1880), which has been translated into English (New York, 1884); and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of the Thirty Years' War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous other works are: _Geschichte der bohmischen Bruder_ (Prague, 1857-1858); _Rudolf II. und seine Zeit_ (1862-1868), and a criticism of Wallenstein, _Waldstein wahrend seines ersten Generalats_ (1886). He wrote a history of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian, and edited the _Monumenta historiae Bohemica_. Gindely's posthumous work, _Geschichte der Gegenreformation in Bohmen_, was edited by T. Tupetz (1894).

See the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904).

GINGALL, or JINGAL (Hindostani _janjal_), a gun used by the natives throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on a swivel; it sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired from a rest.

GINGER (Fr. _gingembre_, Ger. _Ingwer_), the rhizome or underground stem of _Zingiber officinale_ (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), a perennial reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The flowers and leaves are borne on separate stems, those of the former being shorter than those of the latter, and averaging from 6 to 12 in. The flowers themselves are borne at the apex of the stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes from 2 to 3 in. long, composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with membranous margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. The leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green, smooth, tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long sheaths which stand away from the stem and end in two small rounded auricles. The plant rarely flowers and the fruit is unknown. Though not found in a wild state, it is considered with very good reason to be a native of the warmer parts of Asia, over which it has been cultivated from an early period and the rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has spread into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Africa, and Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in Britain.

The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early times; it was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a product of southern Arabia, and was received by them by way of the Red Sea; in India it has also been known from a very remote period, the Greek and Latin names being derived from the Sanskrit. Fluckiger and Hanbury, in their _Pharmacographia_, give the following notes on the history of ginger. On the authority of Vincent's _Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients_, it is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into Alexandria, which in the second century of our era were there liable to the Roman fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other Indian spices. So frequent is the mention of ginger in similar lists during the middle ages, that it evidently constituted an important item in the commerce between Europe and the East. It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in Palestine about 1173, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228 and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in England even before the Norman Conquest, being often referred to in the Anglo-Saxon leech-books of the 11th century. It was very common in the 13th and 14th centuries, ranking next in value to pepper, which was then the commonest of all spices, and costing on an average about 1s. 7d. per lb. Three kinds of ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the middle of the 14th century: (1) _Belledi_ or _Baladi_, an Arabic name, which, as applied to ginger, would signify country or wild, and denotes common ginger; (2) _Colombino_, which refers to Columbum, Kolam or Quilon, a port in Travancore, frequently mentioned in the middle ages; and (3) _Micchino_, a name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger plant both in India and China between 1280 and 1290. John of Montecorvino, a missionary friar who visited India about 1292, gives a description of the plant, and refers to the fact of the root being dug up and transported. Nicolo di Conto, a Venetian merchant in the early part of the 15th century, also describes the plant and the collection of the root, as seen by him in India. Though the Venetians received ginger by way of Egypt, some of the superior kinds were taken from India overland by the Black Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America by Francisco de Mendoca, who took it from the East Indies to New Spain. It seems to have been shipped for commercial purposes from San Domingo as early as 1585, and from Barbados in 1654; so early as 1547 considerable quantities were sent from the West Indies to Spain.

Ginger (_Zingiber officinale_), about 1/2 nat. size, with leafy and flowering stem; the former cut off short.

1. Flower.
2. Flower in vertical section.
3. Fertile stamen, enveloping the style which projects above it.
4. Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 enlarged.
s, Sepals.
p, Petals.l, Labellum, representing two barren stamens.
st, Fertile stamen.
y, Staminode.
x, Tip of style bearing the stigma.
z, Style.
gl, Honey-secreting glands.]

Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed respectively coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting the epidermis. For the first, the pieces, which are called "races" or "hands," from their irregular palmate form, are washed and simply dried in the sun. In this form ginger presents a brown, more or less irregularly wrinkled or striated surface, and when broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, and sometimes horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the rhizomes are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected to a system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning sulphur or by immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorinated lime. The whitewashed appearance that much of the ginger has, as seen in the shops, is due to the fact of its being washed in whiting and water, or even coated with sulphate of lime. This artificial coating is supposed by some to give the ginger a better appearance; it often, however, covers an inferior quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with which it rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the bottom of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen in trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to flattish irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the "races" or "hands," and from 3 to 4 in. long; each branch has a depression at its summit showing the former attachment of a leafy stem. The colour, when not whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking with a short mealy fracture, and presenting on the surfaces of the broken parts numerous short bristly fibres.

The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to
which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to
which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment or
spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used
internally. "The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties render
it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accompanied with
much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medicines to correct
griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it has been found to
relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes, collected in a young
green state, washed, scraped and preserved in syrup, form a delicious
preserve, which is largely exported both from the West Indies and from
China. Cut up into pieces like lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger
also forms a very agreeable sweetmeat.

GINGHAM, a cotton or linen cloth, for the name of which several origins are suggested. It is said to have been made at Guingamp, a town in Brittany; the _New English Dictionary_ derives the word from Malay _ging-gang_, meaning "striped." The cloth is now of a light or medium weight, and woven of dyed or white yarns either in a single colour or different colours, and in stripes, checks or plaids. It is made in Lancashire and in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United States. Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for dresses, &c.

GINGI, or GINGEE, a rock fortress of southern India, in the South Arcot district of Madras. It consists of three hills, connected by walls enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically impregnable to assault. The origin of the fortress is shrouded in legend. When occupied by the Mahrattas at the end of the 17th century, it withstood a siege of eight years against the armies of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the French, who held it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered to the English in 1761, in the words of Orme, "terminated the long hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel, and left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the authority of its government in any part of India."

GINGUENE, PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author, was born on the 27th of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He was educated at a Jesuit college in his native town, and came to Paris in 1772. He wrote criticisms for the _Mercure de France_, and composed a comic opera, _Pomponin_ (1777). _The Satire des satires_ (1778) and the _Confession de Zulme_ (1779) followed. _The Confession_ was claimed by six or seven different authors, and though the value of the piece is not very great, it obtained great success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans of Gluck made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the _Memoire pour le peuple francais_ (1788), and others in producing the _Feuille villageoise_, a weekly paper addressed to the villages of France. He also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening of the states-general. In his _Lettres sur les confessions de J.-J. Rousseau_ (1791) he defended the life and principles of his author. He was imprisoned during the Terror, and only escaped with life by the downfall of Robespierre. Some time after his release he assisted, as director-general of the "commission executive de l'instruction publique," in reorganizing the system of public instruction, and he was an original member of the Institute of France. In 1797 the directory appointed him minister plenipotentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling his duties for seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers, Ginguene retired for a time to his country house of St Prix, in the valley of Montmorency. He was appointed a member of the tribunate, but Napoleon, finding that he was not sufficiently tractable, had him expelled at the first "purge," and Ginguene returned to his literary pursuits. He was one of the commission charged to continue the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, and he contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared in 1814, 1817 and 1820. Ginguene's most important work is the _Histoire litteraire d'Italie_ (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting the finishing touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died on the 11th of November 1815. The last five volumes were written by Francesco Salfi and revised by Pierre Daunou.

In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was guided for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi, but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model.

Ginguene edited the _Decade philosophique, politique et litteraire_
till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely to
the _Biographie universelle_, the _Mercure de France_ and the
_Encyclopedie methodique_; and he edited the works of Chamfort and of
Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, _Pomponin ou le
tuteur mystifie_ (1777); _La Satire des satires_ (1778); _De
l'autorite de Rabelais dans la revolution presente_ (1791); _De M.
Neckar_ (1795); _Fables nouvelles_ (1810); _Fables inedites_ (1814).
See "Eloge de Ginguene" by Dacier, in the _Memoires de l'institut_,
tom. vii.; "Discours" by M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the
_Hist. litt. d'Italie_; D. J. Garat, _Notice sur la vie et les
ouvrages de P. L. Ginguene_, prefixed to a catalogue of his library
(Paris, 1817).

GINKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703); 1st earl of Athlone, Dutch general in the service of England, was born at Utrecht in 1630. He came of a noble family, and bore the title of Baron van Reede, being the eldest son of Godart Adrian van Reede, Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch army, and in 1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his expedition to England. In the following year he distinguished himself by a memorable exploit--the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching northward across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this mutiny that facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In 1690 Ginkel accompanied William III. to Ireland, and commanded a body of Dutch cavalry at the battle of the Boyne. On the king's return to England General Ginkel was entrusted with the conduct of the war. He took the field in the spring of 1691, and established his headquarters at Mullingar. Among those who held a command under him was the marquis of Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in June Ginkel took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole garrison of 1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After reconstructing the fortifications of Ballymore the army marched to Athlone, then one of the most important of the fortified towns of Ireland. The Irish defenders of the place were commanded by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth. The firing began on June 19th, and on the 30th the town was stormed, the Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their position at Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications of Athlone and left a garrison there, Ginkel led the English, on July 12th, to Aughrim. An immediate attack was resolved on, and, after a severe and at one time doubtful contest, the crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint-Ruth, and the disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left unburied on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay along the line of the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its garrison being permitted to retire to Limerick. There the viceroy Tyrconnel was in command of a large force, but his sudden death early in August left the command in the hands of General Sarsfield and the Frenchman D'Usson. The English came in sight of the town on the day of Tyrconnel's death, and the bombardment was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days later he stormed the fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult negotiations a capitulation was signed, the terms of which were divided into a civil and a military treaty. Thus was completed the conquest or pacification of Ireland, and the services of the Dutch general were amply recognized and rewarded. He received the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was created by the king 1st earl of Athlone and baron of Aughrim. The immense forfeited estates of the earl of Limerick were given to him, but the grant was a few years later revoked by the English parliament. The earl continued to serve in the English army, and accompanied the king to the continent in 1693. He fought at the sieges of Namur and the battle of Neerwinden, and assisted in destroying the French magazine at Givet. In 1702, waiving his own claims to the position of commander-in-chief, he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough. He died at Utrecht on the 11th of February 1703, and was succeeded by his son the 2nd earl (1668-1719), a distinguished soldier in the reigns of William III. and Anne. On the death of the 9th earl without issue in 1844, the title became extinct.

GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831- ), Hebrew scholar, was born at Warsaw on the 25th of December 1831. Coming to England shortly after the completion of his education in the Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr Ginsburg continued his study of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special attention to the Megilloth. The first result of these studies was a translation of the Song of Songs, with a commentary historical and critical, published in 1857. A similar translation of Ecclesiastes, followed by treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the Kabbala, kept the author prominently before biblical students while he was preparing the first sections of his _magnum opus_, the critical study of the Massorah. Beginning in 1867 with the publication of Jacob ben Chajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible, Hebrew and English, with notices, and the Massoreth Ha-Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, with translation and commentary, Dr Ginsburg took rank as an eminent Hebrew scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members of the committee for the revision of the English version of the Old Testament. His life-work culminated in the publication of the Massorah, in three volumes folio (1880-1886), followed by the Masoretico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible (1894), and the elaborate introduction to it (1897). Dr Ginsburg had one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben Chajim, who in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing what has ever since been known as the Massorah; but neither were the materials available nor was criticism sufficiently advanced for a complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the subject almost where it was left by those early pioneers, and collected portions of the Massorah from the countless MSS. scattered throughout Europe and the East. More recently Dr Ginsburg has published _Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible_ (1897 and 1898), and _The Text of the Hebrew Bible in Abbreviations_ (1903), in addition to a critical treatise "on the relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of A.D. 916 to the Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text" (1899, for private circulation). In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that the St Petersburg Codex, for so many years accepted as the genuine text of the Babylonian school, is in reality a Palestinian text carefully altered so as to render it conformable to the Babylonian recension. He subsequently undertook the preparation of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the British and Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to J. Kitto's _Encyclopaedia_, W. Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_.

GINSENG, the root of a species of _Panax_ (_P. Ginseng_), native of Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliaceae, used in China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it, notably that of _Panax quinquefolium_, distinguished as American ginseng, and imported from the United States. At one time the ginseng obtained from Manchuria was considered to be the finest quality, and in consequence became so scarce that an imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. That prepared in Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of the wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the older the plant the better is the quality of the root considered to be. Great care is taken in the preparation of the drug. The account given by Kaempfer of the preparation of nindsin, the root of _Sium ninsi_, in Korea, will give a good idea of the preparation of ginseng, ninsi being a similar drug of supposed weaker virtue, obtained from a different plant, and often confounded with ginseng. "In the beginning of winter nearly all the population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected, is macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which rice has been boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed vessel over the fire, and afterwards dried, until from the base to the middle it assumes a hard, resinous and translucent appearance, which is considered a proof of its good quality."

Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather brittle, translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger, and varying in length from 2 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous, sweetish and slightly bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently forked, and it is probably owing to this circumstance that medicinal properties were in the first place attributed to it, its resemblance to the body of a man being supposed to indicate that it could restore virile power to the aged and impotent. In price it varies from 6 or 12 dollars to the enormous sum of 300 or 400 dollars an ounce.

Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng merchant.
Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper parcels
which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second box, or
perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed the bottom of
the large box and all the intervening space filled with more paper
parcels. These parcels, he said, "contained quicklime, for the purpose
of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes quite dry, the lime
being packed in paper for the sake of cleanliness. The smaller box,
which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead; the ginseng further
enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-covered boxes.
Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not to breathe upon
it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many merits of the drug
and the cures it had effected. The cover of the root, according to its
quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain, cotton cloth or
paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to friends as a valuable
present; in such cases, "accompanying the medicine is usually given a
small, beautifully-finished double kettle, in which the ginseng is
prepared as follows. The inner kettle is made of silver, and between
this and the outside vessel, which is a copper jacket, is a small
space for holding water. The silver kettle, which fits on a ring near
the top of the outer covering, has a cup-like cover in which rice is
placed with a little water; the ginseng is put in the inner vessel
with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and the apparatus is put
on the fire. When the rice in the cover is sufficiently cooked, the
medicine is ready, and is then eaten by the patient, who drinks the
ginseng tea at the same time." The dose of the root is from 60 to 90
grains. During the use of the drug tea-drinking is forbidden for at
least a month, but no other change is made in the diet. It is taken in
the morning before breakfast, from three to eight days together, and
sometimes it is taken in the evening before going to bed.

The action of the drug appears to be entirely psychic, and comparable
to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no evidence that it
possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic properties.

See Porter Smith, _Chinese Materia Medica_, p. 103; _Reports on Trade
at the Treaty Ports of China_ (1868), p. 63; Lockhart, _Med.
Missionary in China_ (2nd ed.), p. 107; _Bull. de la Societe Imperiale
de Nat. de Moscou_ (1865), No. 1, pp. 70-76; _Pharmaceutical Journal_
(2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, _Materia
Medica_, p. 324; Geoffroy, _Tract. de matiere medicale_, t. ii. p.
112; Kaempfer, _Amoenitates exoticae_, p. 824.

GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher, publicist and politician, was born in Turin on the 5th of April 1801. He was educated by the fathers of the Oratory with a view to the priesthood and ordained in 1825. At first he led a very retired life; but gradually took more and more interest in the affairs of his country and the new political ideas as well as in the literature of the day. Partly under the influence of Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in life,--its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European authority. This authority was in his mind connected with papal supremacy, though in a way quite novel--intellectual rather than political. This must be remembered in considering nearly all his writings, and also in estimating his position, both in relation to the ruling clerical party--the Jesuits--and also to the politics of the court of Piedmont after the accession of Charles Albert in 1831. He was now noticed by the king and made one of his chaplains. His popularity and private influence, however, were reasons enough for the court party to mark him for exile; he was not one of them, and could not be depended on. Knowing this, he resigned his office in 1833, but was suddenly arrested on a charge of conspiracy, and, after an imprisonment of four months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti first went to Paris, and, a year later, to Brussels, where he remained till 1845, teaching philosophy, and assisting a friend in the work of a private school. He nevertheless found time to write many works of philosophical importance, with special reference to his country and its position. An amnesty having been declared by Charles Albert in 1846, Gioberti (who was again in Paris) was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do so till the end of 1847. On his entrance into Turin on the 29th of April 1848 he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. He refused the dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which he was soon elected president. At the close of the same year, a new ministry was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the accession of Victor Emmanuel in March 1849, his active life came to an end. For a short time indeed he held a seat in the cabinet, though without a portfolio; but an irreconcilable disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin was accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence he never returned. There, refusing the pension which had been offered him and all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally, and spent his days and nights as at Brussels in literary labour. He died suddenly, of apoplexy, on the 26th of October 1852.