Chapter V: H. S (13)

The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was now approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the 28th of June 1892. The general election resulted in a majority of forty for Home Rule, heterogeneously composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence in Lord Salisbury's government was moved and carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, and on the 15th of August 1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of the treasury. He was the first English statesman that had been four times prime minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the 13th of February. It passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the House of Lords on the second reading on the 8th of September 1893. Gladstone's political work was now, in his own judgment, ended. He made his last speech in the House of Commons on the 1st of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments introduced by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He never set foot again in the House of Commons, though he remained a member of it till the dissolution of 1895. He paid occasional visits to friends in London, Scotland and the south of France; but the remainder of his life was spent for the most part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by writing a rhymed translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an elaborately annotated edition of Butler's _Analogy_ and _Sermons_. He had also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which he had always loved, but this design was never carried into effect, for he was summoned once again from his quiet life of study and devotion to the field of public controversy. The Armenian massacres in 1894 and 1895 revived all his ancient hostility to "the governing Turk." He denounced the massacres and their perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester on the 6th of August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 24th of September 1896. In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open letter to the duke of Westminster.

Death.

But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand. Since his retirement from office Gladstone's physical vigour, up to that time unequalled, had shown signs of impairment. Towards the end of the summer of 1897 he began to suffer from an acute pain, which was attributed to facial neuralgia, and in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he returned to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed that the pain had its origin in a disease which must soon prove fatal. He received the information with simple thankfulness, and only asked that he might die at home. On the 22nd of March he returned to Hawarden, and there he died on the 19th of May 1898. During the night of the 25th of May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London and the coffin was placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. Throughout the 26th and 27th a vast train of people, officially estimated at 250,000, and drawn from every rank and class, moved in unbroken procession past the bier. On the 28th of May the coffin, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and escorted by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from Westminster Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son, the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons, were among those who bore the pall. The body was buried in the north transept of the abbey, where, on the 19th of June 1900, Mrs Gladstone's body was laid beside it.

Family.

Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of whom one died in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone (1840-1891), was a member of parliament for many years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre, his son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth son, Herbert John (b. 1854), sat in parliament for Leeds from 1880 to 1910, and filled various offices, being home secretary 1905-1910; in 1910 he was created Viscount Gladstone, on being appointed governor-general of united South Africa. The eldest daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C. Wickham, headmaster of Wellington, 1873-1893, and later Dean of Lincoln. Another daughter married the Rev. Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden. The youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of Newnham College, Cambridge.

Character.

After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone's life, enlightened by personal observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis of his character. First among his moral attributes must be placed his religiousness. From those early days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been "truly converted to God," down to the verge of ninety years, he lived in the habitual contemplation of the unseen world, and regulated his private and public action by reference to a code higher than that of mere prudence or worldly wisdom. A second characteristic, scarcely less prominent than the first, was his love of power. His ambition had nothing in common with the vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social standing. Rather it was a resolute determination to possess that control over the machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let or hindrance the political mission with which he believed that Providence had charged him. The love of power was supported by a splendid fearlessness. No dangers were too threatening for him to face, no obstacles too formidable, no tasks too laborious, no heights too steep. The love of power and the supporting courage were allied with a marked imperiousness. Of this quality there was no trace in his manner, which was courteous, conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his speech, which breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the imperiousness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his sudden resolves, his invincible insistence, his recklessness of consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption that the civilized world and all its units must agree with him, his indignant astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or resistance, his incapacity to believe that an overruling Providence would permit him to be frustrated or defeated. He had by nature what he himself called a "vulnerable temper and impetuous moods." But so absolute was his lifelong self-mastery that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that which, on cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough to see the "vulnerable temper" as it worked within, but it was never suffered to find audible expression. It may seem paradoxical, but it is true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by nature conservative. His natural bias was to respect things as they were. In his eyes, institutions, customs, systems, so long as they had not become actively mischievous, were good because they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced by conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist on a large scale; to destroy an established Church; to add two millions of voters to the electorate; to attack the parliamentary union of the kingdoms. But these changes were, in their inception, distasteful to their author. His whole life was spent in unlearning the prejudices in which he was educated. His love of freedom steadily developed, and he applied its principles more and more courageously to the problems of government. But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for something to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change by the gradual processes of conviction and conversion.

Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial skill, Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only quality in which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from his fellow-men was his faculty of concentration. Whatever were the matter in hand, he so concentrated himself on it, and absorbed himself in it, that nothing else seemed to exist for him.

A word must be said about physical characteristics. In his prime Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches diminished as his years increased, and in old age the unusual size of his head and breadth of his shoulders gave him a slightly top-heavy appearance. His features were strongly marked; the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth severely lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled the onyx with its double band of brown and grey. His complexion was of an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black hair, gave in earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his face. His dark eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they perpetually expanded and contracted in harmony with what he was saying. He held himself remarkably upright, and even from his school-days at Eton had been remarked for the rapid pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was a baritone, singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market at Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be heard without difficulty; and as late as 1895 he said to the present writer: "What difference does it make to me whether I speak to 400 or 4000 people?" His physical vigour in old age earned him the popular nickname of the Grand Old Man.

Lord Morley of Blackburn's _Life of Gladstone_ was published in 1903.
(G. W. E. R.)

GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland, Australia, 328 m. by rail N.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 1566. It possesses a fine, well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the best in Queensland, at the mouth of the river Boyne. Gold, manganese, copper and coal are found in the neighbourhood. Gladstone, founded in 1847, became a municipality in 1863.

See J. F. Hogan, _The Gladstone Colony_ (London, 1898).

GLAGOLITIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy written therein, and the people (Dalmatians and Roman Catholic Montenegrins) among whom it has survived by special licence of the Pope (see SLAVS for table of letters).

GLAIR (from Fr. _glaire_, probably from Lat. _clarus_, clear, bright), the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a preparation made of this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to retain the gold and as a varnish. The adjective "glairy" is used of substances having the viscous and transparent consistency of the white of an egg.

GLAISHER, JAMES (1809-1903); English meteorologist and aeronaut, was born in London on the 7th of April 1809. After serving for a few years on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, he acted as an assistant at the Cambridge and Greenwich observatories successively, and when the department of meteorology and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was entrusted with its superintendence, which he continued to exercise for thirty-four years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845 he published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone through many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteorological Society, acting as its secretary for many years, and in 1866 he assisted in the foundation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He was appointed a member of the royal commission on the warming and ventilation of dwellings in 1875, and for twelve years from 1880 acted as chairman of the executive committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. But his name is best known in connexion with the series of balloon ascents which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company with Henry Tracey Coxwell. Many of these ascents were arranged by a committee of the British Association, of which he was a member, and were strictly scientific in character, the object being to carry out observations on the temperature, humidity, &c., of the atmosphere at high elevations. In one of them, that which took place at Wolverhampton on the 5th of September 1862, Glaisher and his companion attained the greatest height that had been reached by a balloon carrying passengers. As no automatically recording instruments were available, and Glaisher was unable to read the barometer at the highest point owing to loss of consciousness, the precise altitude can never be known, but it is estimated at about 7 m. from the earth. He died on the 7th of February 1903 at Croydon.

GLAMIS, a village and parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5-3/4 m. W. by S. of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish (1901) 1351. The name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the _i_ is mute: it is derived from the Gaelic, _glamhus_, "a wide gap," "a vale." The chief object in the village is the sculptured stone, traditionally supposed to be a memorial of Malcolm II., although Fordun's statement that the king was slain in the castle is now rejected. About a mile from the station stands Glamis Castle, the seat of the earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne, a fine example of the Scottish Baronial style, enriched with certain features of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly from the 17th century, but the original structure was as old as the 11th century, for Macbeth was Thane of Glamis. Several of the early Scots kings, especially Alexander III., used it occasionally as a residence. Robert II. bestowed the thanedom on John Lyon, who had married the king's second daughter by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the existing family. Patrick Lyon became hostage to England for James I. in 1424. When, in 1537, Janet Douglas, widow of the 6th Lord Glamis, was burned at Edinburgh as a witch, for conspiring to procure James V.'s death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but it was restored to her son six years later when her innocence had been established. The 3rd earl of Strathmore entertained the Old Chevalier and eighty of his immediate followers in 1715. After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl joined the Jacobites at Sheriffmuir and fell on the battlefield. Sir Walter Scott spent a night in the "hoary old pile" when he was about twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences in his _Demonology and Witchcraft_. The hall has an arched ceiling and several historical portraits, including those of Claverhouse, Charles II. and James II. of England. At Cossans, in the parish of Glamis, there is a remarkable sculptured monolith, and other examples occur at the Hunters' Hill and in the old kirkyard of Eassie.

GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh _Morganwg_), a maritime county occupying the south-east corner of Wales, and bounded N.W. by Carmarthenshire, N. by Carmarthenshire and Breconshire, E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S.W. by the Bristol Channel and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county is largely determined by the fact that it lies between the mountains of Breconshire and the Bristol Channel. Its extreme breadth from the sea inland is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to west is 53 m. Its chief rivers, the Rhymney, Taff, Neath (or Nedd) and Tawe or Tawy, have their sources in the Breconshire mountains, the two first trending towards the south-east, while the two last trend to the south-west, so that the main body of the county forms a sort of quarter-circle between the Taff and the Neath. Near the apex of the angle formed by these two rivers is the loftiest peak in the county, the great Pennant scarp of Craig y Llyn or Carn Moesyn, 1970 ft. high, which in the Glacial period diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley on either side of it. To the south and south-east of this peak extend the great coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface forming an irregular plateau with an average elevation of 600 to 1200 ft. above sea-level, but with numerous peaks about 1500 ft. high, or more; Mynydd y Caerau, the second highest being 1823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the depth of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series of narrow valleys, those in each series being more or less parallel. The rivers which give their names to these valleys include the Cynon, the Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff) and the Ely flowing to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend, and the Avan bringing the waters of the Corwg and Gwynfi to the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. To the south of this central hill country, which is wet, cold and sterile, and whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the coal-field, there stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain, compendiously known as the "Vale of Glamorgan," but in fact consisting of a succession of small vales of such fertile land and with such a mild climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the "Garden of Wales." To the east of the central area referred to and divided from it by a spur of the Brecknock mountains culminating in Carn Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is the Rhymney, which forms the county's eastern boundary. On the west other spurs of the Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters the sea at Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with its tributary the Amman, separates the county on the N.W. from Carmarthenshire, in which it rises, and falling into Carmarthen Bay forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so called from a small stream of that name in the Gower peninsula. The rivers are all comparatively short, the Taff, in every respect the chief river, being only 33 m. long.

Down to the middle of the 19th century most of the Glamorgan valleys were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial operations have since destroyed most of this beauty, except in the so-called "Vale of Glamorgan," the Vale of Neath, the "combes" and limestone gorges of Gower and the upper reaches of the Taff and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath is _par excellence_ the waterfall district of South Wales, the finest falls being the Cilhepste fall, the Sychnant and the three Clungwyns on the Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from Neath to Hirwaun, Scwd Einon Gam and Scwd Gladys on the Pyrddin on the west side of the valley close by, with Melin Court and Abergarwed still nearer Neath. There are also several cascades on the Dulais, and in the same district, though in Breconshire, is Scwd Henrhyd on the Llech near Colbren Junction. Almost the only part of the county which is now well timbered is the Vale of Neath. There are three small lakes, Llyn Fawr and Llyn Fach near Craig y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the sand-dunes of Margam. The rainfall of the county varies from an average of about 25 in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 in. at Cardiff, 40 in. at Swansea and to upwards of 70 in. in the northern part of the county, the fall being still higher in the adjoining parts of Breconshire whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a large area near Neath draw their main supplies of water.

The county has a coast-line of about 83 m. Its two chief bays are the Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either side of the Gower Peninsula, which has also a number of smaller inlets with magnificent cliff scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular, the chief openings being at the mouths of the Ogmore and the Taff respectively. The most conspicuous headlands are Whiteford Point, Worms Head and Mumbles Head in Gower, Nash Point and Lavernock Point on the eastern half of the coast.

_Geology._--The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a small
inlier about 2 sq. m. in area at Rumney and Pen-y-lan, north of
Cardiff, and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and Ludlow
age; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also is present.
They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sandstone which extends
westwards as far as Cowbridge as a deeply eroded anticline largely
concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old Red Sandstone consists in the
lower parts of red marls and sandstones, while the upper beds are
quartzitic and pebbly, and form bold scarps which dominate the low
ground formed by the softer beds below. Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline
of Old Red Sandstone (including small exposures of Silurian rocks),
forms the prominent backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next
formation is the Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies
the great South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of
Cardiff, it forms a bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds
surrounding the Old Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the
Trias and Lias in extensive inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it
dips away from the Old Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of
the coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone
Grit, which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above
the limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in
the form of a great trough extending east and west across the county
and occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous in
the lower part of the series; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds and
occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated moorland
region deeply trenched by the teeming valleys (e.g. the Rhondda) which
cross the coal-field from north to south. Above the Pennant Sandstone
still higher coals come in. Taken generally, the coals are bituminous
in the south-east and anthracitic in the north-west.

After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of the
region was subjected to powerful folding; the resulting anticlines
were worn down during a long period of detrition, and then submerged
slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the Keuper
conglomerates and marls which spread over the district west of Cardiff
and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The succeeding Rhaetic and
Lias which form most of the coastal plain (the fertile Vale of
Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend were laid down by the
Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is traceable in Gower.
Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea Bay. Moraines, chiefly
formed of gravel and clay, occupy many of the Glamorgan valleys; and
these, together with the striated surfaces which may be observed at
higher levels, are clearly glacial in origin. In the Coal Measures and
the newer Limestones and Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates,
marls and shales, many interesting fossils have been disinterred:
these include the remains of an air-breathing reptile
(_Anthracespeton_). Bones of the cave-bear, lion, mammoth, reindeer,
rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and tools, have been discovered
in some caves of the Gower peninsula.

_Agriculture._--The low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to
Margam is very fertile, the soil being a deep rich loam; and here the
standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a
well-defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but
probably dating only from the beginning of the 19th century.
Everywhere on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is
also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke.
Leland (c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing good corn and grass
but little wood, while the mountains had "redde dere, kiddes plenty,
oxen and sheep." The land even in the "Vale" seems to have been open
and unenclosed till the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th
century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later. About
one-fifth of the total area is still common land, more than half of
which is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under cultivation
in 1905 was 269,271 acres or about one-half of the total area of the
county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order of their
respective acreages) are oats, barley, turnips and swedes, wheat,
potatoes and mangolds. A steady decrease of the acreage under
grain-crops, green-crops and clover has been accompanied by an
increase in the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely abandoned
for stock-raising, and very little "Caerphilly cheese" is now made in
that district. In 1905 Glamorgan had the largest number of horses in
agriculture of any Welsh county except those of Carmarthen and
Cardigan. Good sheep and ponies are reared in the hill-country.
Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild climate very
little fruit is grown. The average size of holdings in 1905 was 47.3
acres, there being only 46 holdings above 300 acres, and 1719 between
50 and 500 acres.

_Mining and Manufactures._--Down to the middle of the 18th century the
county had no industry of any importance except agriculture. The coal
which underlies practically the whole surface of the county except the
Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was little worked till about 1755,
when it began to be used instead of charcoal for the smelting of iron.
By 1811, when there were 25 blast furnaces in the county, the demand
for coal for this purpose had much increased, but it was in the most
active period of railway construction that it reached its maximum.
Down to about 1850, if not later, the chief collieries were owned by
the ironmasters and were worked for their own requirements, but when
the suitability of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff
for steam purposes was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon
assumed enormous proportions, so that "the port of Cardiff" (including
Barry and Penarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped,
became the first port in the world for the shipment of coal. The
development of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west
of Swansea (from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from
the closing years of the 19th century, when the demand for this coal
grew rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the
east, and in the districts of Neath and Swansea on the west, whose
development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with the
coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is largely
manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the shipments from
Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in importance to coal
are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and in the Swansea
district the smelting of copper and a variety of other ores.

The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Dowlais, Merthyr
Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea,
Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the 19th century
the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up, and the
necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain. As a result several
of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare, Ystalyfera and
Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works have been established on
or near the sea-board; e.g. the Dowlais company in 1891 opened large
works at Cardiff. The tin-plate industry is mainly confined to the
west of the county, Swansea being the chief port for the shipment of
tin-plates, though there are works near Llantrisant and at Melin
Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being the oldest in the county.
Copper-smelting is carried on on a large scale in the west of the
county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and Swansea, and on a small
scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having been established at Neath
in 1584 and at Swansea in 1717. There are nickel works at Clydach near
Swansea, the nickel being imported in the form of "matte" from Canada.
Swansea has almost a monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc.
Lead, silver and a number of other metals or their by-products are
treated in or near Swansea, which is often styled the "metallurgical
capital of Wales." Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while
sandstone and clay are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly
famous for their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny
and terra-cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people are employed in
engineering works and in the manufacture of machines, chains,
conveyances, tools, paper and chemicals. The textile factories are few
and unimportant.

_Fisheries._--Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines,
draught-nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by hand. There is a
fleet of trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod,
herring, pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot,
oysters, mussels, limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There
are good fish-markets at Swansea and Cardiff.

_Communications._--The county has ample dock accommodation. The
various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber ponds;
Penarth has a dock and basin of 26 acres and a tidal harbour of 55
acres. Barry docks cover 114 acres; Swansea has 147 acres, including
its new King's Dock; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There are also docks at
Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they are not capable of admitting
deep-draft vessels.

Besides its ports, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in many
railways, of which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk line
traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes
through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea),
and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale railway
serves all the valley of the Taff and its tributaries, and has also
extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge) to
Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymney Valley, and
has a joint service with the Great Western between Cardiff and Merthyr
Tydfil--the latter town being also the terminus of the Brecon and
Merthyr and a branch of the North-Western from Abergavenny. The Barry
railway visits Cardiff and then travels in a north-westerly direction
to Pontypridd and Porth, while it sends another branch along the coast
through Llantwit Major to Bridgend. Swansea is connected with Merthyr
by the Great Western, with Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms and
Mid-Wales generally by the London & North-Western, with the Rhondda
Valley by the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great
Western) and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot
railway runs to Blaengarw, and the Neath and Brecon railway (starting
from Neath) joins the Midland at Colbren Junction. The canals of the
county are the Glamorgan canal from Cardiff to Merthyr Tydfil (25-1/2
m.), with a branch (7 m.) to Aberdare, the Neath canal (13 m.) from
Briton Ferry to Abernant, Glyn Neath (whence a tramway formerly
connected it with Aberdare), the Tennant canal connecting the rivers
Neath and Tawe, and the Swansea canal (16-1/2 m.), running up the
Swansea Valley from Swansea to Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively
little use is now made of these canals, excepting the lower portions
of the Glamorgan canal.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county with
which the administrative county is conterminous is 518,863 acres, with
a population in 1901 of 859,931 persons. In the three decades between
1831 and 1861 it increased 35.2, 35.4 and 37.1% respectively, and in
1881-1891, 34.4, its average increase in the other decennial periods
subsequent to 1861 being about 25%. The county is divided into five
parliamentary divisions (viz. Glamorganshire East, South and Middle,
Gower and Rhondda); it also includes the Cardiff district of boroughs
(consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and Llantrisant), which has one
member; the greater part of the parliamentary borough of Merthyr
Tydfil (which mainly consists of the county borough of Merthyr, the
urban district of Aberdare and part of Mountain Ash), and returns two
members; and the two divisions of Swansea District returning one
member each, one division consisting of the major part of Swansea
town, the other comprising the remainder of Swansea and the boroughs
of Aberavon, Kenfig, Llwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal
boroughs: Aberavon (pop. in 1901, 7553), Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge
(1202), Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537).
Cardiff (which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea
are county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aberdare
(43,365), Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973),
Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6452), Maesteg (15,012), Margam
(9014), Mountain Ash (31,093); Ogmore and Garw (19,907), Oystermouth
(4461), Penarth (14,228), Pontypridd (32,316); Porthcawl (1872) and
Rhondda, previously known as Ystradyfodwg (113,735). Glamorgan is in
the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes and quarter-sessions are held
at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. All the municipal boroughs have
separate commissions of the peace, and Cardiff and Swansea have also
separate courts of quarter-sessions. The county has thirteen other
petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and
the Merthyr and Aberdare district have stipendiary magistrates. There
are 165 civil parishes. Excepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey,
which are in the diocese of St David's, the whole county is in the
diocese of Llandaff. There are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or
districts situated wholly or partly within the county.

_History._--The earliest known traces of man within the area of the present county are the human remains found in the famous bone-caves of Gower, though they are scanty as compared with the huge deposits of still earlier animal remains. To a later stage, perhaps in the Neolithic period, belongs a number of complete skeletons discovered in 1903 in sand-blown tumuli at the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint implements were also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging to the Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty), are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the hills, such as on Garth Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east of the Tawe; the stone circles often found in association with the tumuli, that of Carn Llecharth near Pontardawe being one of the most complete in Wales; and the fine cromlechs of Cefn Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur's Stone), of St Nicholas and of St Lythan's near Cardiff.

In Roman times the country from the Neath to the Wye was occupied by the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at that time by Brythonic Celts. West of the Neath and along the fringe of the Brecknock Mountains were probably remnants of the earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left traces in the place-names of the Swansea valley (e.g. _llwch_, "a lake") and in the illegible Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham stone in the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the Neath estuary. The conquest of the Silures by the Romans was begun about A.D. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 25 years later by Julius Frontinus, who probably constructed the great military road, called Via Julia Maritima, from Gloucester to St David's, with stations at Cardiff, Bovium (variously identified with Boverton, Cowbridge and Ewenny), Nidum (identified with Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor. The important station of Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch roads, one running from Cardiff through Gelligaer (where there was a strong hill fort) and Merthyr Tydfil, and another from Neath through Capel Colbren. Welsh tradition credits Glamorgan with being the first home of Christianity, and Llandaff the earliest bishopric in Britain, the name of three reputed missionaries of the 2nd century being preserved in the names of parishes in south Glamorgan. What is certain, however, is that the first two bishops of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived during the first half of the 6th century, to which period also belongs the establishment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan by Cadoc, of Llandough by Oudoceus and of Llantwit Major by Illtutus, the last of which flourished as a seat of learning down to the 12th century. A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that, after the withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by sporadic bands of Saxons, but the Scandinavians who came in the 9th and succeeding centuries left more abundant traces both in the place-names of the coast and in such camps as that on Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry and Hardings Down in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district had regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains, whose domain was consolidated into a principality known as Glywyssing, till about the end of the 10th century when it acquired the name of Morganwg, that is the territory of Morgan, a prince who died in A.D. 980; it then comprised the whole country from the Neath to the Wye, practically corresponding to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlad Morgan, later softened into Glamorgan, never had much vogue and meant precisely the same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated a few centuries later.

The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the closing years of the 11th century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of Gloucester. His followers settled in the low-lying lands of the "Vale," which became known as the "body" of the shire, while in the hill country, which consisted of ten "members," corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh retained their customary laws and much of their independence. Glamorgan, whose bounds were now contracted between the Neath and the Rhymney, then became a lordship marcher, its status and organization being that of a county palatine; its lord possessed _jura regalia_, and his chief official was from the first a _vice-comes_, or sheriff, who presided over a county court composed of his lord's principal tenants. The inhabitants of Cardiff in which, as the _caput baroniae_, this court was held (though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal privileges, and in time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon and Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial system was introduced throughout the "Vale," the manor in many cases becoming the parish, and the owner building for its protection first a castle and then a church. The church itself became Normanized, and monasteries were established--the Cistercian abbey of Neath and Margam in 1129 and 1147 respectively, the Benedictine priory of Ewenny in 1141 and that of Cardiff in 1147. Dominican and Franciscan houses were also founded at Cardiff in the following century.

Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between Neath and Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered about 1100 by Henry de Newburgh, 1st earl of Warwick, by whose descendants and the powerful family of De Breos it was successively held as a marcher lordship, organized to some extent on county lines, till 1469. Swansea (which was the _caput baroniae_ of Gower) and Loughor received their earlier charters from the lords of Gower (see GOWER).

For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship of Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title conferred by Henry I. on his natural son Robert, who acquired Glamorgan by marrying Fitzhamon's daughter. To the 1st earl's patronage of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other men of letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the builder, is probably due the large place which Celtic romance, especially the Arthurian cycle, won for itself in medieval literature. The lordship passed by descent through the families of Clare (who held it from 1217 to 1317), Despenser, Beauchamp and Neville to Richard III., on whose fall it escheated to the crown. From time to time, the Welsh of the hills, often joined by their countrymen from other parts, raided the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about 1153 by Ivor Bach, lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its lord a prisoner. At last Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them in check, but this provoked an invasion in 1270 by Prince Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle and refused to retire except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed a revolt in the same district, but being defeated was put to death by Despenser, whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404 Glendower swept through the county, burning castles and laying waste the possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of Union of 1535 the county of Glamorgan was incorporated as it now exists, by the addition to the old county of the lordship of Gower and Kilvey, west of the Neath. By another act of 1542 the court of great sessions was established, and Glamorgan, with the counties of Brecon and Radnor, formed one of its four Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, when the English assize system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the county was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two in 1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a member. In 1832 Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the Swansea group of boroughs and the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil were given one member each, increased to two, in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885 the Swansea group was divided into two constituencies with a member each.

The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was granted by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl of Pembroke, from whom it has descended to the present marquess of Bute.

The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even the descendants of the Norman knights had largely become Welsh both in speech and sentiment. Welsh continued to be the prevalent speech almost throughout the county, except in the peninsular part of Gower and perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter of the 19th century. Since then it has lost ground in the maritime towns and the south-east corner of the county generally, while fairly holding its own, despite much English migration, in the industrial districts to the north. In 1901 about 56% of the total population above three years of age was returned as speaking English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and about 6-1/2% as speaking Welsh only.

In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly Royalist in the Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its readiness to pay ship-money, but when Charles I. visited Cardiff in July 1645 he failed to recruit his army there, owing to the dissatisfaction of the county, which a few months later declared for the parliament. There was, however, a subsequent Royalist revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, but it was signally crushed by Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May).

The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the great university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century, and by the dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent filled by the foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar school at Cowbridge which, refounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline Jenkins, is still carried on as an endowed school. The only other ancient grammar school is that of Swansea, founded by Bishop Gore in 1682, and now under the control of the borough council. Besides the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college at Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college (St Michael's) at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training college for school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at Cardiff and Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and Pontypridd.

_Antiquities._--The antiquities of the county not already mentioned include an unusually large number of castles, all of which, except the castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil), Castell Coch and Llantrisant, are between the hill country and the sea. The finest specimen is that of Caerphilly, but there are also more or less imposing ruins at Oystermouth, Coity, Newcastle (at Bridgend), Llanblethian, Pennard and Swansea. Among the restored castles, resided in by their present owners, are St Donat's, "the latest and most complete of the structures built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of Bute, St Fagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the monastic buildings, that of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath and Margam are mere ruins, while all the others have disappeared. Almost all the older churches possess towers of a somewhat military character, and most of them, except in Gower, retain some Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled towers characteristic of the county. There are interesting monumental effigies at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, Llantwit Major, Llantrisant, Coity and other churches in the Vale. There are from twenty-five to thirty sculptured stones, of which some sixteen are both ornamented and inscribed, five of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit Major, and dating from the 9th century if not earlier.

AUTHORITIES.--The records of the _Curia comitatus_ or County Court of
Glamorgan are supposed to have perished, so also have the records of
Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the county have been well
preserved. A collection edited by G. T. Clark under the title _Cartae
et alia munimenta quae ad dominium de Glamorgan pertinent_ was
privately printed by him in four volumes (1885-1893). _A Descriptive
Catalogue of the Penrice and Margam Abbey MSS. in the Possession of
Miss Talbot of Margam_ (6 vols.) was privately issued (1893-1905)
under the editorship of Dr de Gray Birch, who has also published
histories of the Abbeys of Neath and Margam. The _Book of Llan Daf_
(edited by Dr Gwenogvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative
of the early history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published
its _Records_ in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters.
There is no complete history of the county, except a modest but useful
one in Welsh--_Hanes Morganwg_, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd Morganwg)
(1874); the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's _Booke of
Glamorganshire's Antiquities_, written in 1578; _The Land of Morgan_
(1883) (a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose
_Genealogies of Glamorgan_ (1886) and _Medieval Military Architecture_
(1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, _Annals and
Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales_ (2 vols.,
1872). For Gower, see GOWER. (D. Ll. T.)

GLANDERS, or FARCY (_Equinia_), a specific infective and contagious disease, caused by a tissue parasite (_Bacillus mallei_), to which certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are liable, and which is communicable from them to man. Glanders in the domesticated animals is dealt with under VETERINARY SCIENCE; it is happily a rare form of disease in man, there being evidently less affinity for its development in the human subject than in the equine species. For the pathology see the article PARASITIC DISEASES. It occurs chiefly among those who from their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as grooms, coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary surgeons, &c.; the bacillus is communicated from a glandered animal either through a wound or scratch or through application to the mucous membrane of the nose or mouth. A period of incubation, lasting from three to five days, generally follows the introduction of the virus into the human system. This period, however, appears sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially where there has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first symptoms are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If the disease has been introduced by means of an abraded surface, pain is felt at that point, and inflammatory swelling takes place there, and extends along the neighbouring lymphatics. An ulcer is formed at the point of inoculation which discharges an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the inflamed skin, along with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous erysipelas. Sometimes the disease stops short with these local manifestations, but more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied with symptoms of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface of the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which break and discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides these there are larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous tissue, which at first are extremely hard and painful, and to which the term farcy "buds" or "buttons" is applied. These ultimately open and become extensive sloughing ulcers.

The mucous membranes participate in the same lesions as are present in the skin, and this is particularly the case with the interior of the nose, where indeed, in many instances, the disease first of all shows itself. This organ becomes greatly swollen and inflamed, while from one or both nostrils there exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive purulent or sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils is covered with papules similar in character to those on the skin, which form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the cartilaginous and bony textures of the nose. The diseased action extends into the throat, mouth and eyes, while the whole face becomes swollen and erysipelatous, and the lymphatic glands under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not unfrequently the bronchial tubes become affected, and cough attended with expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the nose is the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms are exceedingly severe, and advance with great rapidity, the patient passing into a state of extreme prostration. In the acute form of the disease recovery rarely if ever occurs, and the case generally terminates fatally in a period varying from two or three days to as many weeks.

A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with, in which the symptoms, although essentially the same as those above described, advance much more slowly, and are attended with relatively less urgent constitutional disturbance. Cases of recovery from this form are on record; but in general the disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion of the patient, or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of the acute form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed to become chronic.

In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance is mainly placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength by strong nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization should be resorted to if the point of infection is early known. Abscesses may be opened and antiseptic lotions used. In all cases of the outbreak of glanders it is of the utmost consequence to prevent the spread of the disease by the destruction of affected animals and the cleansing and disinfection of infected localities.

GLANVILL (or GLANVIL), JOSEPH (1636-1680); English philosopher, was born at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, Oxford, where he graduated as M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was successively rector of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire, rector of Streat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to the abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Worcester Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II. from 1672. He died at Bath in November 1680. Glanvill's first work (a passage in which suggested the theme of Matthew Arnold's _Scholar Gipsy_), _The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Confidence in Opinions, manifested in a Discourse of the shortness and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and its Causes, with Reflexions on Peripateticism, and an Apology for Philosophy_ (1661), is interesting as showing one special direction in which the new method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed. Pascal had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be employed as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the same track. The philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole system of things by referring all events to their causes appears to him to be from the outset doomed to failure. For if we inquire into this causal relation we find that though we know isolated facts, we cannot perceive any such connexion between them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the words of Hume, "they seem conjoined but never connected." All causes then are but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions on which the one first cause operates. It is singular enough that Glanvill who had not only shown, but even exaggerated, the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an example of its weakness; for, after having combated scientific dogmatism, he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, but actually endeavoured to accredit them both in his revised edition of the _Vanity of Dogmatizing_, published as _Scepsis scientifica_ (1665, ed. Rev. John Owen, 1885), and in his _Philosophical Considerations concerning the existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery_ (1666). The latter work appears to have been based on the story of the drum which was alleged to have been heard every night in a house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mr Mompesson), a story which made much noise in the year 1663, and which is supposed to have furnished Addison with the idea of his comedy the _Drummer_. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled _Sadducismus Triumphatus_ (printed in 1681, reprinted with some additions in 1682, German trans. 1701). He had there collected twenty-six relations or stories of the same description as that of the drum, in order to establish, by a series of facts, the opinion which he had expressed in his _Philosophical Considerations_. Glanvill supported a much more honourable cause when he undertook the defence of the Royal Society of London, under the title of _Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of Science since the time of Aristotle_ (1668), a work which shows how thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical method.

Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote _Lux orientalis_
(1662); _Philosophia pia_ (1671); _Essays on Several Important
Subjects in Philosophy and Religion_ (1676); _An Essay concerning
Preaching; and Sermons_. See C. Remusat, _Hist. de la phil. en
Angleterre_, bk. iii. ch. xi.; W. E. H. Lecky, _Rationalism in Europe_
(1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's _Literature of Europe_, iii. 358-362;
Tulloch's _Rational Theology_, ii. 443-455.