Chapter IV: PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW. From Montmorency, showing the (1)

perfection of glass painting.

From Lutien Magne, _Oeuvre des Peintres Verriers Francais_, by
permission of Firmin-Didot et C^ie.]

A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the confines of a single light. This happened by degrees. At first the connexion between the figures in separate window openings was only in idea, as when a central figure of the crucified Christ was flanked by the Virgin and St John in the side lights. Then the arms of the cross would be carried through, or as it were behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture right across the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his picture--that happened later on--but that he often composed it with such cunning reference to intervening stonework that it did not interfere with it. It has been argued that each separate light of a window ought to be complete in itself. On the other hand it has proved possible to make due acknowledgment of architectural conditions without cramping design in that way. There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth of treatment gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design. And, when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window, and no separate part of it, which is the main consideration.

By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on an entirely different method from that of the 13th century. The designer of early days began with glazing: he thought in mosaic and leadwork; the lines he first drew were the lines of glazing; painting was only a supplementary process, enabling him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late Gothic draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window, Great Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his design, and then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that the leadwork (which once boldly outlined everything) should not interfere with the picture. The artful way in which he would introduce little bits of colour into a window almost entirely white, makes it certain that he had always at the back of his mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with glass painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting upon white glass with the comparatively brutal strength of his lead lines. It is here that the conditions of painting and glazing clash at last.

It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never by any chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal predilection prevented anything like monotonous progress in a single direction. There is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle Gothic glass as dense in colour as any 13th-century work, and Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its colour, one might take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In Italy (Florence) and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom to make canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The tendency was towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less deeply stained when painters depended more upon their power of deepening it by paint. It was the seeking after delicate effects of painting, quite as much as the desire to let light into the church, which determined the tone of later windows. The clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting.

It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renaissance. Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which crocketed canopywork occurs are Gothic, and that those with arabesque are Renaissance. But that is an arbitrary distinction, which does not really distinguish. Some of the most beautiful work in glass, such for example as that at Auch, is so plainly intermediate between two styles that it is impossible to describe it as anything but "transitional." And, apart from particular instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic work to see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine Renaissance glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of workmanship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was Gothic impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the summit of accomplishment reached in the first half of the 16th century. When that subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age at last prevailed, the bright days of glass were at an end. If we have to refer to the early Renaissance as the culminating period of glass painting, it is because the technique of an earlier period found in it freer and fuller expression. With the Renaissance, design broke free from the restraints of tradition.

An interesting development of Renaissance design was the framing of pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament, scarcely architectural enough to be called canopywork, and reminiscent rather of beaten goldsmith's work than of stone carving. This did for the glass picture what a gilt frame does for a painting in oil. Very often framework of any kind was dispensed with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and mullions as boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result was delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for iron and masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures. There was no longer in late glass any pretence of preserving the plane of the window. It was commonly designed to suggest that one saw out of it. Throughout the period of the Renaissance, architectural and landscape backgrounds play an important part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early 16th-century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture were commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge). The landscape effect was always happiest when one or other of these conventions was adopted. Canopywork never went quite out of fashion. For a long while the plan was still to frame coloured pictures in white. Theoretically this is no less effectually to be done by Italian than by Gothic shrinework. Practically the architectural setting assumed in the 16th century more and more the aspect of background to the figures, and, in order that it should take its place in the picture, they painted it so heavily that it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's magnificent transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal arch behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in late glass donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells dark against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the end of the century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda, the very quality of white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow.

The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the first, was kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration. Medallion subjects were framed in ornament, standing figures in canopywork, and pictures were conceived with regard to the window and its place in architecture. Severity of treatment in design may have been due more to the limitations of technique than to restraint on the part of the painter. The point is that it led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute reliance upon the depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all the beautiful effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare early mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable; but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest measure the glory of glass--for the loss of which no quality of painting ever got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial effects compatible with glass design are those which go with pure, brilliant and translucent colour. The ideal of a "primitive" Italian painter was more or less to be realized in glass: that of a Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing what glass painters did in the way of light and shade. But the fact remains that heavy painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in opaque surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before all things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on the other of painting.

The course of glass painting was not so even as this general survey of its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened here, impeded there, by historic events. The art made a splendid start in France; but its development was stayed by the disasters of war, just when in England it was thriving under the Plantagenets. It revived again under Francis I. In Germany it was with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire that glass painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction was determined by civil and domestic instead of church patronage. In most countries there were in different districts local schools of glass painting, each with some character of its own. To what extent design was affected by national temperament it is not easy to say. The marked divergence of the Flemish from the French treatment of glass in the 16th century is not entirely due to a preference on the one part for colour and on the other for light and shade, but is partly owing to the circumstance that, whilst in France design remained in the hands of craftsmen, whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned himself as little as possible with a technique of which he knew nothing. If in France we come also upon the names of well-known artists, they seem, like Jean Cousin, to have been closely connected with glass painting: they designed so like glass painters that they might have begun their artistic career in the workshop.

The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not be too readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern times to father whatever is noteworthy upon some great name, the masterpieces of medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen. In Italy, where glass painting was not much practised, and it seems to have been the custom either to import glass painters as they were wanted or to get work done abroad, it may well be that designs were supplied by artists more or less distinguished. Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the cartoons for the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely in the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not connected with glass design would go far to explain the great difference of Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-century work at Assisi is more correctly described as "Trecento" than as Gothic, and the "Quattrocento" windows at Florence are as different as could be from Perpendicular work. One compares them instinctively with Italian paintings, not with glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century Italian glass. The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles at Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according to contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian influence may be traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona, Burgos, Granada, Leon, Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to have been executed in France. If so it must have been done to Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of the design, the strength of the colour, the general robustness of the art, are characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the Pyrenees do we find detail on a scale so enormous.

We have passed by, in following the progressive course of craftsmanship, some forms of design, peculiar to no one period but very characteristic of glass. The "quarry window," barely referred to, its diamond-shaped or oblong panes painted, richly bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured ornament often heraldic, is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too, were from first to last given up to heraldry. The "Jesse window" occurs in every style. According to the fashion of the time the "Stem of Jesse" burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches or arbitrary scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the scope it gave for freedom of design. He found vent, again, for fantastic imagination in the representation of the "Last Judgment," to which the west window was commonly devoted. And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but this is not the place to dwell upon them.

The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some of the best in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family (Wadham and Balliol Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting came to in the 18th century is nowhere better to be seen than in the great west window of the ante-chapel at New College, Oxford. That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and the best china painter of his day could do between them. The very idea of employing a china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass painter had died out.

It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th century; and the Gothic revival determined the direction modern glass should take. Early Victorian doings are interesting only as marking the steps of recovery (cf. the work of T. Willement in the choir of the Temple church; of Ward and Nixon, lately removed from the south transept of Westminster Abbey; of Wailes). Better things begin with the windows at Westminster inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable influence over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was an able artist content to walk, even after that master's death, reverently in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose _Hints on Glass Painting_ was the first real contribution towards the understanding of Gothic glass, and who, by the aid of the Powells (of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting something very like the texture and colour of old glass, was more learned in ancient ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art resulting from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window entrusted by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti, Ford Madox Brown or E. Burne-Jones, glass, from the beginning of its recovery, fell into the hands of men with a strong bias towards archaeology. The architects foremost in the Gothic revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E. Street, &c.) were all inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of commissions for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters. Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeological manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly as it may have been, they made mock-medieval windows, the interest in which died with the popular illusion about a Gothic revival. But they knew their trade; and when an artist like John Clayton (master of a whole school of later glass painters) took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn; Truro cathedral; King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of art from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather what such men might have done had they been left free to follow their own artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because it is generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is due to the romantic movement. The charms of Burne-Jones's design and of William Morris's colour, place the windows done by them among the triumphs of modern decorative art; but Morris was neither foremost in the reaction, nor quite such a master of the material he was working in as he showed himself in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in connexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J. Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger generation of able men.

Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just appreciation of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of their day were enlisted for its design. In Germany, King Louis of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius and W. von Kaulbach (Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the Bourbons employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H. Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was entrusted to the most expert painters to be procured at Munich and Sevres; but all to little effect. They either used pot-metal glass of poor quality, or relied upon enamel--with the result that their colour lacks the qualities of glass. Where it is not heavy with paint it is thin and crude. In Belgium happier results were obtained. In the chapel of the Holy Sacrament at Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not unworthy of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality of glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows than English designers of the mid-Victorian era, and painted them better; but they missed the glory of translucent colour.

Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things which were hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are richer; their range is extended; and it may be possible, with the improved kilns and greater chemical knowledge we possess, to make them hold permanently fast. It was years ago demonstrated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in colours upon a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2-1/2 ft. We are now no doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they are, hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so costly, so fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the one hand and of glass on the other.

In America, John la Farge, finding European material not dense enough, produced pot-metal more heavily charged with colour. This was wilfully streaked, mottled and quasi-accidentally varied; some of it was opalescent; much of it was more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other forms of American enterprise were: the making of glass in lumps, to be chipped into flakes; the ruckling it; the shaping it in a molten state, or the pulling it out of shape. It takes an artist of some reserve to make judicious use of glass like this. La Farge and L. C. Tiffany have turned it to beautiful account; but even they have put it to purposes more pictorial than it can properly fulfil. The design it calls for is a severely abstract form of ornament verging upon the barbaric.

_Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass._

There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France--at Le Mans,
Chartres, Chalons-sur-Marne, Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey
church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England--at York minster
(fragments): in Germany--at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in
Austria--in the cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.

The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic
and important windows, omitting for the most part isolated examples,
and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair
amount of glass remaining; the country in which at each period the art
throve best is put first.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
EARLY GOTHIC

_France._ _England._

Chartres \ Canterbury \
Le Mans | Salisbury > cathedrals.
Bourges > cathedrals. Lincoln /
Reims | York minster.
Auxerre /
Ste Chapelle, Paris.
Church of St Jean-aux-Bois.

_Germany._

Church of St Kunibert, Cologne (Romanesque).
Cologne cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
MIDDLE GOTHIC

_England._ _Germany._

York minster. Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg.
Ely cathedral. Strassburg \
Wells cathedral. Regensburg |
Tewkesbury abbey. Augsburg > cathedrals.
Erfurt |
Freiburg /
Church of Nieder Haslach.

_France._ _Italy._

Evreux cathedral. Church of St Francis, Assisi.
Church of St Pierre, Chartres. Church of Or San Michele,
Cathedral and church of St Urbain, Florence.
Troyes. Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
Church of Ste Radegonde, Poitiers.
Cathedral and church of St Ouen, Rouen.

_Spain._

Toledo cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
LATE GOTHIC

_England._ _France._

New College, Oxford. Bourges \ cathedrals.
Gloucester cathedral. Troyes /
York, minster and other churches. Church of Notre Dame, Alencon.
Great Malvern abbey.
Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury.
Fairford church.

_Italy._ _Germany._

The Duomo, Florence. Cologne \
Ulm > cathedrals.
_Spain._ Munich /
Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.
Toledo cathedral.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
TRANSITION PERIOD

The choir of the cathedral at Auch.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
RENAISSANCE

_France._ _Netherlands._

St Vincent \ Brussels cathedral.
St Patrice > Rouen. Church of St Jacques \
St Godard / Church of St Martin > Liege.
Church of St Foy, Conches. Cathedral /
Church of St Gervais, Paris.
Church of St Etienne-du-Mont, Paris. _Switzerland._
Church of St Martin, Montmorency.
Church of Ecouen. Lucerne and most of the other
Church of St Etienne, Beauvais. principal museums.
Church of St Nizier, Troyes.
Church of Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse.
The Chateau de Chantilly.

_Italy._ _England._

Arezzo \ cathedrals. King's College chapel, Cambridge.
Milan / Lichfield cathedral.
Certosa di Pavia. St George's church, Hanover Square,
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna. London.
Church of Sta Maria Novella, St Margaret's church, Westminster.
Florence.

_Germany._ _Spain._

Freiburg cathedral. Granada \ cathedrals.
Seville /

----------------------------------------------------------------------
LATE RENAISSANCE

_Netherlands._ _France._

Groote Kirk, Gouda. Church of St Martin-es-Vignes, Troyes.
Choir of Brussels cathedral. Nave and transepts of Auch cathedral.
Antwerp cathedral.

_England._ _Switzerland._

Wadham \ Most museums.
Balliol > colleges, Oxford.
New /

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Of late years each country has been learning so much from the others that the newest effort is very much in one direction. It seems to be agreed that the art of the window-maker begins with glazing, that the all-needful thing is beautiful glass, that painting may be reduced to a minimum, and on occasion (thanks to new developments in the making of glass) dispensed with altogether. A tendency has developed itself in the direction not merely of mosaic, but of carrying the glazier's art farther than has been done before and rendering landscapes and even figure subjects in unpainted glass. When, however, it comes to the representation of the human face, the limitations of simple lead-glazing are at once apparent. A possible way out of the difficulty was shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1900 by M. Tournel, who, by fusing together coloured tesserae on to larger pieces of colourless glass, anticipated the discovery of the already mentioned fragment of Byzantine mosaic now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. He may have seen or heard Of something of the sort. There would be no advantage in building up whole windows in this way; but for the rendering of the flesh and sundry minute details in a window for the most part heavily leaded, this fusing together of tesserae, and even of little pieces of glass cut carefully to shape, seems to supply the want of something more in keeping with severe mosaic glazing than painted flesh proves to be.

Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly. They are no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work; domestic glass is an important industry; and a workman once comparatively exempt from pedantic control is not so easily restrained from self-expression. Moreover, the recognition of the artistic position of craftsmen in general makes it possible for a man to devote himself to glass without sinking to the rank of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the scope glass offers them. What they lack as yet is experience in their craft, and perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of workmanship. When the old methods come to be superseded it will be only by new ones evolved out of them. At present the conditions of glass painting remain very much what they were. The supreme beauty of glass is still in the purity, the brilliancy, the translucency of its colour. To make the most of this the designer must be master of his trade. The test of window design is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose and everything to gain by execution in stained glass.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Theophilus, _Arts of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1847);
Charles Winston, _An Inquiry into the Difference of Style observable
in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England_ (Oxford, 1847), and
_Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting_ (London, 1865); N.
H. J. Westlake, _A History of Design in Painted Glass_ (4 vols.,
London, 1881-1894); L. F. Day, _Windows, A Book about Stained and
Painted Glass_ (London, 1909), and _Stained Glass_ (London, 1903); A.
W. Franks, _A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries_ (London, 1849); _A
Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving for Glasiers_ (London,
1615, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, _The Fairford Windows_ (coloured
plates) (London, 1870); _Divers Works of Early Masters in
Ecclesiastical Decoration_, edited by John Weale (2 vols., London,
1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre
d'apres ses monuments en France_ (2 vols., Paris, 1852), and _Quelques
mots sur la theorie de la peinture sur verre_ (Paris, 1853); L. Magne,
_Oeuvre des peintres verriers francais_ (2 vols., Paris, 1885);
Viollet le Duc, "Vitrail," vol. ix. of the _Dictionnaire raisonne de
l'architecture_ (Paris, 1868); O. Merson, "Les Vitraux," _Bibliotheque
de l'enseignement des beaux-arts_ (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and J. B.
Capronnier, _Histoire de la peinture sur verre_ (coloured plates)
(Brussels, 1860); Ottin, _Le Vitrail, son histoire a travers les ages_
(Paris); Pierre le Vieil, _L'Art de la peinture sur verre et de la
vitrerie_ (Paris, 1774); C. Cahier and A. Martin, _Vitraux peints de
Bourges du XIII^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1841-1844); S. Clement and
A. Guitard, _Vitraux du XIII^e siecle de la cathedrale de Bourges_
(Bourges, 1900): M. A. Gessert, _Geschichte der Glasmalerei in
Deutschland und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, &c., von ihrem
Ursprung bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Tubingen and Stuttgart, 1839; also
an English translation, London, 1851); F. Geiges, _Der alte
Fensterschmuck des Freiburger Munsters_, 5 parts (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1902, &c.); A. Hafner, _Chefs-d'oeuvre de la peinture suisse
sur verre_ (Berlin). (L. F. D.)

GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist and satirist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810. After being for a short time in a merchant's office, he took to journalism, and in 1831 edited _Don Quixote_, a periodical which was suppressed in 1833 owing to its revolutionary tendencies. He next, under the pseudonym _Adolf Brennglas_, published a series of pictures of Berlin life, under the titles _Berlin wie es ist und--trinkt_ (30 parts, with illustrations, 1833-1849), and _Buntes Berlin_ (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, 1837-1858), and thus became the founder of a popular satirical literature associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year to Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at the Grand ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the political arena and became the leader of the democratic party in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Expelled from that country in 1850, he settled in Hamburg, where he remained until 1858; and then he became editor of the _Montagszeitung_ in Berlin, where he died on the 25th of September 1876.

Among Glassbrenner's other humorous and satirical writings may be
mentioned: _Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt_ (1834); _Bilder und
Traume aus Wien_ (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870); the
comic epics, _Neuer Reineke Fuchs_ (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and _Die
verkehrte Welt_ (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also _Berliner Volksleben_ (3
vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 1847-1851). Glassbrenner has published
some charming books for children, notably _Lachende Kinder_ (14th ed.,
1884), and _Sprechende Tiere_ (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).

See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, "Adolf Glassbrenner," in _Unsere Zeit_ (1881).

GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates the use for which it was originally intended. The cloths are in general woven with the plain weave, and the fabric may be all white, striped or cheeked with red, blue or other coloured threads; the checked cloths are the most common. The real article should be all linen, but a large quantity is made with cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are composed entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satisfactory for the purpose for which they are intended.

GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1593-1656), theologian and biblical critic, was born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on the 20th of May 1593. In 1612 he entered the university of Jena. In 1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year. Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was made an "adjunctus" of the philosophical faculty, and some time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew. From 1625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard's last wish, appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the "syncretistic" controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future. He died on the 27th of July 1656.

His principal work, _Philologia sacra_ (1623), marks the transition
from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of
the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his
lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A.
Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded
Gerhard as editor of the Weimar _Bibelwerk_, and wrote the commentary
on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A
volume of his _Opuscula_ was printed at Leiden in 1700.

See the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.

GLASSWORT, a name given to _Salicornia herbacea_ (also known as marsh samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent, jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass-making, when it was burnt for barilla. _Salsola Kali_, an allied plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which was used for the same purpose, was known as prickly glasswort. Both plants are members of the natural order Chenopodiaceae.

GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in the Eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, on the main road from London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 4016. The town lies in the midst of orchards and water-meadows, reclaimed from the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, a conical height once an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a peninsula washed on three sides by the river Brue.

The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are fragmentary, and as the work of destruction has in many places descended to the very foundations it is impossible to make out the details of the plan. Of the vast range of buildings for the accommodation of the monks hardly any part remains except the abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal interior (the exterior plan being square, with the four corners filled in with fireplaces and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn. Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St Joseph at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady chapel, occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel, which is the finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the 12th century. It measures about 66 ft. from east to west and about 36 from north to south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the 15th century inserted beneath a building which had no previous crypt. Between the chapel and the great church is an Early English building which appears to have served as a Galilee porch. The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, nave and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection. From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the nave was about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six. Of the nave three bays of the south side are still standing, and the windows have pointed arches externally and semicircular arches internally. Two of the tower piers and a part of one arch give some indication of the grandeur of the building. The foundations of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make the whole church the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the country. The old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury (1322-1335), and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells cathedral, but is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by Joseph of Arimathea, has been the object of considerable comment. It is said to be a distinct variety, flowering twice a year. The actual thorn visited by the pilgrims was destroyed about the Reformation time, but specimens of the same variety are still extant in various parts of the country.

The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St John Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some 15th-century monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-1524; St John's hospital, founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in the time of Henry VII. or VIII. The present stone cross replaced a far finer one of great age, which had fallen into decay. The Antiquarian Museum contains an excellent collection, including remains from a prehistoric village of the marshes, discovered in 1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres. There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In the 16th century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5000 acres.

The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a Celtic settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of swamps, and therefore easily defensible. British earthworks and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corruption of the Saxon _Glaestyngabyrig_. By the Britons the spot seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia) or Ynysvitrin (see AVALON), and it became the local habitation of various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the legends which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of Arimathea as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to Britain from Gaul by St Philip. About a hundred years later, according to the same authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus and Deruvianus, who came to king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius, established a fraternity of anchorites on the spot, and after three hundred years more St Patrick introduced among them a regular monastic life. The British monastery founded about 601 was succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. From the decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the Danish invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been educated within its walls and was appointed its abbot about 946. The church and other buildings of his erection remained till the installation, in 1082, of the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated the new epoch by commencing a new church. His successor Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down to make way for a finer structure. Henry of Blois (1126-1172) added greatly to the extent of the monastery. In 1184 (on 25th May) the whole of the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England, in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be carried out with much magnificence. The great church of which the ruins still remain was then erected. In the end of the 12th century, and on into the following, Glastonbury was distracted by a strange dispute, caused by the attempt of Savaric, the ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself master of the abbey. The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent III., that the abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and Glastonbury, and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and allowed the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the Reformation the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys in England, continued to flourish, the chief events in its history being connected with the maintenance of its claims to the possession of the bodies or tombs of King Arthur and St Dunstan. From early times through the middle ages it was a place of pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the 11th century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury appears to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II., according to Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de Blois, causing search to be made, discovered at the depth of 16 ft. a massive oak trunk with an inscription "Hic jacet sepultus inclitus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia." After the fire of 1184 the monks asserted that they were in possession of the remains of St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from Canterbury after the Danish sack of 1011 and kept in concealment ever since. The Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the contest continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in reply as stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day of such disputes was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the last and 60th abbot of Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was lodged in the Tower on account of "divers and sundry treasons." "The 'account' or 'book' of his treasons ... seems to be lost, and the nature of the charges ... can only be a matter of speculation" (Gairdner, _Cal. Pap._ on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii. _pref._ xxxii). He was removed to Wells, where he was "arraigned and next day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker passage does not occur in the annals of the English Reformation than this murder of an able and high-spirited man, whose worst offence was that he defended as best he could from the hand of the spoiler the property in his charge.

In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings, which had been in private hands since the granting of the estate to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to the Church of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells entered into an agreement to raise a sum of L31,000, the cost of the purchase; this was completed, and the site and buildings were formally transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the Diocesan Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the archbishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and one lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the purpose for which the property is to be used "in connexion with and for the benefit of the Church of England." To give time for further collection of funds and deliberation, the property was re-let for five years to the original purchaser.

In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned by the abbey, which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution. The abbey obtained charters in the 7th century, but the town received its first charter from Henry II., who exempted the men of Glastonbury from the jurisdiction of royal officials and freed them from certain tolls. This was confirmed by Henry III. in 1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward II. in 1313 and by Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne in 1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835. In 1319 Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament, but made no return, and has not since been represented. A fair on the 8th of September was granted in 1127; another on the 29th of May was held under a charter of 1282. Fairs known as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held on the second Mondays in September and October and are chiefly important for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its medieval importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the Dissolution the introduction of woollen manufacture checked the decay of the town. The cloth trade flourished for a century and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting and glove-making, all of which have died out.

See Abbot Gasquet. _Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries_ (1906),
and _The Last Abbot of Glastonbury_ (1895 and 1908); William of
Malmesbury, "De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in _Rerum Anglicarum
script. vet._ tom. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne); John
of Glastonbury, _Chronica sive de hist. de rebus Glast._, ed. by
Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, _De rebus gestis
Glast._, ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); _Hist. and Antiq. of
Glast._ (London, 1807); _Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury_
(8th ed., 1839); Warner, _Hist. of the Abbey and Town_ (Bath, 1826);
Rev. F. Warre, "Glastonbury Abbey," in _Proc. of Somersetshire_
_Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc._, 1849; Rev. F. Warre, "Notice of
Ruins of Glastonbury Abbey," ib. 1859; Rev. W. A. Jones, "On the
Reputed Discovery of King Arthur's Remains at Glastonbury," ib. 1859;
Rev. J. R. Green, "Dunstan at Glastonbury" and "Giso and Savaric," ib.
1863; Rev. Canon Jackson, "Savaric, Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury,"
ib. 1862, 1863; E. A. Freeman, "King Ine," ib. 1872 and 1874; Dr W.
Beattie, in _Journ. of Brit. Archaeol. Ass._ vol. xii., 1856; Rev. R.
Willis, _Architectural History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1866); W. H. P.
Greswell, _Chapters on the Early History of Glastonbury Abbey_ (1909);
Views and plans of the abbey building will be found in Dugdale's
_Monasticon_ (1655); Stevens's _Monasticon_ (1720); Stukeley,
_Itinerarium curiosum_ (1724); Grose, _Antiquities_ (1754); Carter,
_Ancient Architecture_ (1800); Storer, _Antiq. and Topogr. Cabinet_,
ii., iv., v. (1807), &c.; Britton's _Architectural Antiquities_, iv.
(1813); _Vetusta monumenta_, iv. (1815); and _New Monasticon_, i.
(1817).

GLATIGNY, JOSEPH ALBERT ALEXANDRE (1830-1873), French poet, was born at Lillebonne (Seine Inferieure) on the 21st of May 1839. His father, who was a carpenter and afterwards a gendarme, removed in 1844 to Bernay, where Albert received an elementary education. Soon after leaving school he was apprenticed to a printer at Pont Audemer, where he produced a three-act play at the local theatre. He then joined a travelling company of actors to whom he acted as prompter. Inspired primarily by the study of Theodore de Banville, he published his _Vignes folles_ in 1857; his best collection of lyrics, _Les Fleches d'or_, appeared in 1864; and a third volume, _Gilles et pasquins_, in 1872. After Glatigny settled in Paris he improvised at cafe concerts and wrote several one-act plays. On an expedition to Corsica with a travelling company he was on one occasion arrested and put in irons for a week through being mistaken by the police for a notorious criminal. His marriage with Emma Dennie brought him great happiness, but the hardships of his life weakened his health and he died at Sevres on the 16th of April 1873.

See Catulle Mendes, _Legende du Parnasse contemporain_ (1884), and
_Glatigny, drame funambulesque_ (1906).

GLATZ (Slav. _Kladsko_), a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, in a narrow valley on the left bank of the Neisse, not far from the Austrian frontier, 58 m. S.W. from Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 16,051. The town with its narrow streets winds up the fortified hill which is crowned by the old citadel. Across the river, on the Schaferberg, lies a more modern fortress built by the Prussians about 1750. Before the town on both banks of the river there is a fortified camp by which bombardment from the neighbouring heights can be hindered and which affords accommodation for 10,000 men. The inner ceinture of walls was razed in 1891 and their site is now occupied by new streets. There are a Lutheran and two Roman Catholic churches, one of which, the parish church, contains the monuments of seven Silesian dukes. Among the other buildings the principal are the Royal Catholic gymnasium and the military hospital. The industries include machine shops, breweries, and the manufacture of spirits, linen, damask, cloth, hosiery, beads and leather.

Glatz existed as early as the 10th century, and received German settlers about 1250. It was besieged several times during the Thirty Years' War and during the Seven Years' War and came into the possession of Prussia in 1742. In 1821 and 1883 great devastation was caused here by floods. The county of Glatz was long contended for by the kingdoms of Poland and of Bohemia. Eventually it became part of the latter country, and in 1534 was sold to the house of Habsburg, from whom it was taken by Frederick the Great during his attack on Silesia.

See Ludwig, _Die Grafschaft Glatz in Wort und Bild_ (Breslau, 1897);
Kutzen, _Die Grafschaft Glatz_ (Glogau, 1873); and _Geschichtsquellen
der Grafschaft Glatz_, edited by F. Volkmer and Hohaus (1883-1891).

GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668), German chemist, was born at Karlstadt, Bavaria, in 1604 and died at Amsterdam in 1668. Little more is known of his life than that he resided successively in Vienna, Salzburg, Frankfurt and Cologne before settling in Holland, where he made his living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations. Though his writings abound in universal solvents and other devices of the alchemists, he made some real contributions to chemical knowledge. Thus he clearly described the preparation of hydrochloric acid by the action of oil of vitriol on common salt, the manifold virtues of sodium sulphate--_sal mirabile_, Glauber's salt--formed in the process being one of the chief themes of his _Miraculum mundi_; and he noticed that nitric acid was formed when nitre was substituted for the common salt. Further he prepared a large number of substances, including the chlorides and other salts of lead, tin, iron, zinc, copper, antimony and arsenic, and he even noted some of the phenomena of double decomposition. He was always anxious to turn his knowledge to practical account, whether in preparing medicines, or in furthering industrial arts such as dyeing, or in increasing the fertility of the soil by artificial manures. One of his most notable works was his _Teutschlands Wohlfarth_ in which he urged that the natural resources of Germany should be developed for the profit of the country and gave various instances of how this might be done.

His treatises, about 30 in number, were collected and published at
Frankfort in 1658-1659, at Amsterdam in 1661, and, in an English
translation by Packe, at London in 1689.

GLAUBER'S SALT, decahydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, 10H2O. It is said by J. Kunkel to have been known as an _arcanum_ or secret medicine to the electoral house of Saxony in the middle of the 16th century, but it was first described by J. R. Glauber (_De natura salium_, 1658), who prepared it by the action of oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid on common salt, and, ascribing to it many medicinal virtues, termed it _sal mirabile Glauberi_. As the mineral thenardite or mirabilite, which crystallizes in the rhombic system, it occurs in many parts of the world, as in Spain, the western states of North America and the Russian Caucasus; in the last-named region, about 25 m. E. of Tiflis, there is a thick bed of the pure salt about 5 ft. below the surface, and at Balalpashinsk there are lakes or ponds the waters of which are an almost pure solution. The substance is the active principle of many mineral waters, e.g. Frederickshall; it occurs in sea-water and it is a constant constituent of the blood. In combination with calcium sulphate, it constitutes the mineral glauberite or brongniartite, Na2SO4.CaSO4, which assumes forms belonging to the monoclinic system and occurs in Spain and Austria. It has a bitter, saline, but not acrid taste. At ordinary temperatures it crystallizes from aqueous solutions in large colourless monoclinic prisms, which effloresce in dry air, and at 35 deg.C. melt in their water of crystallization. At 100 deg. they lose all their water, and on further heating fuse at 843 deg. Its maximum solubility in water is at 34 deg.; above that temperature it ceases to exist in the solution as a decahydrate, but changes to the anhydrous salt, the solubility of which decreases with rise of temperature. Glauber's salt readily forms supersaturated solutions, in which crystallization takes place suddenly when a crystal of the salt is thrown in; the same effect is obtained by exposure to the air or by touching the solution with a glass rod. In medicine it is employed as an aperient, and is one of the safest and most innocuous known. For children it may be mixed with common salt and the two be used with the food without the child being conscious of any difference. Its simulation of the taste of common salt also renders it suitable for administration to insane patients and others who refuse to take any drug. If, however, its presence is recognized sodium phosphate may be substituted.

GLAUCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the right bank of the Mulde, 7 m. N. of Zwickau and 17 W. of Chemnitz by rail. Pop. (1875) 21,743; (1905) 24,556. It has important manufactures of woollen and half-woollen goods, in regard to which it occupies a high position in Germany. There are also dye-works, print-works, and manufactories of paper, linen, thread and machinery. Glauchau possesses a high grade school, elementary schools, a weaving school, an orphanage and an infirmary. Some portions of the extensive old castle date from the 12th century, and the Gottesacker church contains interesting antiquarian relics. Glauchau was founded by a colony of Sorbs and Wends, and belonged to the lords of Schonburg as early as the 12th century.

See R. Hofmann, _Ruckblick uber die Geschichte der Stadt Glauchau_
(1897).

GLAUCONITE, a mineral, green in colour, and chemically a hydrous silicate of iron and potassium. It especially occurs in the green sands and muds which are gathering at the present time on the sea bottom at many different places. The wide extension of these sands and muds was first made known by the naturalists of the "Challenger," and it is now found that they occur in the Mediterranean as well as in the open ocean, but they have not been found in the Black Sea or in any fresh-water lakes. These deposits are not in a true sense abyssal, but are of terrigenous origin, the mud and sand being derived from the wear of the continents, transported by marine currents. The greater part of the mass consists in all cases of minerals such as quartz, felspar (often labradorite), mica, chlorite, with more or less calcite which is probably always derived from shells or other organic sources. Many accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon have been identified also, while augite, hornblende and other volcanic minerals occur in varying proportion as in all the sediments of the open sea. The depth in which they accumulate varies a good deal, viz. from 200 up to 2000 fathoms, but as a rule is less than 1000 fathoms, and it is believed that the most common situations are where the continental shores slope rather steeply into moderate depths of water. Many of the blue muds, which owe their colour to fine particles of sulphide of iron, contain also a small quantity of glauconite; in Globigerina oozes this substance has also been found, and in fact there exists every gradation between the glauconitic deposits and the other types of sands and muds which are found at similar depths.