Chapter V: H. S (14)

GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written GLANVIL, GLANVILLE) (d. 1190), chief justiciar of England and reputed author of a book on English law, was born at Stratford in Suffolk, but in what year is unknown. There is but little information regarding his early life. He first comes to the front as sheriff of Yorkshire from 1163 to 1170. In 1173 he became sheriff of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In 1174 he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick, and it was to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion, surrendered. In 1175 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire, in 1176 he became justice of the king's court and a justice itinerant in the northern circuit, and in 1180 chief justiciar of England. It was with his assistance that Henry II. completed his judicial reforms, though the principal of them had been carried out before he came into office. He became the king's right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in effect viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189, Glanvill was removed from his office by Richard I., and imprisoned till he had paid a ransom, according to one authority, of L15,000. Shortly after obtaining his freedom he took the cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190. At the instance, it may be, of Henry II., Glanvill wrote or superintended the writing of the _Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae_, which is a practical treatise on the forms of procedure in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge regarding the earliest form of the _curia regis_, and for the information it affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of great value to the student of English history. It is now generally agreed that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish law book known from its first words as _Regiam Majestatem_, a work which bears a close resemblance to his.

The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English
translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was published
at London in 1812. A French version is found in various MSS., but has
not yet been printed. (See also ENGLISH LAW: _History of_.)

GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and dramatist, wrote in the reign of Charles I. All that is known of him is gathered from his own work. He published _Poems_ (1639), many of them in praise of an unidentified "Lucinda"; a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, whose _Poems Divine and Humane_ he edited in 1641; and _Whitehall_ (1642), dedicated to his "noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard Lovelace." The first volume contains a poem in honour of the duke of York, and _Whitehall_ is a review of the past glories of the English court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's devotion to the royal cause. _Argalus and Parthenia_ (1639) is a pastoral tragedy founded on an episode in Sidney's _Arcadia; Albertus Wallenstein_ (1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy, represents Wallenstein as a monster of pride and cruelty. His other plays are _The Hollander_ (written 1635; printed 1640), a romantic comedy of which the scene is laid in Genoa; _Wit in a Constable_ (1640), which is probably a version of an earlier play, and owes something to Shakespeare's _Much Ado about Nothing_; and _The Ladies Priviledge_ (1640). _The Lady Mother_ (1635) has been identified (Fleay, _Biog. Chron. of the Drama_) with _The Noble Trial_, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook, and Mr A. H. Bullen prints it in vol. ii. of his _Old English Plays_ as most probably Glapthorne's work. _The Paraside, or Revenge for Honour_ (1654), entered at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glapthorne's, was printed in the next year with George Chapman's name on the title-page. It should probably be included among Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above the level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous isolated passages.

The _Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne_ (1874) contains an unsigned
memoir, which, however, gives no information about the dramatist's
life. There is no reason for supposing that the George Glapthorne of
whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet.

GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), one of the Swiss cantons, the name being taken from that of its chief town. Its area is 266.8 sq. m., of which 173.1 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 41 sq. m.), but it also contains 13.9 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking as the fifth Swiss canton in this respect. It is thus a mountain canton, the loftiest point in it being the Todi (11,887 ft.), the highest summit that rises to the north of the upper Aar and Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper valley of the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a line drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river rises in the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a deep bed, so that the floor of the valley is comparatively level, and therefore is occupied by a number of considerable villages. Glacier passes only lead from its head to the Grisons, save the rough footpath over the Kisten Pass, while a fine new carriage road over the Klausen Pass gives access to the canton of Uri. The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the Grossthal (main valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or south-eastern) tributary, the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it at Schwanden, a little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal a mule track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a footpath over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another glen (coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is watered by the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass (a mule path, converted into a carriage road) leads over to the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen (uninhabited save in summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine bold mass of the Glarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running northwards from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177 ft.). The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are of a thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine waterfalls near the head of the main valley, such as those formed by the Sandbach, the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The Pantenbrucke, thrown over the narrow cleft formed by the Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the Alps below the snow-line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal village, and an iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm those of the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended to Elm (11th September 1881), destroying many houses and killing 115 persons. A railway runs through the whole canton from north to south past Glarus to Linthal village (16-1/4 m.), while from Schwanden there is an electric line (opened in 1905) up to Elm (8-3/4 m.).

In 1900 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease on the 33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which shows a decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking, while there were 24,403 Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the capital, Glarus (q.v.), the largest villages are Nafels (2557 inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants, opposite Glarus, of which it is practically a suburb), Netstal (2003 inhabitants), Mollis (1912 inhabitants) and Linththal (1894 inhabitants). The slate industry is now the most important as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly fallen off, this being the real reason of the diminution in the number of the population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral region (owing to its height) and contains 87 mountain pastures (though the finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Urnerboden, or the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which can support 8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value of about L246,000. One of the most characteristic products (though inferior qualities are manufactured elsewhere in Switzerland) is the cheese called _Schabzieger_, _Krauterkase_, or green cheese, made of skim milk (_Zieger_ or _serac_), whether of goats or cows, mixed with buttermilk and coloured with powdered _Steinklee_ (_Melilotus officinalis_) or _blauer Honigklee_ (_Melilotus caerulea_). The curds are brought down from the huts on the pastures, and, after being mixed with the dried powder, are ground in a mill, then put into shapes and pressed. The cheese thus produced is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is largely exported, even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the Klonthalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer, either to profit by one or other of the mineral springs mentioned above, or simply to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially at Obstalden, above the Walensee. The canton forms but a single administrative district and contains 28 communes. It sends to the Federal _Standerath_ 2 representatives (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) and 2 also to the Federal _Nationalrath_. The canton still keeps its primitive democratic assembly or _Landsgemeinde_ (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years of age. It acts as the sovereign body, so that no "referendum" is required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president, all holding office for three years. The communes (forming 18 electoral circles) elect for three years the _Landrath_, a sort of standing committee composed of members in the proportion of 1 for every 500 inhabitants or fraction over 250. The present constitution dates from 1887. (W. A. B. C.)

GLARUS (Fr. _Glaris_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name. It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left bank of the Linth (opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda on the right bank), at the north-eastern foot of the imposing rock peak of the Vorder Glarnisch (7648 ft.), while on the east rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now contains but few houses built before 1861, for on the 10/11 May 1861 practically the whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a violent _Fohn_ or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The total loss is estimated at about half a million sterling, of which about L100,000 were made up by subscriptions that poured in from every side. It possesses the broad streets and usual buildings of a modern town, the parish church being by far the most stately and well-situated building; it is used in common by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was parish priest here from 1506 to 1516, before he became a Protestant. The town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900 had a population of 4877, almost all German-speaking, while 1248 were Romanists. For the Linth canals (1811 and 1816) see LINTH.

The DISTRICT OF GLARUS is said to have been converted to Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin, whose special protector was St Hilary of Poitiers; the former was the founder, and both were patrons, of the Benedictine nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between Constance and Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs, protectors of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the exercise of all the rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not gain their complete freedom till after they had driven back the Habsburgs in the glorious battle of Nafels (1388), the complement of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave up their rights in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in 1395, on condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted Protestantism, but there were many struggles later on between the two parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to the old faith. At last it was arranged that, besides the common _Landsgemeinde_, each party should have its separate _Landsgemeinde_ (1623) and tribunals (1683), while it was not till 1798 that the Protestants agreed to accept the Gregorian calendar. The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in the 17th century, while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and calico-printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance of Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other districts under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803 it was reduced to its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed by the Russian army, under Suworoff, coming over the Pragel Pass, but blocked by the French at Nafels, and so driven over the Panixer to the Grisons. The old system of government was set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal constitution one single _Landsgemeinde_ was restored, despite the resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels.

AUTHORITIES.--J. Babler, _Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G._ (Soleure,
1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in
vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the _Archiv f. schweiz. Geschichte_; E.
Buss and A. Heim, _Der Bergsturz von Elm_ (1881) (Zurich, 1881); W. A.
B. Coolidge, _The Range of the Todi_ (London, 1894); J. G. Ebel,
_Schilderung der Gebirgsvolker d. Schweiz_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798);
Gottfried Heer, _Geschichte d. Landes Glarus_ (to 1830) (2 vols.,
Glarus, 1898-1899), _Glarnerische Reformationsgeschichte_ (Glarus,
1900), _Zur 500 jahrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels_
(1388) (Glarus, 1888) and _Die Kirchen d. Kant. Glarus_ (Glarus,
1890); Oswald Heer and J. J. Blumer-Heer, _Der Kant. Glarus_ (St Gall,
1846); J. J. Hottinger, _Conrad Escher von der Linth_ (Zurich, 1852);
_Jahrbuch_, published annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical
Society; A. Jenny-Trumpy, "Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article
in vol. xxxiii., 1899, of the _Jahrbuch_); M. Schuler, _Geschichte d.
Landes Glarus_ (Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, _Clubfuhrer durch die
Glarner-Alpen_ (Schwanden, 1902); Aloys Schulte, article on the true
and legendary early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii.,
1893, of the _Jahrbuch f. schweiz. Geschichte_ (Zurich); J. J. Blumer,
_Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols., St
Gall, 1850-1859); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich,
1903); R. von Reding-Biberegg, _Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in
1799_ (Stans, 1895). (W. A. B. C.)

GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765); Scottish seaman and merchant adventurer in West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was born at Dundee in 1725, and is said to have been brought up as a surgeon. He obtained command of a ship which traded between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the Canary Islands. During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard a river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed to found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with certainty, but it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place in about 29 deg. 10' N., possibly the haven where the Spaniards had in the 15th and 16th centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena. Glas made an arrangement with the Lords of Trade whereby he was granted L15,000 if he obtained free cession of the port he had discovered to the British crown; the proposal was to be laid before parliament in the session of 1765. Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter, sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made a treaty with the Moors of the district. He named his settlement Port Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough (afterwards marquis of Downshire), president of the Board of Trade and Plantations, 1763-1765. In November 1764 Glas and some companions, leaving his ship behind, went in the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small barque suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his settlement. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty he had concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A few days later he was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe and imprisoned at Santa Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade from Teneriffe, dated the 15th of December 1764, Glas said he believed the reason for his detention was the jealousy of the Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough "because from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands." The Spaniards further looked upon the settlement as a step towards the conquest of the islands. "They are therefore contriving how to make out a claim to the port and will forge old manuscripts to prove their assertion" (_Calendar of Home Office Papers_, 1760-1765). In March 1765 the ship's company at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and several members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the representations of the British government, Glas was released from prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England on board the barque "Earl of Sandwich." On the 30th of November Spanish and Portuguese members of the crew, who had learned that the ship contained much treasure, mutinied, killing the captain and passengers. Glas was stabbed to death, and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The murderers were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin.) After the death of Glas the British government appears to have taken no steps to carry out his project.

In 1764 Glas published in London _The History of the Discovery and
Conquest of the Canary Islands_, which he had translated from the MS.
of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then recently
discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of the islands,
a continuation of the history and an account of the manners, customs,
trade, &c., of the inhabitants, displaying considerable knowledge of
the archipelago.

GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at Auchtermuchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister, on the 5th of October 1695. He was educated at Kinclaven and the grammar school, Perth, graduated A.M. at the university of St Andrews in 1713, and completed his education for the ministry at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of Dundee as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his ministry he was "brought to a stand" while lecturing on the "Shorter Catechism" by the question "How doth Christ execute the office of a king?" This led to an examination of the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church, and in 1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie, Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants. In the same year his views found expression in the formation of a society "separate from the multitude" numbering nearly a hundred, and drawn from his own and neighbouring parishes. The members of this _ecclesiola in ecclesia_ pledged themselves "to join together in the Christian profession, to follow Christ the Lord as the righteousness of his people, to walk together in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in subjection to Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the ordinance of the Lord's Supper once every month, to submit themselves to the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt. xviii. 15-20). From the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual nature of the kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching drew the conclusions: (1) that there is no warrant in the New Testament for a national church; (2) that the magistrate as such has no function in the church; (3) that national covenants are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true Reformation cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but by the word and spirit of Christ only.

This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled _The Testimony of the King of Martyrs_ (1729). For the promulgation of these views, which were confessedly at variance with the doctrines of the standards of the national church of Scotland, he was summoned (1726) before his presbytery, where in the course of the investigations which followed he affirmed still more explicitly his belief that "every national church established by the laws of earthly kingdoms is antichristian in its constitution and persecuting in its spirit," and further declared opinions upon the subject of church government which amounted to a repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the puritan type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728 suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and finally deposed in 1730. The members of the society already referred to, however, for the most part continued to adhere to him, thus constituting the first "Glassite" or "Glasite" church. The seat of this congregation was shortly afterwards transferred to Dundee (whence Glas subsequently removed to Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as an "elder." He next laboured in Perth for a few years, where he was joined by Robert Sandeman (see GLASITES), who became his son-in-law, and eventually was recognized as the leader and principal exponent of Glas's views; these he developed in a direction which laid them open to the charge of antinomianism. Ultimately in 1730 Glas returned to Dundee, where the remainder of his life was spent. He introduced in his church the primitive custom of the "osculum pacis" and the "agape" celebrated as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congregation was known as the "kail kirk." In 1739 the General Assembly, without any application from him, removed the sentence of deposition which had been passed against him, and restored him to the character and function of a minister of the gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, declaring that he was not eligible for a charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent with the constitution of the church.

A collected edition of his works was published at Edinburgh in 1761 (4
vols., 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He died in
1773.

Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and scholarly
attainments. His reconstruction of the _True Discourse of Celsus_
(1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned piece of
work. The _Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His Kingdom_
(1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence of the
spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His common sense
appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to prove that the
Bible supplies a complete system of physical science, and his
shrewdness in his _Notes on Scripture Texts_ (1747). He published a
volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784). (D. Mn.)

GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the 17th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is best known by his _Traite de la chymie_ (Paris, 1663), which went through some ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the marchioness de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is doubtful. He appears to have died some time before 1676. The _sal polychrestum Glaseri_ is normal potassium sulphate which he prepared and used medicinally.

GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde, 401-1/2 m. N.W. of London by the West Coast railway route, and 47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank of the river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E., and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is Dalmarnock Bridge, dating from 1891, and next below it is Rutherglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1896, and superseding a structure of 1775. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives access to the Green to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district which is approached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading from the Saltmarket. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and weir. Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345, which was demolished in 1847. Then follows a suspension bridge (dating from 1853) by which foot-passengers from the south side obtain access to St Enoch Square and, finally, the most important bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica Street, or Broomielaw Bridge, built of granite from Telford's designs and first used in 1835. Towards the close of the century it was reconstructed, and reopened in 1899. At the busier periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic. The stream is spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge belonging to the Glasgow & South-Western railway and by two bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive work immediately west of Glasgow Bridge.

_Buildings._--George Square, in the heart of the city, is an open space of which every possible advantage has been taken. On its eastern side stand the municipal buildings, a palatial pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost nearly L600,000. They form a square block four storeys high and carry a domed turret at each end of the western facade, from the centre of which rises a massive tower. The entrance hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of Scotland. Several additional blocks have been built or rented for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the town council met in a hall adjoining the old tolbooth. It then moved to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Saltmarket, which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842 for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business compelled another migration to Ingram Street in 1875, and, fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the southern side of George Square the chief structure is the massive General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants' House, the head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two gilds. The Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the work of David Hamilton (1768-1843), a native of Glasgow, who designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long, 60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange, the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of the _Glasgow Herald_. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops, leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning the pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at the corner of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, or prison, a turreted building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean crown tower. The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the Cross Steeple.

St Mungo's Cathedral.

Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation. It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a beautiful example of Early English work, impressive in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross, with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft., and its width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church, serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects from the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars the harmony of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a groined roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass, executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern window in recognition of their enterprise. The crypt beneath the choir is not the least remarkable part of the edifice, being without equal in Scotland. It is borne on 65 pillars and lighted by 41 windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the whole is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt, but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named from the constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's Well in the south-eastern corner was considered to possess therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless and handless, is faithfully accepted as the tomb of Kentigern. The cathedral contains few monuments of exceptional merit, but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely paved with tombstones. In 1115 an investigation was ordered by David, prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at that date a cathedral had already been endowed. When David ascended the throne in 1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the lands of Partick, besides restoring many possessions of which it had been deprived. Jocelin (d. 1199), made bishop in 1174, was the first great bishop, and is memorable for his efforts to replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John Achaius, which had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is his work, and he began the choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure was sufficiently advanced to be dedicated in 1197. Other famous bishops were Robert Wishart (d. 1316), appointed in 1272, who was among the first to join in the revolt of Wallace, and received Robert Bruce when he lay under the ban of the church for the murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d. 1446), appointed in 1428, under whom the building as it stands was completed; and William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed in 1447, who founded the university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (1517-1603) was the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at the reformation in 1560, and took with him the treasures and records of the see, including the Red Book of Glasgow dating from the reign of Robert III. The documents were deposited in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at the outbreak of the Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never recovered. This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the city. The zeal of the Reformers led them to threaten to mutilate the cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of the craftsmen, who mustered in force and dispersed the fanatics.

Churches.

Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches possesses historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is only the buildings that have been erected since the beginning of the 19th century that have pronounced architectural merit. This was due largely to the long survival of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged, if they did not actually forbid, the raising of temples of beautiful design. Representative examples of later work are found in the United Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and at Queen's Park, designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875), an architect of distinct originality; St George's church, in West George Street, a remarkable work by William Stark, erected in the beginning of the 19th century; St Andrew's church in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after St Martin's-in-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico; some of the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating from 1780, with a good spire (the saint's name is said to be a corruption of Tanew, mother of Kentigern); the episcopal church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western Road, by Sir G. G. Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on the river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the Barony church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman Macleod ministered; and several admirable structures, well situated, on the eastern confines of Kelvingrove Park.

The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying Fir Park, a hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the city. It provides a not inappropriate background to the cathedral, from which it is approached by a bridge, known as the "Bridge of Sighs," over the Molendinar ravine. The ground, which once formed portion of the estate of Wester Craigs, belongs to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in 1650 from Sir Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was erected by public subscription on the crown of the height in 1824, and a few years later the idea arose of utilizing the land as a cemetery. The Jews have reserved for their own people a detached area in the north-western corner of the cemetery.

Glasgow University.

_Education._--The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop Turnbull under a bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old quarters till far in the 19th century. The _paedagogium_, or college of arts, was at first housed in Rottenrow, but was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street, where Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord Hamilton (d. 1479), gave it four acres of land and some buildings. Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen acres of contiguous ground, and her son granted it a new charter and enlarged the endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes fluctuated, but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle of the 19th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated, and in 1860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground had enormously increased in value and a railway company purchased it for L100,000. In 1864 the university bought the Gilmore Hill estate for L65,000, the adjacent property of Dowan Hill for L16,000 and the property of Clayslaps for L17,400. Sir G. G. Scott was appointed architect and selected as the site of the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore Hill--the finest situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with a suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later period. The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad. The principal front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central tower with spire and corner blocks with turrets, between which are buildings of lower height. Behind the tower lies the Bute hall, built on cloisters, binding together the various departments and smaller halls, and dividing the massive edifice into an eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of which are ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern facade comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library and, in the centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and the Hunterian museum on the floor above. On the south the ground falls in terraces towards Kelvingrove Park and the Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main structure, stand the houses of the principal and professors. The foundation stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in 1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to L500,000, towards which government contributed L120,000 and public subscription L250,000. The third marquess of Bute (1847-1900) gave L40,000 to provide the Bute or common hall, a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic style and divided by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall, named after another benefactor, Charles Randolph (1809-1878), a native of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine engineer and left L60,000 to the university. The graceful spire surmounting the tower was provided from the bequest of L5000 by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre erected the Students' Union at a cost of L5000, while other donors completed the equipment so generously that the senate was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its history, in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the collection of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum, bequeathed by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly rich in coins, medals, black-letter books and anatomical preparations. The observatory on Dowan Hill is attached to the chair of astronomy. An interesting link with the past are the exhibitions founded by John Snell (1629-1679), a native of Colmonell in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of distinction to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John Gibson Lockhart, John Wilson ("Christopher North"), Archbishop Tait, Sir William Hamilton and Professor Shairp. The curriculum of the university embraces the faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing body includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council, the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected triennially by the students voting in "nations" according to their birthplace (_Glottiana_, natives of Lanarkshire; _Transforthana_, of Scotland north of the Forth; _Rothseiana_, of the shires of Bute, Renfrew and Ayr; and _Loudonia_, all others). There are a large number of well-endowed chairs and lectureships and the normal number of students exceeds 2000. The universities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to return one member to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, established in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic gardens, has an endowment of upwards of L25,000, and was incorporated with the university in 1893. Muirhead College is another institution for women.

Schools and colleges.

Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools. Higher,
secondary and technical education is provided at several well-known
institutions. There are two educational endowments boards which apply
a revenue of about L10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of
bursaries. Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the memory of
its founder, John Anderson (1726-1796), professor of natural
philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics for
working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his will he
provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and others
unable to attend the university. The college which bears his name
began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry by
Thomas Garnett (1766-1802). Two years later mathematics and geography
were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1776-1841) succeeded Garnett
and began those lectures on mechanics and applied science which,
continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation of mechanics'
institutes in many towns. In later years the college was further
endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion of literature and
languages, but ultimately it was determined to limit the scope of its
work to medicine (comprising, however, physics, chemistry and botany
also). The lectures of its medical school, incorporated in 1887 and
situated near the Western Infirmary, are accepted by Glasgow and other
universities. The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College,
formed in 1886 out of a combination of the arts side of Anderson
College, the College of Science and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and
the Atkinson Institution, is subsidized by the corporation and the
endowments board, and is especially concerned with students desirous
of following an industrial career. St Mungo's College, which has
developed from an extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal
Infirmary, was incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and
law. The United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove
Park, the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the
training of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized
objects.

The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar school
(long housed in John Street) which was founded in the 14th century as
an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the jurisdiction of
the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools include Glasgow
Academy, Kelvinside Academy and the girls' and boys' schools endowed
by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the schools under the board are
furnished with secondary departments or equipped as science schools,
and the Roman Catholics maintain elementary schools and advanced
academies.

_Art Galleries, Libraries and Museums._--Glasgow merchants and
manufacturers alike have been constant patrons of art, and their
liberality may have had some influence on the younger painters who,
towards the close of the 19th century, broke away from tradition and,
stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known as the
"Glasgow school." The art gallery and museum in Kelvingrove Park,
which was built at a cost of L250,000 (partly derived from the profits
of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901), is
exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated in 1854 in the
purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan, and was
supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of important
pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corporation galleries in
Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in Sauchiehall Street,
is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of modern art. There are
also pictures on exhibition in the People's Palace on Glasgow Green,
which was built by the corporation in 1898 and combines an art gallery
and museum with a conservatory and winter garden, and in the museum at
Camphill, situated within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and
Hunterian museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of
students. The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which
is housed in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West
George Street. In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the
Philosophical Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St
Vincent Street. Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public
libraries. The premises once occupied by the water commission have
been converted to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a
bequest of L70,000 by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further
gifts of libraries and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000
volumes. It is governed by the city council and has been in use since
1877. Another building in this street accommodates both the Stirling
and Baillie libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is
particularly rich in tracts of the 16th and 17th centuries, and the
Baillie was endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave
L18,000 for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place,
an institution largely concerned with evening classes in various
subjects, contains an excellent library and reading-room.

_Charities._--The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam and
opened in 1794, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the
archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards
the close of the 18th century. The chief architectural feature of the
infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating
theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical school
attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemorates the
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north, in Castle
Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to some extent
used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion with the
university, to which it stands in immediate proximity. Near it is the
Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of Queen's Park is
Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb institution. On
the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern boundary of the
city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases, and at
Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character
opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near
Jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a branch
at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the
north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively
devoted to the treatment of special diseases, and several nursing
institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David
Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in
Ingram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has
become a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in
the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's
castle, which stood close to the spot where the Kelvin enters the
Clyde, founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas
(1589-1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging
and education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust,
through the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its
educational scope and to subsidize schools apart from the charity.

_Monuments._--Most of the statues have been erected in George Square.
They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, surmounted by a
colossal statue of Sir Walter Scott by John Ritchie (1809-1850),
erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort
(both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt by Chantrey; Sir
Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who was born in Glasgow, and
David Livingstone, all by John Mossman; Sir John Moore, a native of
Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819; James Oswald, the first member
returned to parliament for the city after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord
Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell), also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868;
Dr Thomas Graham, master of the mint, another native, by Brodie;
Robert Burns by G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in
shillings by the working men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone
by Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in 1902. In front of
the Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of
Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman Macleod,
James White and James Arthur, and in front of the Royal infirmary is
that of Sir James Lumsden, lord provost and benefactor. Nelson is
commemorated by an obelisk 143 ft. high on the Green, which was
erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the Piazza del
Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the equestrian
figure of William III. in the Trongate, which was presented to the
town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire lad who had
amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of Madras from 1725
to 1730.

_Recreations._--Of the theatres the chief are the King's in Bath
Street, the Royal and the Grand in Cowcaddens, the Royalty and Gaiety
in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main Street. Variety
theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are found in
various parts of the town. There is a circus in Waterloo Street, a
hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a zoological garden in New City
Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall of the St
Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corporation; the
City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green, and
Queen's Rooms close to Kelvingrove Park. Throughout winter enormous
crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen's Park, the leading
amateur club, and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third Lanark and other
prominent professional clubs.

_Parks and Open Spaces._--The oldest open space is the Green (140
acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely-populated
district. It once extended farther west, but a portion was built over
at a time when public rights were not vigilantly guarded. It is a
favourite area for popular demonstrations, and sections have been
reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds. Kelvingrove Park,
in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for the Kelvin burn flows
through it and the ground is naturally terraced, while the situation
is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with the university on its
summit. The park was laid out under the direction of Sir Joseph
Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain, erected to commemorate the
labours of Lord Provost Stewart and his colleagues in the promotion of
the Loch Katrine water scheme. The other parks on the right bank are,
in the north, Ruchill (53 acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn
(53-1/4 acres), acquired in 1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120
acres), in which is laid down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross
(82-3/4 acres), beyond the municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the
left bank Queen's Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding site, was
laid out by Sir Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by
the enclosure of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are
Richmond (44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost
Sir David Richmond, who opened it in 1899; Maxwell, which was taken
over on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176
acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), 3-1/2m. beyond
the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James
Dick, a manufacturer, containing "Queen Mary's stone," a point which
commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the north-western
district of the town 40 acres between Great Western Road and the
Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens, which became public
property in 1891. They are beautifully laid out, and contain a great
range of hothouses. The gardens owed much to Sir William Hooker, who
was regius professor of botany in Glasgow University before his
appointment to the directorship of Kew Gardens.

_Communications._--The North British railway terminus is situated in
Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line) and a
low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District line,
largely underground, serving the northern side of the town, opened in
1886. The Great Northern and North-Eastern railways use the high-level
line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the East Coast Joint
Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian railway in Gordon
Street, served by the West Coast system (in which the London &
North-Western railway shares), also comprises a high-level station for
the main line traffic and a low-level station for the Cathcart
District railway, completed in 1886 and made circular for the southern
side and suburbs in 1894, and also for the connexion between Maryhill
and Rutherglen, which is mostly underground. Both the underground
lines communicate with certain branches of the main line, either
directly or by change of carriage. The older terminus of the
Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street now takes the northern and
eastern traffic. The terminus of the Glasgow & South-Western railway
company in St Enoch Square serves the country indicated in its title,
and also gives the Midland railway of England access to the west coast
and Glasgow. The Glasgow Subway--an underground cable passenger line,
6-1/2 m. long, worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde
twice--was opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be
sanctioned west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at
certain points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying
vehicles across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for
foot and wheeled traffic. Steamers, carrying both goods and
passengers, constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and
ports on the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of
Argyllshire. The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate
every populous district and cross the river by Glasgow and Albert
bridges.