Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters, [oo] for infinity symbol and [dP] for partial differential
symbol.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE HALLER, ALBRECHT VON: "From a literary point of view the
main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the
Alps, was his poem entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March
1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte."
'poem' amended from 'peom'.

ARTICLE HAMBURG: "... and if the progress of the tide up the river
gives indication of danger, another three shots follow." 'another'
amended from 'other'.

ARTICLE HARBOUR: "Ostend is the only jetty harbour in which a large
sluicing basin has been recently constructed, but it can only
provide for the maintenance of deep-water quays in its vicinity;
..." 'harbour' amended from 'habour'.

ARTICLE HARMONICA: "... Franz Leppich's panmelodicon in 1810,
Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these nothing
now remains but the name and a description in the Allgemeine
musikalische Zeitung ..." Added 'in'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XII, SLICE VIII

Haller, Albrecht to Harmonium

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON HANDICAP
HALLER, BERTHOLD HANDSEL
HALLEY, EDMUND HANDSWORTH
HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS HANDWRITING
HALLIDAY, ANDREW HANG-CHOW-FU
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, ORCHARD HANGING
HALLOWE'EN HANGO
HALLSTATT HANKA, WENCESLAUS
HALLUCINATION HANLEY
HALLUIN HANNA, MARCUS ALONZO
HALM, CARL FELIX HANNAY, JAMES
HALMA HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN
HALMAHERA HANNIBAL (Carthaginian statesman)
HALMSTAD HANNIBAL (Missouri, U.S.A.)
HALO HANNINGTON, JAMES
HALOGENS HANNINGTON
HALS, FRANS HANNO
HALSBURY, HARDINGE GIFFARD HANOI
HALSTEAD HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL
HALT HANOVER (province of Prussia)
HALUNTIUM HANOVER (city of Prussia)
HALYBURTON, JAMES HANOVER (Indiana, U.S.A.)
HALYBURTON, THOMAS HANOVER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
HAM (son of Noah) HANOVER (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
HAM (town of France) HANRIOT, FRANCOIS
HAMADAN HANSARD, LUKE
HAMADHANI HANSEATIC LEAGUE
HAMAH HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS
HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG HANSI
HAMAR HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS
HAMASA HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES
HAMBURG (German state) HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER
HAMBURG (German seaport) HANTHAWADDY
HAMDANI HANUKKAH
HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE HANUMAN
HAMELN HANWAY, JONAS
HAMERLING, ROBERT HANWELL
HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT HAPARANDA
HAMI HAPLODRILI
HAMILCAR BARCA HAPTARA
HAMILTON HAPUR
HAMILTON, MARQUESSES & DUKES OF HARA-KIRI
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER HARALD
HAMILTON, ANTHONY HARBIN
HAMILTON, ELIZABETH HARBINGER
HAMILTON, EMMA HARBOUR
HAMILTON, JAMES HARBURG
HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON HARCOURT
HAMILTON, JOHN HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT
HAMILTON, PATRICK HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM VENABLES VERNON
HAMILTON, ROBERT HARCOURT, WILLIAM VERNON
HAMILTON, THOMAS HARDANGER FJORD
HAMILTON, WILLIAM HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803) HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856) HARDERWYK
HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD HARDICANUTE
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN HARDING, CHESTER
HAMILTON (town of Australia) HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD
HAMILTON (river of Canada) HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE
HAMILTON (city of Canada) HARDOI
HAMILTON (burgh of Scotland) HARDOUIN, JEAN
HAMILTON (New York, U.S.A.) HARDT, HERMANN VON DER
HAMILTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) HARDT, THE
HAMIRPUR HARDWAR
HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE
HAMLET HARDY, ALEXANDRE
HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE HARDY, THOMAS
HAMLIN, HANNIBAL HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS
HAMM HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA HARDYNG, JOHN
HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT
HAMMER HARE, SIR JOHN
HAMMERBEAM ROOF HARE, JULIUS CHARLES
HAMMERFEST HARE
HAMMER-KOP HAREBELL
HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH HAREM
HAMMERSMITH HARFLEUR
HAMMER-THROWING HARIANA
HAMMER-TOE HARINGTON, SIR JOHN
HAMMOCK HARIRI
HAMMOND, HENRY HARI-RUD
HAMMOND HARISCHANDRA
HAMON, JEAN LOUIS HARITH IBN HILLIZA UL-YASHKURI
HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE BRAND HARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON
HAMPDEN, JOHN HARKNESS, ALBERT
HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON HARKNESS, ROBERT
HAMPDEN-SIDNEY HARLAN, JAMES
HAMPSHIRE HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL
HAMPSTEAD HARLAND, HENRY
HAMPTON, WADE HARLAY DE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE
HAMPTON (Middlesex, England) HARLECH
HAMPTON (Virginia, U.S.A.) HARLEQUIN
HAMPTON ROADS HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH
HAMSTER HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON
HANAPER HARLINGEN
HANAU HARMATTAN
HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HARMODIUS
HANCOCK, JOHN HARMONIA
HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT HARMONIC
HANCOCK HARMONICA
HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF HARMONIC ANALYSIS
HAND HARMONICHORD
HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK HARMONIUM
HANDFASTING

HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the 16th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four, it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father's servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar, prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a collection of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written in Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid, Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confederations, writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's attention had been directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in 1721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to the university of Tubingen (December 1723), where he studied under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress, he in 1725 exchanged Tubingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he graduated in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then visited London, making the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane, Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next, after a short stay in Oxford, he visited Paris, where he studied under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel, where he devoted himself to the study of the higher mathematics under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a collection of plants which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the main result of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his poem entitled _Die Alpen_, which was finished in March 1729, and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his _Gedichte_. This poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains (hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence of the dwellers in the plains.

In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the botanical and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a European reputation, and procured for him from George II. in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and surgery in the newly founded university of Gottingen. He became F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of work achieved by Haller in the seventeen years during which he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him the task of newly organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institutions, he carried on without interruption those original investigations in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved in the numerous works associated with his name; he continued also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition, while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_), to which he is said to have contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself in most of the religious questions, both ephemeral and permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church in Gottingen was mainly due to his unwearied energy. Notwithstanding all this variety of absorbing interests he never felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept ever turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to resign his chair and return to Switzerland.

The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post of a _Rathhausammann_ which he had obtained by lot, and in the preparation of his _Bibliotheca medica_, the botanical, surgical and anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he also found time to write the three philosophical romances--_Usong_ (1771), _Alfred_ (1773) and _Fabius and Cato_ (1774),--in which his views as to the respective merits of despotism, of limited monarchy and of aristocratic republican government are fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the use of which he communicated a paper to the _Proceedings_ of the Gottingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the drug is believed, however, to have hastened his death, which occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, who had been three times married, left eight children, the eldest of whom, Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist and as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (1785-1788, 7 vols.).

Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his
very numerous works in various branches of science and literature (a
complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various
editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of vol.
6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned
friends):--(1) Anatomical:--_Icones anatomicae_ (1743-1754);
_Disputationes anatomicae selectiores_ (1746-1752); and _Opera acad.
minora anatomici argumenti_ (1762-1768). (2) Physiological:--_De
respiratione experimenta anatomica_ (1747); _Primae lineae
physiologiae_ (1747); and _Elementa physiologiae corporis humani_
(1757-1760). (3) Pathological and surgical:--_Opuscula pathologica_
(1754); _Disputationum chirurg. collectio_ (1777); also careful
editions of Boerhaave's _Praelectiones academicae in suas
institutiones rei medicae_ (1739), and of the _Artis medicae
principia_ of the same author (1769-1774). (4) Botanical:--_Enumeratio
methodica stirpium Helveticarum_ (1742); _Opuscula botanica_ (1749);
_Bibliotheca botanica_ (1771). (5) Theological:--_Briefe uber die
wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung_ (1772); and _Briefe zur
Vertheidigung der Offenbarung_ (1775-1777). (6) Poetical:--_Gedichte_
(1732, 12th ed., 1777). His three romances have been already
mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and "Tagebucher" or journals
were published posthumously.

See J. G. Zimmermann, _Das Leben des Herrn von Haller_ (1755), and the
articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyklopadie_,
and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by L. Hirzel,
printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld, 1882) of
Haller's _Gedichte_.

HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492-1536), Swiss reformer, was born at Aldingen in Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim, where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's priest in 1520. Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 1521 he had begun to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the abortive conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which established the new religion in that city. He left no writings except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli's works. He died on the 25th of February 1536.

Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).

HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656. His father, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul's school, where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathematical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's College, Oxford, in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and improved method of determining the elements of the planetary orbits (_Phil. Trans._ xi. 683). His detection of considerable errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a more accurate ascertainment of the places of the fixed stars was indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that Flamsteed and Hevelius had already undertaken to catalogue those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved, ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the pendulum in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the island he observed, on the 7th of November 1677, a transit of Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He returned to England in November 1678, having by the registration of 341 stars won the title of the "Southern Tycho," and by the translation to the heavens of the "Royal Oak," earned a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king's command on the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius as to the respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour. In Paris he observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680 after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England, he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years. He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however, was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having reached so far as to perceive that the central force of the solar system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance, and applied vainly to Wren and Hooke for further elucidation, he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the publication of the _Principia_. The labour and expense of passing this great work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line--

Nec fas est propius mortali attingere divos.

In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he received a commission as captain of the "Paramour Pink" for the purpose of making extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a _General Chart of the Variation of the Compass_ in 1701; and immediately afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map of which he produced in 1702. On his return from a journey to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port of Trieste, he was nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of doctor of laws in 1710. Between 1713 and 1721 he acted as secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded Flamsteed as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire revolution of her nodes (eighteen years), and actually carried out his purpose. He died on the 14th of January 1742. His tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, Lee, Kent.

Halley's most notable scientific achievements were--his detection of the "long inequality" of Jupiter and Saturn, and of the acceleration of the moon's mean motion (1693), his discovery of the proper motions of the fixed stars (1718), his theory of variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the magnetic origin of the aurora borealis; his calculation of the orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348) of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.

His principal works are _Catalogus stellarum australium_ (London,
1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed's
_Historia coelestis_ (1725); _Synopsis astronomiae cometicae_ (Oxford,
1705); _Astronomical Tables_ (London, 1752); also eighty-one
miscellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the
_Philosophical Transactions_. To these should be added his version
from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the
treatise of Apollonius _De sectione rationis_, with a restoration of
his two lost books _De sectione spatii_, both published at Oxford in
1706; also his fine edition of the _Conics_ of Apollonius, with the
treatise by Serenus _De sectione cylindri et coni_ (Oxford, 1710,
folio). His edition of the _Spherics_ of Menelaus was published by his
friend Dr Costard in 1758. See also _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv.
(1757); _Gent. Mag._ xvii. 455, 503; A. Wood, _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss),
iv. 536; J. Aubrey, _Lives_, ii. 365; F. Baily, _Account of
Flamsteed_; Sir D. Brewster, _Life of Newton_; R. Grant, _History of
Astronomy_, p. 477 and _passim_; A. J. Rudolph, _Bulletin of
Bibliography_, No. 14 (Boston, 1904); E. F. McPike, "Bibliography of
Halley's Comet," _Smithsonian Misc. Collections_, vol. xlviii. pt. i.
(1905); _Notes and Queries_, 9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., 10th
series, vol. ii. (E. F. McPike). A collection of manuscripts regarding
Halley is preserved among the Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library,
Oxford; and many of his unpublished letters exist at the Record Office
and in the library of the Royal Society. (A. M. C.)

HALLGRIMSSON, JONAS (1807-1844), the chief lyrical poet of Iceland, was born in 1807 at Steinsstathir in Eyjafjartharsysla in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school of Bessastathr. In 1832 he went to the university of Copenhagen, and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary assistance from the Danish government, he travelled through all Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 1837-1842, and made many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not acquired by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature, Heine and Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddic metaphors made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible, and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet Bjarni Thorarensen had done much to purify the language, but Jonas Hallgrimsson completed their work by his poems and tales, in a purer language than ever had been written in Iceland since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic poetry were specially seen in the so-called _rimur_, ballads of heroes, &c., which were fiercely attacked by Jonas Hallgrimsson, who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his view. Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of Jonas Hallgrimsson appeared in the periodical _Fjolnir_, which he began publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with Konrath Gislason, a well-known philologist, and the patriotic Thomas Saemundsson. _Fjolnir_ had in the beginning a hard struggle against old prejudices, but as the years went by its influence became enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit still lived in _Ny Felagsrit_ and other patriotic periodicals which took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died in 1844, is the father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He introduced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Although his poetical works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every string of the old harp of Iceland. (S. Bl.)

HALLIDAY, ANDREW [ANDREW HALLIDAY DUFF] (1830-1877), British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch, Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first engagement was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the _Cornhill Magazine_. From 1861 he contributed largely to _All the Year Round_, and many of his articles were republished in collected form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these _Little Em'ly_ (1869), his adaptation of _David Copperfield_, was warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the 10th of April 1877.

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889), English Shakespearian scholar, son of Thomas Halliwell, was born in London, on the 21st of June 1820. He was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly in early English literature. In 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's _Travels_; in 1842 published an _Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library_, besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century (_Torrent of Portugal_). He became best known, however, as a Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his _Life of Shakespeare_, which passed through several editions; in 1853-1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes; in 1863 a _Calendar of the Records at Stratford-on-Avon_; in 1864 a _History of New Place_. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in local records in his _Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare_. He was mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered more than sixty volumes. He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, a daughter of Sir Thomas Phillipps the antiquary. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early English and Elizabethan works. From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion attaching to his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845. His house, Hollingbury Copse, near Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to the Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library of Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889.

HALLOWE'EN, or ALL HALLOWS EVE, the name given to the 31st of October as the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day. Though now known as little else but the eve of the Christian festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly attendant ceremonies long antedate Christianity. The two chief characteristics of ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and the belief that of all nights in the year this is the one during which ghosts and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about the 1st of November the Druids held their great autumn festival and lighted fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for the harvest. Further, it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of this festival Saman, lord of death, called together the wicked souls that within the past twelve months had been condemned to inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is clear that the main celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical, and this is further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st of October was, and even still is, known as _Oidhche Shamhna_, "Vigil of Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some of the characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona held about the 1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as representing the winter store of fruits, played an important part. Thus the roasting of nuts and the sport known as "apple-ducking"--attempting to seize with the teeth an apple floating in a tub of water,--were once the universal occupation of the young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The custom of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years in the highlands of Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers it was usual to place as many small stones as there were persons around, and next morning a search was made. If any of the pebbles were displaced it was regarded as certain that the person represented would die within the twelve months.

For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's
_Antiquities of Great Britain_; Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's
_Deutsche Mythologie_, ch. xx. (_Elemente_) and ch. xxxiv.
(_Aberglaube_); and J. G. Frazer's _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. Compare
also BELTANE and BONFIRE.

HALLSTATT, a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 67 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated on the shore of the Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hallstatter Salzberg, and is built in amphitheatre with its houses clinging to the mountain side. The salt mine of Hallstatt, which is one of the oldest in existence, was rediscovered in the 14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated Celtic burial ground, where a great number of very interesting antiquities have been found. Most of these have been removed to the museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local museum.

The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture hitherto unknown, and accordingly the name Hallstatt has been applied to objects of like form and decoration since found in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus, north Italy, France, Spain and Britain (see CELT). Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate, but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric iron and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxiv. 145; Horace, _Epod._ 17. 71). This iron needed no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use telluric iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were partly inhumation partly cremation; they contained swords, daggers, spears, javelins, axes, helmets, bosses and plates of shields and hauberks, brooches, various forms of jewelry, amber and glass beads, many of the objects being decorated with animals and geometrical designs. Silver was practically unknown. The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being bronze. The swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for cutting, not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of the Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade, with large pommels, or sometimes with antennae (the latter found also in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the Pyrenees, Spain, north Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze) were found. Both flanged and socketed celts occurred, the iron being much more numerous than the bronze. The flat axes are distinguished by the side stops and in some cases the transition from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The shields were round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see VILLANOVA). Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in Bosnia; broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in _repousse_ with beast and geometric ornament. Brooches are found in great numbers, both those derived from the primitive safety-pin ("Peschiera" type) and the "spectacle" or "Hallstatt" type found all down the Balkans and in Greece. The latter are formed of two spirals of wire, sometimes four such spirals being used, whilst there were also brooches in animal forms, one of the latter being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt culture is that of the Homeric Achaeans (see ACHAEANS), but as the brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae, 1350 B.C., they must have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they are found in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B.C., a conclusion in accord with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.

See Baron von Sacken, _Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt_; Bertrand and S.
Reinach, _Les Celtes dans les vallees du Po et du Danube_; W.
Ridgeway, _Early Age of Greece_; ARCHAEOLOGY (plate). (W. Ri.)

HALLUCINATION (from Lat. _alucinari_ or _allucinari_, to wander in mind, Gr. [Greek: alyssein] or [Greek: alyein], from [Greek: ale], wandering), a psychological term which has been the subject of much controversy, and to which, although there is now fair agreement as to its denotation, it is still impossible to give a precise and entirely satisfactory definition. Hallucinations constitute one of the two great classes of all false sense-perceptions, the other class consisting of the "illusions," and the difficulty of definition is clearly to mark the boundary between the two classes. _Illusion_ may be defined as the misinterpretation of sense-impression, while _hallucination_, in its typical instances, is the experiencing of a sensory presentation, i.e. a presentation having the sensory vividness that distinguishes perceptions from representative imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the corresponding sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the body, plays a part in the genesis of the hallucination. This being so, we must be content to leave the boundary between illusions and hallucinations ill-defined, and to regard as illusions _those false perceptions in which impressions made on the sense-organ play a leading part in determining the character of the percept_, and as hallucinations _those in which any such impression is lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part and bears no obvious relation to the character of the false percept_.

As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not involve delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely perceived. Among the sane the hallucinatory object is frequently recognized at once as unreal or at least as but quasi-real; and it is only the insane, or persons in abnormal states, such as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination persists or recurs, fail to recognize that it corresponds to no physical impression from, or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all the senses occur, but the most commonly reported are the auditory and the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely due to the more striking character of visual and auditory hallucinations, and to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the case of perceptions of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell, that no impression adequate to the genesis of the percept has been made upon the sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is probably due in part to the more constant use of the higher senses and the greater strain consequently thrown upon them, in part also to their more intimate connexion with the life of ideas.

The hallucinatory perception may involve two or more senses, e.g., the subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice and to feel the touch of his hand. This is rarely the case in spontaneous hallucination, but in hypnotic hallucination the subject is apt to develop the object suggested to him, as present to one of his senses, and to perceive it also through other senses.

Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among auditory hallucinations human voices, are the objects most commonly perceived. The figure seen always appears localized more or less definitely in the outer world. In many cases it appears related to the objects truly seen in just the same way as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the eyes are closed or turned away, it does not move with the movements of the eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and the eye of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often experienced when the eyes are open and the surrounding space is well or even brightly illuminated. Less frequently the visual hallucination takes the form of a self-luminous figure in a dark place or appears in a luminous globe or mist which shuts out from view the real objects of the part of the field of view in which it appears.

Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into two distinct classes--(1) those which are heard as coming from without, and are more or less definitely localized in outer space, (2) those which seem to be within the head or, in some cases, within the chest, and to have less definite auditory quality. It seems probable that the latter are hallucinations involving principally kinaesthetic sensations, sensations of movement of the organs of speech.

Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and mental conditions, which may conveniently be classified as follows.

I. _Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no distinct Departure from bodily and mental Sanity._

a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly healthy persons occasionally experience, while in a fully waking state, hallucinations for which no cause can be assigned. The census of hallucinations conducted by the Society for Psychical Research showed that about 10% of all sane persons can remember having experienced at least one hallucination while they believed themselves to be fully awake and in normal health. These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons are far more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take the form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure in many cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction, fully developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may be revealed only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away _in situ_. A special interest attaches to hallucinations of this type, owing to the occasional coincidence of the death of the person with his hallucinatory appearance. The question raised by these coincidences will be discussed in a separate paragraph below.

b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem to experience repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination. The voice ([Greek: daimonion]) so frequently heard by Socrates, warning or advising him, is the most celebrated example of this type.

II. _Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying distinct Departure from Health._

a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal person is liable is that known technically as "recurrent sensation." This kind is experienced only when some sense-organ has been continuously or repeatedly subjected to some one kind of impression or stimulation for a considerable period; e.g. the microscopist, after examining for some hours one particular kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive the object faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it were, upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the sensations of movement at intervals in the period following a sea voyage or long railway journey.

b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can induce hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished surface or into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by applying a large shell or similar object to the ear. These methods of inducing hallucinations, especially the former, have long been practised in many countries as modes of divination, various objects being used, e.g. a drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or a polished finger-nail. The object now most commonly used is a polished sphere of clear glass or crystal (see CRYSTAL-GAZING). Hence such hallucinations go by the name of _crystal visions_. The crystal vision often appears as a picture of some distant or unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in the picture figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or sentences appear. The percipient, seer or scryer, commonly seems to be in a fully waking state as he observes the objects thus presented. He is usually able to describe and discuss the appearances, successively discriminating details by attentive observation, just as when observing an objective scene; and he usually has no power of controlling them, and no sense of having produced them by his own activity. In some cases these visions have brought back to the mind of the scryer facts or incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other cases they are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to the scryer information, about events distant in time or place, that had not come to his knowledge by normal means. These cases have been claimed as evidence of telepathic communication or even of clairvoyance. But at present the number of well-attested cases of this sort is too small to justify acceptance of this conclusion by those who have only secondhand knowledge of them.

c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucinations, and it would seem that, under this condition, a large proportion of otherwise healthy persons become liable to them, especially to auditory hallucinations.

d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hemp, and mescal predispose to hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar type. Thus Indian hemp and mescal, especially the latter, produce in many cases visual hallucinations in the form of a brilliant play of colours, sometimes a mere succession of patches of brilliant colour, sometimes in architectural or other definite spatial arrangement.

e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from waking to sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appearance of hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned above are especially prone to appear at such times, and a considerable proportion of the sporadic hallucinations of persons in good health are reported to have been experienced under these conditions. The name "hypnagogic" hallucinations, first applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to those experienced in these transition states.

f. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute the principal content of most dreams, are generally described as hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very questionable. The present writer is confident that his own dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the essential mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory, and which is the principal, though not the only, character in which it differs from the representation or memory-image. It is true that the dream-presentation, like the percept, differs from the representative imagery of waking life in that it is relatively independent of volition; but that seems to be merely because the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. The wide currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with hallucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative imagery appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated or marginal sensation which always accompanies waking imagery, and which by contrast accentuates for introspective reflection the lack of sensory vividness of such imagery.

g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of hypnosis (see HYPNOTISM) show themselves, while in that condition, extremely liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever object is suggested to them as present, and failing to perceive any object of which it is asserted by the operator that it is no longer present. The reality of these positive and negative hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been recently questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems to be proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the hallucination, positive or negative, persist for some time after the termination of hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases the subject, who in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other respect normal and wide awake, may find it difficult to distinguish between the hallucinatory and real objects. Further proof is afforded by experiments such as those by which Alfred Binet showed that a visual hallucination may behave for its percipient in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may appear reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when a coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by means of experiments of this kind that Binet showed that hypnotic hallucinations may approximate to the type of the illusion, i.e. that some real object affecting the sense-organ (in the case of a visual hallucination some detail of the surface upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus of peripherally excited sensation around which the false percept is built up. An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an hallucination is known as a "_point de repere_." It has been maintained that all hallucinations involve some such _point de repere_ or objective nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting this view.

h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration of attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated seems at times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire the character of an hallucination. In these cases the state of mind of the subject is probably similar in many respects to that of the deeply hypnotized subject, and these two classes of hallucination may be regarded as very closely allied.

III. _Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and mental diseases._

a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first time, in the year 1901, that many patients, suffering from more or less painful visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs, abdominal viscera, &c., are liable to experience hallucinations of a peculiar kind. These "visceral" hallucinations, which are constantly accompanied by headache of the reflected visceral type, are most commonly visual, more rarely auditory. In all Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form of a shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete, generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he wakes in a dimly lit room. The auditory "visceral" hallucination was in no instance vocal, but took such forms as sounds of tapping, scratching or rumbling, and were heard only in the absence of objective noises. In a few cases the "visceral" hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and visual.

In all these respects the "visceral" hallucination differs markedly from the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination of healthy persons.

b. Hallucinations are constant symptoms of certain general disorders in which the nervous system is involved, notably of the _delirium tremens_, which results from chronic alcohol poisoning, and of the delirium of the acute specific fevers. The hallucinations of these states are generally of a distressing or even terrifying character. Especially is this the rule with those of _delirium tremens_, and in the hallucinations of this disease certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and snakes, occur with curious frequency.

c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain nervous diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities, notably in cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In the former disorder, the sensory aura that so often precedes the epileptic convulsion may take the form of an hallucinatory object, which in some cases is very constant in character. Unilateral hallucinations, an especially interesting class, occur in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually accompanied by hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the hallucinatory object is perceived.

d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable, proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes are recognized: (1) those that are intimately connected with the dominant emotional state or with some dominant delusion; (2) those that occur sporadically and have no such obvious relation to the other symptoms of disease. Hallucinations of the former class tend to accentuate, and in turn to be confirmed by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; but whether these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the cause of the hallucinations, or _vice versa_, it is generally impossible to say. Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory voices, which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded as real and in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance in the genesis of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in almost every variety of mental disease, but are commonest in the forms characterized by a cloudy dream-like condition of consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort the patient (as in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to move waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his own creation, set upon a background of real objects.

In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for long periods in the absence of any other symptom of mental disorder, but these no doubt usually imply some morbid condition of the brain.

_Physiology of Hallucination._--There has been much discussion as to the nature of the neural process in hallucination. It is generally and rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception of any object has for its immediate neural correlate a state of excitement which, as regards its characters and its distribution in the elements of the brain, is entirely similar to the neural correlate of the normal perception of the same object. The hallucination is a perception, though a false perception. In the perception of an object and in the representation of it, introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative elements. In the case of the representation these elements are memory images only (except perhaps in so far as actual kinaesthetic sensations enter into its composition); whereas, in the case of the percept, some of these elements are sensations, sensations which differ from images in having the attribute of sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these elements lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality, the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which are excited through stimulations of the sense-organs. The normal percept, then, owes its character of sensory reality to the fact that a certain number of its presentative elements are sensations peripherally excited by impressions made upon a sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account for the fact that the hallucination contains presentative elements that have sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from the neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many authors, notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content to assume that the sensation differs from the memory-image only in having a higher degree of intensity; from which they infer that its neural correlate in the brain cortex also differs from that of the image only in having a higher degree of intensity. For them an hallucination is therefore merely a representation whose neural correlate involves an intensity of excitement of certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only by peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs. But this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable objection. Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior intensity; for while the least intense sensation has it, the memory image of the most intense sensation lacks it completely. And, since intensity of sensation is a function of the intensity of the underlying neural excitement, we may not assume that sensory vividness is also the expression in consciousness of that intensity of excitement. If Wundt's view were true a progressive diminution of the intensity of a sensory stimulus should bring the sensation to a point in the scale of diminishing intensity at which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have sensory vividness and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; with diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to a minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness. This objection applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations, but also to H. Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his doctrine of "reductives," for this too identifies sensory vividness with intensity. (H. Taine, _De l'intelligence_, tome i. p. 108.)

Another widely current explanation is based on the view that the representation and the percept have their anatomical bases in different element-groups or "centres" of the brain, the "centre" of the representation being assigned to a higher level of the brain than that of the percept (the latter being sometimes assigned to the basal ganglia of the brain, the former to the cortex). It is then assumed that while the lower perceptual centre is normally excited only through the sense-organ, it may occasionally be excited by impulses playing down upon it from the corresponding centre of representation, when hallucination results.

This view also is far from satisfactory, because the great additions recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend very strongly to show that both sensations and memory-images have their anatomical bases in the same sensory areas of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations converge to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least, identical.

The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and of complete separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept and of the representation are then alike untenable; and the alternative--that their anatomical bases are in part identical, in part different, which is indicated by this conclusion--renders possible a far more satisfactory doctrine. We have good reason to believe that the neural correlate of sensation is the transmission of the nervous impulse through a sensori-motor arc of the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the view suggests itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding memory-image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of this chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W. James's theory of hallucinations is based on the latter assumption. He suggests that the sensory vividness of sensation and of the percept is due to the discharge of the excitement of the chain of elements in the forward or motor direction; and that, in the case of the image and of the representation, the discharge takes place, not in this direction through the efferent channel of the centre, but laterally into other centres of the cortex. Hallucination may then be conceived as caused by obstruction, or abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting such a cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited in any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until discharge takes place in the motor direction through the efferent limbs of the sensori-motor arcs which constitute the centre.