Chapter III: Part 3

HALUNTIUM (Gr. [Greek: Alontion], mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an ancient city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E. of Halaesa. It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation was ascribed to some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears first in Roman times as a place of some importance, and suffered considerably at the hands of Verres. The abandoned church of S. Mark, just outside the modern town, is built into the cella of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 ft. by 18. A number of ancient inscriptions have been found there.

HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was born in 1518, and was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated M.A. in 1538. From 1553 to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews and a prominent figure in the national life. He was chosen as one of the lords of the congregation in 1557, and commanded the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the queen regent in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in the battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after Restalrig, he was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly escaped execution. He represented Morton at the conference of 1578, and was one of the royal commissioners to the General Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died in February 1589.

HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-1712), Scottish divine, was born at Dupplin, near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674. His father, one of the ejected ministers, having died in 1682, he was taken by his mother in 1685 to Rotterdam to escape persecution, where he for some time attended the school founded by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 he completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh, and in 1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In 1700 he was ordained minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 1710 he was recommended by the synod of Fife for the chair of theology in St Leonard's College, St Andrews, to which accordingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a brief term of active professorial life he died from the effects of overwork in 1712.

The works by which he continues to be known were all of them published
after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed to commend them
to their followers. They were published as follows: _Natural Religion
Insufficient, and Revealed Religion Necessary, to Man's Happiness in
his Present State_ (1714), an able statement of the orthodox
Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and
Charles Blount; _Memoirs of the Life of Mr Thomas Halyburton_ (1715),
three parts by his own hand, the fourth from his diary by another
hand; _The Great Concern of Salvation_ (1721), with a word of
commendation by I. Watts; _Ten Sermons Preached Before and After the
Lord's Supper_ (1722); _The Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost_
(1784). See Halyburton's _Memoirs_ (1714).

HAM, in the Bible. (1) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, ix. 18, x. 5, 1 Chron. i. 4, the _second_ son of Noah; in Gen. ix. 24, the _youngest_ son (but cf. below); and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8, the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and Canaan. Genesis x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the political, racial and geographical relations of the peoples known to Israel; as it was compiled from various sources and has been more than once edited, it does not exactly represent the situation at any given date,[1] but Ham seems to stand roughly for the south-western division of the world as known to Israel, which division was regarded as the natural sphere of influence of Egypt. Ham is held to be the Egyptian word _Khem_ (black) which was the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, 27, cvi. 22, Ham = Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally the third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a later addition to harmonize with other passages.

(2) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a place or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error; the Syriac version rejects the name.

(3) [Hebrew: Ham], _Ham_, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place is unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for Ammon. (W. H. Be.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A. Jeremias, _Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients_, p. 145,
holds that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C.

HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 36 m. E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between that city and Laon. Pop. (1906), 2957. It stands on the Somme in a marshy district where market-gardening is carried on. From the 9th century onwards it appears as the seat of a lordship which, after the extinction of its hereditary line, passed in succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, Rohan, Vendome and Navarre, and was finally united to the French crown on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church of an abbey of canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the 12th and 13th centuries, but in 1760 all the inflammable portions of the building were destroyed by a conflagration caused by lightning, and a process of restoration was subsequently carried out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the nave and choir, executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt of the 12th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV. of Ham and his wife Isabella of Bethencourt. The castle, founded before the 10th century, was rebuilt early in the 13th, and extended in the 14th; its present appearance is mainly due to the constable Louis of Luxembourg, count of St Pol, who between 1436 and 1470 not only furnished it with outworks, but gave such a thickness to the towers and curtains, and more especially to the great tower or donjon which still bears his motto _Mon Myeulx_, that the great engineer and architect Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century, capable of resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long by 263 ft. broad, with a round tower at each angle and two square towers protecting the curtains. The eastern and western sides are each defended by a demi-lune. The Constable's Tower, for so the great tower is usually called in memory of St Pol, has a height of about 100 ft., and the thickness of the walls is 36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three large hexagonal chambers in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which now serves as barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both in ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have sojourned there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan of Arc, Louis of Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis Napoleon, and Generals Cavaignac and Lamoriciere. Louis Napoleon was there for six years, and at last effected his escape in the disguise of a workman. During 1870-1871 Ham was several times captured and recaptured by the belligerents. A statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy (1775-1825).

See J. G. Cappot, _Le Chateau de Ham_ (Paris, 1842); and Ch. Gomart,
_Ham, son chateau et ses prisonniers_ (Ham, 1864).

HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is bounded N. by Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah, S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by Savah and Kazvin. It has many well-watered, fertile plains and more than four hundred flourishing villages producing much grain, and its population, estimated at 350,000--more than half being Turks of the Karaguzlu (black-eyed) and Shamlu (Syrian) tribes--supplies several battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly revenue of about L18,000.

Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m. W.S.W. of Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of Mount Elvend (old Persian _Arvand_, Gr. _Orontes_), whose granite peak rises W. of it to an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade centre with about 40,000 inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews and 300 Armenians), has extensive and well-stocked bazaars and fourteen large and many small caravanserais. The principal industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of saddles, harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout the country and exported to other provinces in great quantities. The streets are narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi (street-closing) established long ago for impeding the circulation of crowds and increasing general security, every quarter of the town, or block of buildings, is shut off from its neighbours by gates which are closed during local disorders and regularly at night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American Presbyterian Mission).

Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther and Mordecai in an insignificant domed building in the centre of the town. There are two wooden sarcophagi carved all over with Hebrew inscriptions. That ascribed to Mordecai has the verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. xvi. 9, 10, 11, and the date of its erection A.M. 4318 (A.D. 557). The inscriptions on the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. 29, 32, x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there A.M. 4602 (A.D. 841) by "the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan." A tablet let into the wall states that the building was repaired A.M. 4474 (A.D. 713). Hamadan also has the grave of the celebrated physician and philosopher Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now generally admitted that Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), Agbatana or Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the "treasure city" of the Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander the Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered. A rudely carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to the southern extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to have formed part of a building of the ancient city, is locally regarded as a talisman against famine, plague, cold, &c., placed there by Pliny, who is popularly known as the sorcerer Balinas (a corruption of Plinius).

Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount Elvend is the so-called Ganjnama (treasure-deed), which consists of two tablets with trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into the rock and relating the names and titles of Darius I. (521-485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. (485-465 B.C.). (A. H. S.)

HAMADHANI, in full ABU-L FADL AHMAD IBN UL-HUSAIN UL-HAMADHANI (967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi' uz-Zaman (the wonder of the age), was born and educated at Hamadban. In 990 be went to Jorjan, where he remained two years; then passing to Nishapur, where he rivalled and surpassed the learned Khwarizmi. After journeying through Khorasan and Sijistan, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of the vizir of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the age of forty. He was renowned for a remarkable memory and for fluency of speech, as well as for the purity of his language. He was one of the first to renew the use of rhymed prose both in letters and _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section "Belles Lettres").

His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with
commentary at Beirut (1890); his _maqamas_ at Constantinople (1881),
and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the latter may
be obtained from S. de Sacy's edition of six of the _maqamas_ with
French translation and notes in his _Chrestomathie_ arabe, vol. iii.
(2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into
German in A. von Kremer's _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, ii. 470 sqq.
(Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.)

HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city, situated in the narrow valley of the Orontes, 110 English miles N. (by E.) of Damascus. It finds a place in the northern boundaries of Israel under David, Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. 25). The Orontes flows winding past the city and is spanned by four bridges. On the south-east the houses rise 150 ft. above the river, and there are four other hills, that of the _Kalah_ or castle being to the north 100 ft. high. Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. The houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined, the streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and the trade with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-wheels (_naurah_,) of enormous dimension, raising water from the Orontes are the most remarkable features of the view. Silk, woollen and cotton goods are manufactured. The population is about 40,000.

In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II., king of Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites, Syrians and Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In 738 B.C. Tiglath Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and another rebellion was crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The downfall of so ancient a state made a great impression at Jerusalem (Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. 24, 30, some of its people were transported to the land of N. Israel, where they made images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania by the Greeks in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in the early Byzantine period it was known by both its Hebrew and its Greek name. In A.D. 639 the town surrendered to Abu 'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was turned into a mosque. In A.D. 1108 Tancred captured the city and massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1115 it was retaken by the Moslems, and in 1178 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda, prince of Hamah in the early part of the 14th century, is well known as an authority on Arab geography.

HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1730-1788), German writer on philosophical and theological subjects, was born at Konigsberg in Prussia on the 27th of August 1730. His parents were of humble rank and small means. The education he received was comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want of definiteness in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the peculiar instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life. In 1746 be began theological studies, but speedily deserted them and turned his attention to law. That too was taken up in a desultory fashion and quickly relinquished. Hamann seems at this time to have thought that any strenuous devotion to "bread-and-butter" studies was lowering, and accordingly gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any definite aim or systematic arrangement, and consequently were productive of nothing. In 1752, constrained to secure some position in the world, he accepted a tutorship in a family resident in Livonia, but only retained it a few months. A similar situation in Courland he also resigned after about a year. In both cases apparently the rupture might be traced to the curious and unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving his second post he was received into the house of a merchant at Riga named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great friendship for him and selected him as his companion for a tour through Danzig, Berlin, Hamburg, Amsterdam and London. Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for business, and when left in London, gave himself up entirely to his fancies, and was quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. It was at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit harmonized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that he began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from this time dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic of his writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his friends. He returned to Riga, and was well received by the Behrens family, in whose house he resided for some time. A quarrel, the precise nature of which is not very clear though the occasion is evident, led to an entire separation from these friends. In 1759 Hamann returned to Konigsberg, and lived for several years with his father, filling occasional posts in Konigsberg and Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in the excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest Hamann was able to indulge in the long correspondence with learned friends which seems to have been his greatest pleasure. In 1784 the failure of some commercial speculations greatly reduced his means, and about the same time he was dismissed with a small pension from his situation. The kindness of friends, however, supplied provision for his children, and enabled him to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempelfort and with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was seized with illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788.

Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are entirely
unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and disjointed in
style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar nature of the man,
which led him to regard what commended itself to him as therefore
objectively true, they must be, moreover, entirely unintelligible and,
from their peculiar, pietistic tone and scriptural jargon, probably
offensive. A place in the history of philosophy can be yielded to
Hamann only because he expresses in uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea
to which other writers have given more effective shape. The
fundamental thought is with him the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction
or one-sidedness. The _Aufklarung_, with its rational theology, was to
him the type of abstraction. Even Epicureanism, which might appear
concrete, was by him rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally,
then, Hamann is led to object strongly to much of the Kantian
philosophy. The separation of sense and understanding is for him
unjustifiable, and only paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of
severing matter and form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand
which Hamann expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to
refer to Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus
Curanus) of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains
but a demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the
slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system, incapacity
for abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible
for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta
which gained for him among his friends the name of "Magus of the
North." Two results only appear throughout his writings--first, the
accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many
philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to
Hamann, the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity
Hume's analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a
theological view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow
acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which Kant
had discussed in the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_. On the application
of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need not enter.

None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere pamphlets of
some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection has been published
by F. Roth (_Schriften_, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by C. H. Gildemeister
(_Leben und Schriften_, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See also M. Petri,
_Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe_, (4 vols., 1872-1873); J. Poel, _Hamann,
der Magus im Norden, sein Leben u. Mitteilungen aus seinen Schriften_
(2 vols., 1874-1876); J. Claassen, _Hamanns Leben und Werke_ (1885).
Also H. Weber, _Neue Hamanniana_ (1905). A very comprehensive essay on
Hamann is to be found in Hegel's _Vermischte Schriften_, ii. (Werke,
Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence on German literature, see J. Minor,
_J. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeutung fur die Sturm- und Drang-Periode_
(1881).

HAMAR, or STOREHAMMER (GREAT HAMAR), a town of Norway in Hedemarken _amt_ (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania. Pop. (1900), 6003. It is pleasantly situated between two bays of the great Lake Mjosen, and is the junction of the railways to Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a bishop's see in 1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, which, together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1152 by the Englishman Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.); but both town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567. Remains of the latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches. The town is a centre for the local agricultural and timber trade.

HAMASA (HAMASAH), the name of a famous Arabian anthology compiled by Habib ibn Aus at-Ta'i, surnamed Abu Tammam (see ABU TAMMAM). The collection is so called from the title of its first book, containing poems descriptive of constancy and valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in seeking vengeance, manfulness under reproach and temptation, all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs _hamasah_ (briefly paraphrased by at-Tibrizi as _ash-shiddah fi-l-amr_). It consists of ten books or parts, containing in all 884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively--(1) _al-Hamasa_, 261 pieces; (2) _al-Marathi_, "Dirges," 169 pieces; (3) _al-Adab_, "Manners," 54 pieces; (4) _an-Nasib_, "The Beauty and Love of Women," 139 pieces; (5) _al-Hija_, "Satires," 80 pieces; (6) _al-Adyaf wa-l-Madih_, "Hospitality and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) _as-Sifat_, "Miscellaneous Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) _as-Sair wa-n-Nu'as_, "Journeying and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) _al-Mulah_, "Pleasantries," 38 pieces; and (10) _Madhammat-an-nisa_, "Dispraise of Women," 18 pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both in the number and extent of its poems, and the first two together make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are for the most part fragments selected from longer compositions, though a considerable number are probably entire. They are taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that of Abu Tammam himself (the latest ascertainable date being A.D. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the Ante-Islamic time (_Jahiliyyun_), those of the early days of Al-Islam (_Mukhadrimun_), and those who flourished during the reigns of the Omayyad caliphs, A.D. 660-749 (_Islamiyyun_). Perhaps the oldest in the collection are those relating to the war of Basus, a famous legendary strife which arose out of the murder of Kulaib, chief of the combined clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and lasted for forty years, ending with the peace of Dhu-l-Majaz, about A.D. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid caliphs, under whom Abu Tammam himself lived, there are probably not more than sixteen fragments.

Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or occasional utterances, as distinguished from _qasidas_, or elaborately finished odes. While the latter abound with comparisons and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited with much art and ingenuity, the poems of the _Hamasa_ are short, direct and for the most part free from comparisons; the transitions are easy, the metaphors simple, and the purpose of the poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the fact that this style of composition was chiefly sought by Abu Tammam in compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from the works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single piece from Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the _Hamasa_, nor are there any from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sha; Nabigha is represented only by two pieces (pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's edition) of four and three verses respectively; 'Antara by two pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, 209); Tarafa by one piece of five verses (id. p. 632); Labid by one piece of three verses (id. p. 468); and 'Amr ibn Kulthum by one piece of four verses (id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an anthology of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more ancient poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance at a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every warrior of the desert.

To this description, however, there is an important exception in the book entitled _an-Nasib_, containing verses relating to women and love. In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the established rule that all _qasidas_, or finished odes, whatever their purpose, must begin with the mention of women and their charms (_tashbib_), in order, as the old critics said, that the hearts of the hearers might be softened and inclined to regard kindly the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. The fragments included in this part of the work are therefore generally taken from the opening verses of _qasidas_; where this is not the case, they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when the school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest representative was 'Omar ibn Abi Rabi'a) arose.

The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style of his day, and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem empire earning money and fame by his skill in panegyric. About 220 A.H. he betook himself to Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah ibn Tahir, whom he praised and by whom he was rewarded; on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through Hamadhan, and was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-l-Wafa, son of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of snow. During his residence at Hamadhan, Abu Tammam is said to have compiled or composed, from the materials which he found in Abu-l-Wafa's library, five poetical works, of which one was the _Hamasa_. This collection remained as a precious heirloom in the family of Abu-l-Wafa until their fortunes decayed, when it fell into the hands of a man of Dinawar named Abu-l-'Awadhil, who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the learned of that city.

The worth of the _Hamasa_ as a store-house of ancient legend, of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated. The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that Abu Tammam displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice of extracts from the ancients than in his own compositions. What strikes us chiefly in the class of poetry of which the _Hamasa_ is a specimen, is its exceeding truth and reality, its freedom from artificiality and hearsay, the evident first-hand experience which the singers possessed of all of which they sang. For historical purposes the value of the collection is not small; but most of all there shines forth from it a complete portraiture of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of passion and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam abroad in a flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of Persia, Egypt and Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the heroic time, of its cruelty and wantonness as of its strength and beauty.

No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji Khalifa. Of
these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar-Riyashi), who died
in 257 A.H.; excerpts from it, chiefly in elucidation of the
circumstances in which the poems were composed, are frequently given
by at-Tibrizi (Tabrizi). He was followed by the famous grammarian
Abu-l-Fath ibn al-Jinni (d. 392 A.H.), and later by Shihab ad-Din
Ahmad al-Marzuqi of Isfahan (d. 421 A.H.). Upon al-Marzuqi's
commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu Zakariya Yahya at-Tibrizi
(b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by the late Professor
G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin translation and notes
(1828-1851). This monumental work, the labour of a life, is a treasure
of information regarding the classical age of Arab literature which
has not perhaps its equal for extent, accuracy, and minuteness of
detail in Europe. No other complete edition of the _Hamasa_ has been
printed in the West; but in 1856 one appeared at Calcutta under the
names of Maulavi Ghulam Rabbani and Kabiru-d-din Ahmad. Though no
acknowledgment of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a
simple reprint of Professor Freytag's text (without at-Tibrizi's
commentary), and follows its original even in the misprints (corrected
by Freytag at the end of the second volume, which being in Latin the
Calcutta editors do not seem to have consulted). It contains in an
appendix of 12 pages a collection of verses (and some entire
fragments) not found in at-Tibrizi's recension, but stated to exist in
some copies consulted by the editors; these are, however, very
carelessly edited and printed, and in many places unintelligible.
Freytag's text, with at-Tibrizi's commentary, has been reprinted at
Bulaq (1870). In 1882 an edition of the text, with a marginal
commentary by Munshi 'Abdul-Qadir ibn Shaikh Luqman, was published at
Bombay.

The _Hamasa_ has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit into
German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Ruckert (Stuttgart, 1846),
who has not only given translations of almost all the poems proper to
the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from other sources,
especially those occurring in the _scholia_ of at-Tibrizi, as well as
the Mu'allaqas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the _Lamiyya_ of Ash-Shanfara,
and the Banat Su'ad of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small collection of
translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the original, was
published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885.

When the _Hamasa_ is spoken of, that of Abu Tammam, as the first and
most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of a
similar kind, also called _Hamasa_, exist. The best-known and earliest
of these is the _Hamasa_ of Buhturi (d. 284 A.H.), of which the unique
MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been reproduced by
photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been prepared by
Professor Chlikho at Beyreuth. Four other works of the same name,
formed on the model of Abu Tammam's compilation, are mentioned by
Hajji Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled _Hamasat ar-Rah_ ("the
Hamasa of wine") was composed of Abu-l-'Alaal-Ma'arri (d. 429 A.H.).
(C. J. L.)

HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe, bounded by the Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover. The whole territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and consists of the city of Hamburg with its incorporated suburbs and the surrounding district, including several islands in the Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the communes of Moorburg in the Luneburg district of the Prussian province of Hanover and Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (_amt_) of Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by Lubeck and Hamburg. Administratively the state is divided into the city, or metropolitan district, and four rural domains (or _Landherrenschaften_), each under a senator as _praeses_, viz. the domain of the Geestlande, of the Marschlande, of Bergedorf and of Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven. Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel and Bergedorf are the only towns besides the capital. The Geestlande comprise the suburban districts encircling the city on the north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern and southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market gardens supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country produce. In the Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four Districts (Neuengamme, Kirchwarder, Altengamme and Curslack), celebrated for its fruit gardens and the picturesque dress of the inhabitants. Ritzebuttel with Cuxhaven, also a watering-place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, the Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the city.

_Government._--As a state of the empire, Hamburg is represented in the federal council (_Bundesrat_) by one plenipotentiary, and in the imperial diet (_Reichstag_) by three deputies. Its present constitution came into force on the 1st of January 1861, and was revised in 1879 and again in 1906. According to this Hamburg is a republic, the government (_Staatsgewalt_) residing in two chambers, the Senate and the House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive power, is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder must belong to the class of merchants. The members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses; but a senator is free to retire from office at the expiry of six years. A chief (_ober-_) and second (_zweiter-_) burgomaster, the first of whom bears the title of "Magnificence," chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the meetings of the Senate, and are usually jurists. No burgomaster can be in office for longer than two years consecutively, and no member of the Senate may hold any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists of 160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the direct suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of house-property within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining 40, by ballot also, by the so-called "notables," i.e. active and former members of the law courts and administrative boards. They are elected for a period of six years, but as half of each class retire at the end of three years, new elections for one half the number take place at the end of that time. The House of Burgesses is represented by a _Burgerausschuss_ (committee of the house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The Senate can interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving taxation, and where there is a collision between the two bodies, provision is made for reference to a court of arbitration, consisting of members of both houses in equal numbers, and also to the supreme court of the empire (_Reichsgericht_) sitting at Leipzig. The law administered is that of the civil and penal codes of the German empire, and the court of appeal for all three Hanse towns is the common _Oberlandesgericht_, which has its seat in Hamburg. There is also a special court of arbitration in commercial disputes and another for such as arise under accident insurance.

_Religion._--The church in Hamburg is completely separated from the state and manages its affairs independently. The ecclesiastical arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great modifications since the general constitution of 1860. From the Reformation to the French occupation in the beginning of the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely Lutheran state; according to the "Recess" of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, non-Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from the country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of foreign residents; but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants were allowed to exercise the religious rites of other denominations, and it was not till after the war of freedom that they were allowed to have buildings in the style of churches. In 1860 full religious liberty was guaranteed, and the identification of church and state abolished. By the new constitution of the Lutheran Church, published at first in 1870 for the city only, but in 1876 extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, the parishes or communes are divided into three church-districts, and the general affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of 53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which acts as an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied on the Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon the Roman Catholics also. The German Reformed Church, the French Reformed, the English Episcopal, the English Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the Baptist are all recognized by the state. Civil marriages have been permissible in Hamburg since 1866, and since the introduction of the imperial law in January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly increased.

_Finance._--The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of January 1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension of the Zollverein to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the state of Hamburg, with the exception of the so-called "Free Harbour" (which comprises the port proper and some large warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was taken into the Zollverein.

_Population._--The population increased from 453,000 in 1880 to 622,530 in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The population of the country districts (exclusive of the city of Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The crops raised in the country districts are principally vegetables and fruit, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade statistics see HAMBURG (city).

The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by convention with Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions of the 2nd Hanseatic regiment, under Prussian officers. The soldiers swear the oath of allegiance to the senate.

HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state of Hamburg, on the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe, 75 m. from its mouth at Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin by rail. It is the largest and most important seaport on the continent of Europe and (after London and New York) the third largest in the world. Were it not for political and municipal boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The view of the three from the south, presenting a continuous river frontage of six miles, the river crowded with shipping and the densely packed houses surmounted by church towers--of which three are higher than the dome of St Paul's in London--is one of great magnificence.

The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster, which, dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a lake, of which the southern portion within the line of the former fortifications bears the name of the Inner Alster (_Binnen Alster_), and the other and larger portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards at the widest) that of the Outer Alster (_Aussen Alster_). The fortifications as such were removed in 1815, but they have left their trace in a fine girdle of green round the city, though too many inroads on its completeness have been made by railways and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies to the east of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it was rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the new town (Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and contiguous to Altona is the former suburb of St Pauli, incorporated in 1876, and towards the north-east that of St Georg, which arose in the 13th century but was not incorporated till 1868.

The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number of narrow canals or "fleets" (_Fleeten_)--for the same word which has left its trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low German city--which add considerably to the picturesqueness of the meaner quarters, and serve as convenient channels for the transport of goods. They generally form what may be called the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, cellars and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost dry. As soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide three shots are fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants of the "fleets"; and if the progress of the tide up the river gives indication of danger, another three shots follow. The "fleets" with their quaint medieval warehouses, which come sheer down to the water, and are navigated by barges, have gained for Hamburg the name of "Northern Venice." They are, however, though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury. In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen Alster, which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of buildings, the Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg in the south, and the Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while it is separated from the Aussen Alster by part of the rampart gardens traversed by the railway uniting Hamburg with Altona and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge--the Lombards-Brucke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs Harvestehude and Posseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlenhorst on the eastern, with park-like promenades and villas surrounded by well-kept gardens. Along the southern end of the Binnen Alster runs the Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels and restaurants facing the water. A fleet of shallow-draught screw steamers provides a favourite means of communication between the business centre of the city and the outlying colonies of villas.

The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable promenades, and leading directly from this quarter are the main business thoroughfares, the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen and the Hermannstrasse. The largest of the public squares in Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the church of St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gansemarkt, the Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five churches existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken down in 1805), the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinenkirche, St Jakobikirche and St Michaeliskirche are those that give their names to the five old city parishes. The Nikolaikirche is especially remarkable for its spire, which is 473 ft. high and ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the third highest ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was destroyed in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-1874. The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with sculptures. Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was used for the outside, and for the inner work a softer variety from Postelwitz near Dresden. The Michaeliskirche, which is built on the highest point in the city and has a tower 428 ft. high, was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the site of the older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; the interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its bold construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche, originally consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the 14th, was the oldest church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and rebuilt in its old form in 1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering spire 402 ft. in height (completed 1878); the granite columns from the old cathedral, the stained glass windows by Kellner of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the entombment of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches, but neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches, Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special interest. The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between 1857 and 1859, and to the same architect is due the sepulchral chapel built for the Hamburg merchant prince Johann Heinrich, Freiherr von Schroder (1784-1883), in the churchyard of the Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude was unfortunately destroyed in 1842.

Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great architectural interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus, a huge German Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone in 1886-1897, richly adorned with sculptures and with a spire 330 ft. in height. It is the place of meeting of the municipal council and of the senate and contains the city archives. Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two wings is the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of 1842. It was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the commercial library of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business hours (1-3 P.M.) the exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants and brokers. In the same neighbourhood is the Johanneum, erected in 1834 and in which are preserved the town library of about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. and the collection of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue (1885) of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt, immediately south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain was erected in 1890. Directly west of the town hall is the new Stadthaus, the chief police station of the town, in front of which is a bronze statue of the burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen (1809-1892), erected in 1897. A little farther away are the headquarters of the Patriotic Society (_Patriotische Gesellschaft_), founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the meetings of artistic and learned societies. Several new public buildings have been erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in 1894-1897, and some good streets were built along the site, while the Kersten Miles-Brucke, adorned with statues of four Hamburg heroes, was thrown across the Helgolander Allee. Farther north, along the line of the former town wall, are the criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) and the civil law courts (finished in 1901). Close to the latter stand the new supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices, the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl Laeisz, a former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the chemical and the physical laboratories and the Hygienic Institute. Facing the botanical gardens a new central post-office, in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At the west end of the Lombards-Brucke there is a monument by Schilling, commemorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is a monument to Lessing (1881); while occupying a commanding site on the promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of Bismarck which was unveiled in June 1906. The Kunst-Halle (the picture gallery), containing some good works by modern masters, faces the east end of Lombards-Brucke. The new Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, stands a little distance farther south. To the east of it comes the Museum for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which is connected a trades school. Close by is the Hansa-fountain (65 ft. high), erected in 1878. On the north-east side of the suburb of St Georg a botanical museum and laboratory have been established. There is a new general hospital at Eppendorf, outside the town on the north, built on the pavilion principle, and one of the finest structures of the kind in Europe; and at Ohlsdorf, in the same direction, a crematorium was built in 1891 in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There must also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens, Hagenbeck's private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the schools of music and navigation, and the school of commerce. In 1900 a high school for shipbuilding was founded, and in 1901 an institute for seamen's and tropical diseases, with a laboratory for their physiological study, was opened, and also the first public free library in the city. The river is spanned just above the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, 1339 ft. long, erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some 270 yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles and foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the south side of the island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another railway bridge of four arches and 2050 ft. in length.

_Railways._--The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practically confined to that proceeding northwards--to Kiel and Jutland--and for the accommodation of such trains the central (terminus) station at Altona is the chief gathering point. The Hamburg stations, connected with the other by the Verbindungs-Bahn (or metropolitan railway) crossing the Lombards-Brucke, are those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often called) Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour, into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover and Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the Klostertor-Bahnhof (on the metropolitan line) which temporarily superseded the old Berlin station, and the Lubeck station a little to the north-east, during the erection of the new central station, which occupies a site between the Klostertor-Bahnhof and the Lombards-Brucke. Between this central station and Altona terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie the important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent service of electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg, Altona and the adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide communication on the Elbe with the riparian towns and villages; and so with Blankenese and Harburg, with Stade, Gluckstadt and Cuxhaven.

_Trade and Shipping._--Probably there is no place which during the last thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially than Hamburg. Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of the nature of transit trade, for it is not only the chief distributing centre for the middle of Europe of the products of all other parts of the world, but is also the chief outlet for German, Austrian, and even to some extent Russian (Polish) raw products and manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee (of which it is the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, rice, wine (especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, sago, dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique), tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase), wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates and coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Hamburg, that of British coal, particularly from Northumberland and Durham, occupies the first place, and despite some falling off in late years, owing to the competition made by Westphalian coal, amounts to more than half the total import. The increase of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly shown by that of the shipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and 1880 there were 475 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and 110 steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were (exclusive of fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of 271,661, and 610 steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In 1870 the crews numbered 6900 men, in 1907 they numbered 29,536.

_Industries._--The development of manufacturing industries at Hamburg and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so rapid as that of its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable, and more especially has this been the case since the year 1888, when Hamburg joined the German customs union, and the barriers which prevented goods manufactured at Hamburg from entering into other parts of Germany were removed. Among the chief industries are those for the production of articles of food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea to Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn is converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in this connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills and spice mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chocolate, confectionery and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and ham-curing and smoking establishments, lard refineries, margarine manufactories and fish-curing, preserving and packing factories. There are numerous breweries, producing annually about 24,000,000 gallons of beer, spirit distilleries and factories of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods and weaving industries generally have not attained any great dimensions, but there are large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool and cotton driving-belts. Among other important articles of domestic industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly in bond, within the free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery, electro-technical machinery, chemical products (including artificial manures), oils, soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid articles and the manufacture of leather.

Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there are at present in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards, employing nearly 10,000 hands. Of these, however, only three are of any great extent, and one, where the largest class of ocean-going steamers and of war vessels for the German navy are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also two yards for the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in Germany). Art industries, particularly those which appeal to the luxurious taste of the inhabitants in fitting their houses, such as wall-papers and furniture, and those which are included in the equipment of ocean-going steamers, have of late years made rapid strides and are among the best productions of this character of any German city.