Chapter VII: Part 7

HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of Wentworth county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque situation upon the shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the western end of Lake Ontario. It covers the plain stretching between the water-front and the escarpment (called "The Mountain"), this latter being a continuation of that over which the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded about 1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been steady and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial development, it has come to be called "the Birmingham of Canada." This development is largely due to the use of electrical energy generated by water-power, in regard to which Hamilton stands first among Canadian cities. The electricity has not, however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from De Cew Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway system, the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are operated by power obtained from this source. The manufacturing interests of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establishments are of vast size, employing many thousands of hands each, such as the International Harvester Co. and the Canadian Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is the centre of one of the finest fruit-growing districts on the continent, and its open-air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal matters are managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam railroads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample facilities for transport by land, while during the season of navigation a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto and other lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained through a short canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is crossed by two swing bridges, whereof one--that of the Grand Trunk railway--is among the largest of its kind in the world. Burlington Beach is lined with cottages occupied by the city residents during the hot summer months. Hamilton is rich in public institutions. The educational equipment comprises a normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more than a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the asylum for the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an excellent public library, and in the same building with it a good art school. Hamilton boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn Castle Park, containing several interesting relics of the war of 1812, being the finest, and, as it is practically within the city limits, it is a great boon to the people. Gore Park, in the centre of the city, is used for concerts, given by various bands, one of which has gained an international reputation. Since its incorporation in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown continuous growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; In 1851, 10,248; in 1861, 19,096; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891, 48,959; and in 1901, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara has his seat here, and also a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton returns two members to the Provincial parliament and two to the Dominion.

HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 24,859; (1901), 32,775. It is situated about 1 m. from the junction of the Avon with the Clyde, 10-3/4 m. S.E. of Glasgow by road, and has stations on the Caledonian and North British railways. The town hall in the Scottish Baronial style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the county buildings are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of antiquarian interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built in the reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross, and the carved gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard there is a monument to four covenanters who suffered at Edinburgh, on the 7th of December 1600, whose heads were buried here. Among the industries are manufactures of cotton, lace and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there are also large market gardens, the district being famed especially for its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of the town depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the surrounding country, which is the richest mineral field in Scotland. Hamilton originated in the 15th century under the protecting influence of the lords of Hamilton, and became a burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in 1548. The latter rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the chief burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with Airdrie, Falkirk, Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk district of burghs, which returns one member to parliament.

Immediately east of the town is Hamilton palace, the seat of the duke
of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It occupies most of
the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The first mansion was
erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt about 1710, to be
succeeded in 1822-1829 by the present palace, a magnificent building
in the classical style. Its front is a specimen of the enriched
Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared portico after the
style of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome, 264 ft. in length and
60 ft. in height. Each of the twelve pillars of the portico is a
single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway between Hamilton
and Lanark, and required thirty horses to draw it to its site. The
interior is richly decorated and once contained the finest collection
of paintings in Scotland, but most of them, together with the Hamilton
and Beckford libraries, were sold in 1882. Within the grounds, which
comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the mausoleum erected by the 10th duke,
a structure resembling in general design that of the emperor Hadrian
at Rome, being a circular building springing from a square basement,
and enclosing a decorated octagonal chapel, the door of which is a
copy in bronze of Ghiberti's gates at Florence. At Barncluith, 1 m.
S.E. of the town, may be seen the Dutch gardens which were laid down
in terraces on the steep banks of the Avon. Their quaint shrubbery and
old-fashioned setting render them attractive. They were planned in
1583 by John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong
to Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western High
Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height, the foot
of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow Castle, the
subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The castle had been
a royal residence for at least two centuries before Bannockburn
(1314), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce granted it to
Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder of the family,
in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase with its ancient
oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where are still preserved
some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle. Opposite Cadzow Castle,
in the eastern High Park, on the right bank of the Avon, is
Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and imitating in
outline the palace of that name in France.

HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A., about 29 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890), 1744; (1900), 1627; (1905) 1522; (1910) 1689. It is served by the New York, Ontario & Western railway. Hamilton is situated in a productive agricultural region, and has a large trade in hops; among its manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit goods. There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting system. Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was founded in 1819, under the name of the Hamilton Literary and Theological Institution, as a training school for the Baptist ministry, was chartered as Madison University in 1846, and was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate family, several of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap manufacturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel (1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1908-1909 it had a university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college, 60 in the theological department, and 134 in the preparatory department, and a library of 54,000 volumes, including the Baptist Historical collection (about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel Colgate. The township in which the village is situated and which bears the same name (pop. in 1910, 3825) was settled about 1790 and was separated from the township of Paris in 1795. The village was incorporated in 1812.

HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890), 17,565; (1900), 23,914, of whom 2949 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,279. It is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo. The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility. The city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866); the court house is its most prominent public building. A hydraulic canal provides the city with good water power, and in 1905, in the value of its factory products ($13,992,574, being 31.3% more than in 1900), Hamilton ranked tenth among the cities of the state. Its most distinctive manufactures are paper and wood pulp; more valuable are foundry and machine shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt liquors, flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates the water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A stockade fort was built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint Clair, but it was abandoned in 1796, two years after the place had been laid out as a town and named Fairfield. The town was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about 1796. In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of Rossville on the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was made a city. In 1908, by the annexation of suburbs, the area and the population of Hamilton were considerably increased. Hamilton was the early home of William Dean Howells, whose recollections of it are to be found in his _A Boy's Town_; his father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to sell his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in his teens, and to remove to Dayton.

HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The town stands on a tongue of land near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna, 110 m. N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded, according to tradition, in the 11th century by Hamir Deo, a Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the Mahommedans.

The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native states of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari and Garrauli. Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bundelkhand, which stretches from the banks of the Jumna to the central Vindhyan plateau. The district is in shape an irregular parallelogram, with a general slope northward from the low hills on the southern boundary. The scenery is rendered picturesque by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These magnificent reservoirs were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the Mahommedan conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of ornamental water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas, crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the general plain of the district spreads northward in an arid and treeless level towards the broken banks of the rivers. Of these the principal are the Betwa and its tributary the Dhasan, both of which are unnavigable. There is little waste land, except in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black soil of Bundelkhand, known as _mar_, retains the moisture under a dried and rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple produce is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram. Cotton is also a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from the spread of the _kans_ grass, a noxious weed which overruns the fields and is found to be almost ineradicable wherever it has once obtained a footing. Droughts and famine are unhappily common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to the absence of shade and the bareness of soil, except in the neighbourhood of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the atmosphere.

In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade, due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is chiefly in agricultural produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the principal commercial centre. The Midland branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway passes through the south of the district.

From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre of the Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas adorned the town with many splendid edifices, remains of which still exist, besides constructing the noble artificial lakes already described. At the end of the 12th century Mahoba fell into the hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 the district was conquered by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who assigned at his death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa of the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in 1803 there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes and the Mahratta chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, Hamirpur was the scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the principal towns were plundered by the surrounding chiefs. After a short period of desultory guerrilla warfare the rebels were effectually quelled and the work of reorganization began. The district has since been subject to cycles of varying agricultural prosperity.

HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions involved in a consideration of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages are independent of one another and call for separate treatment.

I. _Hamitic Races._--The term Hamitic as applied to race is not only extremely vague but has been much abused by anthropological writers. Of the few who have attempted a precise definition the most prominent is Sergi,[1] and his classification may be taken as representing one point of view with regard to this difficult question.

Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as a
branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as follows:--

1. _Eastern Branch_--
(a) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs).
(b) Nubians, Beja.
(c) Abyssinians.
(d) Galla, Danakil, Somali.
(e) Masai.
(f) Wahuma or Watusi.

2. _Northern Branch_--
(a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara.
(b) Tibbu.
(c) Fula.
(d) Guanches (extinct).

With regard to this classification the following conclusions may be
regarded as comparatively certain: that the members of groups d, e
and f of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected by
ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The
Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla
blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The question of
the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the Beja are still
a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups to each other is
still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from physical data
believes that a close connexion exists; but the data are so extremely
scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well be doubted. His
"Northern Branch" corresponds with the more satisfactory term "Libyan
Race," represented in fair purity by the Berbers, and, mixed with
Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu. This Libyan race is
distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair; the Eastern Hamites
are equally distinctively a brown people with frizzy hair. If, as
Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves a race, and not a
cross between white and black in varying proportions, they are found
in their greatest purity among the Somali and Galla, and mixed with
Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma) and Watussi. The Masai seem to
be as much Nilotic Negro as Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to
appear farther north than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is
not unlikely that the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an
aboriginal Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the
Ancient Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear
akin to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element.

To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin
colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great
importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people and
therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said above,
are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agriculturists. The
pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of importance, since they
show the utmost reluctance to abandon them. Even the Ba-Hima and
Watussi, for long settled and partly intermixed with the agricultural
Bantu, regard any pursuit but that of cattle-tending as absolutely
beneath their dignity.

It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been
collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological
measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern
Hamites, the testimony derived from broad "descriptive
characteristics" and general culture is against such a connexion. To
regard the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages
spoken by the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might be
as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mongolians
because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present state of
knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term "Hamites"
to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name "Libyans." The
difficult question of the origin of the ancient Egyptians is discussed
elsewhere.

As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense are a
definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity of
evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might be
suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly
connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient for
present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive with
Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the term is
meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy physique,
with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight or even
aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace of
prognathism. (T. A. J.)

II. _Hamitic Languages._--The whole north of Africa was once inhabited by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages which are now generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a term introduced principally by Friedrich Muller. The linguistic coherence of that race has been broken up especially by the intrusion of Arabs, whose language has exercised a powerful influence on all those nations. This splitting up, and the immense distances over which those tribes were spread, have made those languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be traced by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corresponding anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan, red Galla and swarthy Somali. The relationship of these languages to Semitic has long been noticed, but was at first taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name "Syro-Arabian" proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably in Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially by Friedrich Muller (_Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara_, p. 51, more fully, _Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft_, vol. iii. fasc. 2, p. 226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, _Science of Language_, ii. 178; R. N. Cust, _The Modern Languages of Africa_, i. 94, &c. The comparative grammars of Semitic (W. Wright, 1890, and especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate this now to everybody by comparative tables of the grammatical elements.

The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows:[2]--

1. _The Libyan Dialects_ (mostly misnamed "Berber languages," after an
unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, _barabra_, "people of foreign
language"). The representatives of this large group extend from the
Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; imperfect _Grammaire_ by
L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu (dialect of the Auelimmiden,
sketched by Heinrich Barth, _Travels_, vol. v., 1857) to the oases of
Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the western border of Egypt.
Consequently, these "dialects" differ more strongly from each other
than, e.g. the Semitic languages do between themselves. The purest
representative seems to be the language of the Algerian mountaineers
(Kabyles), especially that of the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by
A. Hanoteau, _Essai de grammaire kabyle_ (1858); Ben Sedira, _Cours de
langue kab._ (1887); _Dictionnaire_ by Olivier (1878). The learned
little _Manuel de langue kabyle_, by R. Basset (1887) is an
introduction to the study of the many dialects with full bibliography,
cf. also Basset's _Notes de lexicographie berbere_ (1883 foll.). (The
dictionaries by Brosselard and Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The
best now described is Shilh(a). a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme,
_Handbuch des Schilhischen_, 1899), but it is an inferior dialect.
That of Ghat in Tripoli underlies the _Grammar_ of F. W. Newman (1845)
and the _Grammaire Tamashek_ of Hanoteau (1860); cf. also the
_Dictionnaire_ of Cid Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the
language spoken by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A.
Berthelot, _Antiquites canariennes_, 1879; akin to Shilha; by no means
primitive Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa
(still little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have
justified hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary
attempts in Arabic letters the religious _Poeme de Cabi_ (ed. Basset,
_Journ. asiatique_, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect
native writing (named _tifinaghen_), a derivation from the Sabaean
alphabet (not, as Halevy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among
the Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual
inscription of Tucca, &c.; cf. J. Halevy, _Essai d'epigraphie
libyque_, 1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses.

2. _The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family._--The nearest relative of Libyan
is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic Bisharin or
Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, _Die Bischari Sprache_,
1881 [the northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, _Die Bedauye Sprache_,
1893, _Worterbuch_, 1895). The speech of the peoples occupying the
lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in _Zeitschrift
d. deutschen morgenland. Gesellschaft_, 32, 1878; _Texte_, 1889;
_Worterbuch_, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob Saho,
1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, _Die Afar Sprache_, 1887; G.
Colizza, _Lingua Afar_, 1887), merely dialects of one language, form
the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e. Somali
(Reinisch, _Somali Sprache_, 1900-1903, 3 vols.; Larajasse und de
Sampont, _Practical Grammar of the Somali Language_, 1897; imperfect
sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla (L.
Tutscheck, _Grammar_, 1845, _Lexicon_, 1844; Massaja, _Lectiones_,
1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, _Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache_, 1893,
&c.). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the
equator, are separated by Reinisch as _Lower Cushitic_ from the _High
Cushitic_ group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling in
the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original
inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively Agau (or Agau) by the
Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes),
Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most
archaic dialect (_Die Bilin Sprache_, Texts, 1883; _Grammatik_, 1882;
_Worterbuch_, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir
(1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling
against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigre, Amharic, &c.), see Conti
Rossini, "Appunti sulla lingua Khamta," in _Giorn. soc. orient._
(1905); Waldmeyer, _Wortersammlung_ (1868); J. Halevy, "Essai sur la
langue Agaou" (_Actes soc. philologique_, 1873), &c. Similar dialects
are those of the Sid(d)ama tribes, south of Abyssinia, of which only
Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, _Die Kafa Sprache_, 1888) is known at all fully. Of
the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c.), vocabularies only
are known; cf. Borelli, _Ethiopie meridionale_ (1890). (On Hausa see
below.)

There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages have
preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds us so
strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan and Beja
are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially may be called
the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues exhibit increasing
agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south, although single
archaisms are found even in Somali. The early isolated High Cushitic
tongues (originally branched off from a stock common with Galla and
Somali) diverge most strongly from the original type. Already the Agau
dialects are full of very peculiar developments; the Hamitic character
of the Sid(d)ama languages can be traced only by lengthy comparisons.

The simple and pretty Haus(s)a language, the commercial language of
the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, _Grammar_, 1862,
_Dictionary_, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and
Brookes's _Dictionary_) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar,
though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro
languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced some
Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic family; its
exact place in this family remains to be determined. Various languages
of the Niger region _were_ once Hamitic like Haus(s)a, or at least
under some Hamitic influence, but have now lost that character too far
to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk or Musgu language (F.
Muller, 1886). The often-raised question of some (very remote)
relationship between Hamitic and the great Bantu family is still
undecided; more doubtful is that with the interesting Ful (a) language
in the western Sudan, but a relationship with the Nilotic branch of
negro languages is impossible (though a few of these, e.g. Nuba, have
borrowed some words from neighbouring Hamitic peoples). The
development of a grammatical gender, this principal characteristic of
Semito-Hamitic, in Bari and Masai, may be rather accidental than
borrowed; certainly, the same phenomenon in Hottentot does not justify
the attempt often made to classify this with Hamitic.

3. _Ancient Egyptian_, as we have seen, does not form the connecting
link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical position would
lead us to expect. It represents a third independent branch, or rather
a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one division of Hamitic. A
few resemblances with Libyan (M. de Rochemonteix in _Memoires du
congres internat. des orientalistes_, Paris, 1873; elementary) are
less due to original relationship than to the general better
preservation of the northern idioms (see above). Frequent attempts to
detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attribute it to a Semitic
immigration later than that of the other Hamites cannot be proved.
Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote from Semitic than the
Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglutinative than the better
types of its sister branch, having lost the most characteristic verbal
flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect), forming the nominal plural in
its own peculiar fashion, &c. The advantage of Egyptian, that it is
represented in texts of 3000 B.C., while the sister tongues exist only
in forms 5000 years later, allows us, e.g. to trace the Semitic
principle of triliteral roots more clearly in Egyptian; but still the
latter tongue is hardly more characteristically archaic or nearer
Semitic than Beja or Kabylic.

All this is said principally of the grammar. Of the vocabulary it must
not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained untouched
by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites and Semites,
say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations and influences
have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is questionable if
any modern Hamitic language has now more than 10% of original Hamitic
words. Which Semitic resemblances are due to original affinity, which
come from pre-Christian immigrations, which from later influences, are
difficult questions not yet faced by science; e.g. the half-Arabic
numerals of Libyan have often been quoted as a proof of primitive
Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they are probably only a gift of some Arab
invasion, prehistoric for us. Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly
swept over the whole area of the Hamites, long before the time of
Mahomet, and to have left deep impressions on races and languages, but
none of these migrations stands in the full light of history (not even
that of the Gee'z tribes of Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant
influences from its Canaanitish neighbours; it is crammed with such
loan-words already in 3000 B.C.; new affluxes can be traced,
especially c. 1600. (The Punic influences on Libyan are, however, very
slight, inferior to the Latin.) Hence the relations of Semitic and
Hamitic still require many investigations in detail, for which the
works of Reinisch and Basset have merely built up a basis.
(W. M. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] G. Sergi, _The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of
European Peoples_ (London, 1901); _idem. Africa, Antropologia della
stirpe camitica_ (Turin, 1897).

[2] Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here; many
vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be
enumerated.

HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure in Scandinavian romance.

The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Grammaticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of his _Historia Danica_, written at the beginning of the 13th century. It is supposed that the story of Hamlet, Amleth or Amlothi,[1] was contained in the lost Skjoldunga saga, but we have no means of determining whether Saxo derived his information in this case from oral or written sources. The close parallels between the tale of Hamlet and the English romances of Havelok, Horn and Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is of British rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact occur in the Irish _Annals of the Four Masters_ (ed. O'Donovan, 1851) in a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments the death of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of Amhlaithe in 919 at the battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall Glundubh is by other authorities stated to have been Sihtric. Now Sihtric was the father of that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was the prototype of the English Havelok, but nowhere else does he receive the nickname of Amhlaithe. If Amhlaithe may really be identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, the relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits of father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But, whoever the historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain that much was added that was extraneous to Scandinavian tradition. Later in the 10th century there is evidence of the existence of an Icelandic saga of Amlothi or Amleth in a passage from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the prose _Edda_.[2] According to Saxo,[3] Hamlet's history is briefly as follows. In the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng. Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's daughter, who bore him a son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy, murdered Horvendill, and persuaded Gerutha to become his wife, on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom she had been hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, pretended to be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various tests which are related in detail. Among other things they sought to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his cunning saved him. When, however, Amleth slew the eavesdropper hidden, like Polonius, in his mother's room, and destroyed all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man's madness was feigned. Accordingly he despatched him to England in company with two attendants, who bore a letter enjoining the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth surmised the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the message on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage. After marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year to Denmark. Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in time for a funeral feast, held to celebrate his supposed death. During the feast he plied the courtiers with wine, and executed his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the palace. Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his wife he found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged each to avenge the other's death. The English king, unwilling personally to carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had put all former wooers to death, but fell in love with Amleth. On his return to England his first wife, whose love proved stronger than her resentment, told him of her father's intended revenge. In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by setting up the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus terrifying the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland, where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's successor. He was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuthruda, although she had engaged to die with him, married the victor.

The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the _Hrolfssaga Kraka_,[4] where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the hero; the tale of Harald and Halfdan, as related in the 7th book of Saxo Grammaticus; the modern Icelandic _Ambales Saga_,[5] a romantic tale the earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th century; and the folk-tale of Brjam[6] which was put in writing in 1707. Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Halfdan, avenge their father's death on their uncle by burning him in his palace. Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by being brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently by feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there are traces of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs' names. The methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo, seem to point to cynanthropy. In the _Ambales Saga_, which perhaps is collateral to, rather than derived from, Saxo's version, there are, besides romantic additions, some traits which point to an earlier version of the tale.

Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin historians, and it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity between the northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus, and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (with which he was probably acquainted through a Latin epitome), he deliberately added circumstances from the classical story. The incident of the gold-filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of Brutus (Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both tales the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew who has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness. But the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have no parallels in the Latin story.

Dr. O. L. Jiriczek[7] first pointed out the striking similarities existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other northern versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the _Shahnameh_ (Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison was carried farther by R. Zenker (_Boeve Amlethus_, pp. 207-268, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904), who even concluded that the northern saga rested on an earlier version of Firdausi's story, in which indeed nearly all the individual elements of the various northern versions are to be found. Further resemblances exist in the _Ambales Saga_ with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known, and there is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a local hero.

The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode so distinct that it was at one time referred to a separate hero. The traitorous letter, the purport of which is changed by Hermuthruda, occurs in the popular _Dit de l'empereur Constant_,[8] and in Arabian and Indian tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her wooers is common in northern and German mythology, and close parallels are afforded by Thrytho, the terrible bride of Offa I., who figures in _Beowulf_, and by Brunhilda in the _Nibelungenlied_.

The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in Francois de Belleforest's _Histoires tragiques_ (1559), and found its supreme expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early as 1587 or 1589 Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is shown by Nash's preface to Greene's _Menaphon_: "He will afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, handfulls of tragical speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, little but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is diametrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year beforehand, and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward similarity to the words of Hamlet, who resembles him, however, in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies' plans. For a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its immediate sources see SHAKESPEARE.

See an appendix to Elton's trans. of Saxo Grammaticus; I. Gollancz,
_Hamlet in Iceland_ (London, 1898); H. L. Ward, _Catalogue of
Romances_, under "Havelok," vol. i. pp. 423 seq.; _English Historical
Review_, x. (1895); F. Detter, "Die Hamletsage," _Zeitschr. f. deut.
Alter._ vol. 36 (Berlin, 1892); O. L. Jiriczek, "Die Amlethsage auf
Island," in _Germanistische Abhandlungen_, vol. xii. (Breslau), and
"Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschr. des Vereins fur Volkskunde_, x.
(Berlin, 1900); A. Olrik, _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_
(Copenhagen, 2 vols., 1892-1894).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an
imbecile or weak-minded person (see Cleasby and Vigfusson,
_Icelandic-English Dictionary_, 1869).

[2] "'Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the
Island Mill stir amain the host--cruel skerry-quern--they who in ages
past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the hull's lair
with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be compared with some
examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by Saxo: "Again, as he
passed along the beach, his companions found the rudder of a ship
which had been wrecked, and said they had discovered a huge knife.
'This,' said he, 'was the right thing to carve such a huge ham....'
Also, as they passed the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal,
meaning the sand, he replied that it had been ground small by the
hoary tempests of the ocean."

[3] Books iii. and iv., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans. by O. Elton
(London, 1894).

[4] Printed in Fornaldar Sogur Northtrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen,
1829), analysed by F. Detter in _Zeitschr. fur deutsches Altertum_
(vol. 36, Berlin, 1892).

[5] Printed with English translation and with other texts germane to
the subject by I. Gollancz (_Hamlet in Iceland_, London, 1898).

[6] Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjam is a
variation of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and
the Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian
Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where
the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of bluffing the enemy
by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers was used.

[7] "Hamlet in Iran," in _Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volkskunde_, x.
(Berlin, 1900).

[8] See A. B. Gough, _The Constance Saga_ (Berlin, 1902).

HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British general and military writer, youngest son of Vice-Admiral William Hamley, was born on the 27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall, and entered the Royal Artillery in 1843. He was promoted captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, where he commenced his literary career by contributing articles to magazines. He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp to Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part in all the operations with distinction, and becoming successively major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the C.B. and French and Turkish orders. During the war he contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_ an admirable account of the progress of the campaign, which was afterwards republished. The combination in Hamley of literary and military ability secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military history at the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he went to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers of Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey and Greece, and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted colonel in 1863, he became a lieutenant-general in 1882, when he commanded the 2nd division of the expedition to Egypt under Lord Wolseley, and led his troops in the battle of Tell-el-Kebir, for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of parliament, and 2nd class of Osmanieh. Hamley considered that his services in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to belittle his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of August 1893 he represented Birkenhead in parliament in the Conservative interest.

Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work, _The
Operations of War_, published in 1867, became a text-book of military
instruction. He published some pamphlets on national defence, was a
frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of several novels,
of which perhaps the best known is _Lady Lee's Widowhood_.

HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891), vice-president of the United States (1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the 27th of August 1809. After studying in Hebron Academy, he conducted his father's farm for a time, became schoolmaster, and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He then studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker. Entering politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member of the state House of Representatives in 1836-1840, serving as its presiding officer during the last four years. He was a representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and was a member of the United States Senate from 1848 to 1856. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the Compromise Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the Cincinnati Convention two years later, he withdrew from the Democrats and joined the newly organized Republican party. The Republicans of Maine nominated him for governor in the same year, and having carried the election by a large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January 1857. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January 1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-President of the United States. While in this office he was one of the chief advisers of President Lincoln, and urged both the Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the negroes. After the war he again served in the Senate (1869-1881), was minister to Spain (1881-1883), and then retired from public life. He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891.

See _Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1899), by
C. E. Hamlin, his grandson.

HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund on the main line Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 38,430. It is surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of the former engirdling fortifications. The principal buildings are four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, several schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and rapidly increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works), machine works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather, starch, chemicals, varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are some thermal baths.

Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th century, was originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and was fortified in 1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic League. In 1614 it was besieged by the Dutch, and it was several times taken and retaken during the Thirty Years' War. In 1666 it came into the possession of Brandenburg. In 1761 and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in 1763 its fortifications were dismantled.

HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [Abu-l-Qasim Hammad ibn Abi Laila Sapur (or ibn Maisara)] (8th century A.D.), Arabic scholar, was of Dailamite descent, but was born in Kufa. The date of his birth is given by some as 694, by others as 714. He was reputed to be the most learned man of his time in regard to the "days of the Arabs" (i.e. their chief battles), their stories, poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted that he could recite a hundred long _qasidas_ for each letter of the alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from pre-Islamic times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses. Hence his name _Hammad ar-Rawiya_, "the reciter of verses from memory." The Omayyad caliph Walid is said to have tested him, the result being that he recited 2900 qasidas of pre-Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 dirhems. He was favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who brought him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say that in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the genius of the Arabic language, and that he made more than thirty--some say three hundred--mistakes of pronunciation in reciting the Koran. To him is ascribed the collecting of the _Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). No diwan of his is extant, though he composed verse of his own and probably a good deal of what he ascribed to earlier poets.

Biography in McG. de Slane's trans. of Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. pp.
470-474, and many stories are told of him in the _Kitab ul-Aghani_,
vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.)

HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862), German poet, was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 1831 he went to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1834 a small comedy, _Das seltsame Fruhstuck_, introduced him to the literary society of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1859 edited the feuilleton of _Sachsische konstitutionelle Zeitung_, and took the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in Dresden. His marriage in 1851 had made him independent, and he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died, on the 23rd of August 1862.

Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama _Die Bruder_ (1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel _Einkehr und Umkehr_ (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His _Schau' um dich, und schau' in dich_ (1851), which made his name, has passed through more than thirty editions. It was followed by _Zu allen guten Stunden_ (1854), _Fester Grund_ (1857), _Auf stillen Wegen_ (1859), and _Lerne, liebe, lebe_ (1862). Besides these he wrote a book of Turkish songs, _Unter dem Halbmond_ (Leipzig, 1860), and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the popular religious anthology _Leben und Heimat in Gott_, of which a 14th edition was published in 1900.

See C. G. E. Am Ende, _Julius Hammer_ (Nuremberg, 1872).

HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes, e.g. with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking, beating, driving nails, rivets, &c., and the word is applied to heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar purposes. (See TOOL.) "Hammer" is a word common to Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German and Danish, and in Dutch as _hamer_, in Swedish as _hammare_. The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with the root seen in the Greek [Greek: kamptein], to bend; the word would mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic _kamy_, a stone, cf. Russian _kamen_, and ultimately with Sanskrit _acman_, a pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's hammer, the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or function. Thus the "striker" in a clock, or in a bell, when it is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of the "tongue," is called a "hammer"; similarly, in the "action" of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt-covered head attached to a key, the striking of which throws the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a fire-arm, the "hammer" is that part which by its impact on the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See GUN.) The hammer, more usually known by its French name of _martel de fer_, was a medieval hand-weapon. With a long shaft it was used by infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was also used by horse-soldiers. The _martel_ had one part of the head with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both sides were pointed. There are 16th century examples in which a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of "hammer," in Latin _malleus_, has been frequently applied to men, and also to books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of _Scotorum Malleus_, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of "Hammer of Heretics," _Malleus Haereticorum_, has been given to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against Luther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled _Malleus Monachorum_. The famous text-book of procedure in cases of witchcraft, published by Sprenger and Kramer in 1489, was called _Hexenhammer_ or _Malleus Maleficarum_ (see WITCHCRAFT).

The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the coachman for repairs, &c. The _New English Dictionary_ points out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box-seat is not known before the 17th century. Other suggestions are that it is a corruption of "hamper-cloth," or of "hammock-cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake. Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat connects the word with a Dutch word _hemel_, meaning a canopy. In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part should be "ammer." This appears in the German name, _Emmerling_, and the word probably means the "chirper," cf. the Ger. _jammern_, to wail, lament.