Chapter XVI: Part 16

HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born in Dorsetshire on the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of the branches of the Dorset Hardys, formerly of influence in and near the valley of the Frome, claiming descent from John Le Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, lieutenant-governor of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of England. His maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes. He was educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards privately, and in 1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an ecclesiastical architect of Dorchester. In 1859 he began writing verse and essays, but in 1861 was compelled to apply himself more strictly to architecture, sketching and measuring many old Dorset churches with a view to their restoration. In 1862 he went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine) and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A. In 1863 he won the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects for an essay on _Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta Architecture_, and in the same year won the prize of the Architectural Association for design. In March 1865 his first short story was published in _Chambers's Journal_, and during the next two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being somewhat uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during that and the following year wrote a "purpose" story, which in 1869 was accepted by Messrs Chapman and Hall. The manuscript had been read by Mr George Meredith, who asked the writer to call on him, and advised him not to print it, but to try another, with more plot. The manuscript was withdrawn and re-written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took Mr Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that was all plot, which was published in 1871 under the title _Desperate Remedies_. In 1872 appeared _Under the Greenwood Tree_, a "rural painting of the Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already "found himself," and which he has never surpassed in happy and delicate perfection of art. _A Pair of Blue Eyes_, in which tragedy and irony come into his work together, was published in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter of the late T. Attersoll Gifford of Plymouth. His first popular success was made by _Far from the Madding Crowd_ (1874), which, on its appearance anonymously in the _Cornhill Magazine_, was attributed by many to George Eliot. Then came _The Hand of Ethelberta_ (1876), described, not inaptly, as "a comedy in chapters"; _The Return of the Native_ (1878), the most sombre and, in some ways, the most powerful and characteristic of Mr Hardy's novels; _The Trumpet-Major_ (1880); _A Laodicean_ (1881); _Two on a Tower_ (1882), a long excursion in constructive irony; _The Mayor of Casterbridge_ (1886); _The Woodlanders_ (1887); _Wessex Tales_ (1888); _A Group of Noble Dames_ (1891); _Tess of the D'Urbervilles_ (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous novel; _Life's Little Ironies_ (1894); _Jude the Obscure_ (1895), his most thoughtful and least popular book; _The Well-Beloved_, a reprint, with some revision, of a story originally published in the _Illustrated London News_ in 1892 (1897); _Wessex Poems_, written during the previous thirty years, with illustrations by the author (1898); and _The Dynasts_ (2 parts, 1904-1906). In 1909 appeared _Time's Laughing-stocks and other Verses_. In all his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen under two aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of life itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling through inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying and disturbing influence in life, women. His view of women is more French than English; it is subtle, a little cruel, not as tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a man's point of view, and not, as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at once. He sees all that is irresponsible for good and evil in a woman's character, all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is alluring in her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a reserve of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women of a certain class, women whom a man would have been more likely to love or to regret loving. In his earlier books he is somewhat careful over the reputation of his heroines; gradually he allows them more liberty, with a franker treatment of instinct and its consequences. _Jude the Obscure_ is perhaps the most unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the more complicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his work, neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting of limitations, under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling for nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more intimate communion. The heath, the village with its peasants, the change of every hour among the fields and on the roads of that English countryside which he has made his own--the Dorsetshire and Wiltshire "Wessex"--mean more to him, in a sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their blind and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge of woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his knowledge of nature brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling element in the world. All the entertainment which he gets out of life comes to him from his contemplation of the peasant, as himself a rooted part of the earth, translating the dumbness of the fields into humour. His peasants have been compared with Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of their placid vegetation by the side of hurrying animal life, to which they act the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close, narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit was conferred upon Mr Hardy in July 1910.

See Annie Macdonell, _Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894); Lionel P. Johnson,
_The Art of Thomas Hardy_ (London, 1894). (A. Sy.)

HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English antiquary, was the third son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price Hardy, and belonged to a family several members of which had distinguished themselves in the British navy. Born at Port Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed over to England and in 1819 entered the Record Office in the Tower of London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1768-1842) he gained a sound knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit selections of the public records. From 1861 until his death on the 15th of June 1878 he was deputy-keeper of the Record Office, which just before his appointment had been transferred to its new London headquarters in Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was knighted in 1873, had much to do with the appointment of the Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869.

Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum clausarum,
1204-1227_ (2 vols., 1833-1844), with an introduction entitled "A
Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of
Law and Equity"; and the Patent Rolls, _Rotuli litterarum patentium,
1201-1216_ (1835), with introduction, "A Description of the Patent
Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited
the _Rotuli de oblatis et finibus_ (1835), which deal also with the
time of King John; the _Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205_, and _1417-1418_
(1835), containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning
the duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, _Rotuli chartarum,
1199-1216_ (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure
of charters; the Liberate Rolls, _Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et
praestitis regnante Johanne_ (1844); and the _Modus tenendi
parliamentum_, with a translation (1846). He wrote _A Catalogue of
Lords Chancellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and
Officers of the Court of Chancery_ (1843); the preface to Henry
Petrie's _Monumenta historica Britannica_ (1848); and _Descriptive
Catalogue of Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and
Ireland_ (3 vols., 1862-1871). He edited William of Malmesbury's _De
gestis regum anglorum_ (2 vols., 1840); he continued and corrected
John le Neve's _Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae_ (3 vols., Oxford, 1854);
and with C. T. Martin he edited and translated _L'Estorie des Engles_
of Geoffrey Gaimar (1888-1889). He wrote _Syllabus in English of
Documents in Rymer's Foedera_ (3 vols., 1869-1885), and gave an
account of the history of the public records from 1837 to 1851 in his
_Memoirs of the Life of Henry, Lord Langdale_ (1852), Lord Langdale
(1783-1851), master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851, being largely
responsible for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part
in the controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing
_The Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter_ (1872);
and _Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter_ (1874).

His younger brother, SIR WILLIAM HARDY (1807-1887), was also an antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1823, leaving it in 1830 to become keeper of the records of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1868, when these records were presented by Queen Victoria to the nation, he returned to the Record Office as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he succeeded his brother Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He died on the 17th of March 1887.

Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's _Recueil des croniques et
anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne_ (5 vols., 1864-1891); and
he translated and edited the _Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster_
(1845).

HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1769-1839), British vice-admiral, of the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of Hardy, was born on the 5th of April 1769, and in 1781 began his career as a sailor. He became lieutenant in 1793, and in 1796, being then attached to the "Minerve" frigate, attracted the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He continued to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be captain of the "Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the "St George" he did valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801, and his association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment in 1803 to the "Victory" as flag-captain, in which capacity he was engaged at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's will, and was in close attendance on him at his death. Hardy was created a baronet in 1806. He was then employed on the North American station, and later (1819), was made commodore and commander-in-chief on the South American station, where his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he became rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the expeditionary force to Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea lord of the admiralty, being created G.C.B. in 1831. In 1834 he was appointed governor of Greenwich hospital, where thenceforward he devoted himself with conspicuous success to the charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became vice-admiral. He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In 1807 he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George Cranfield Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North American station, and by her he had three daughters, the baronetcy becoming extinct.

See Marshall, _Royal Naval Biography_, ii. and iii.; Nicolas,
_Despatches of Lord Nelson_; Broadley and Bartelot, _The Three Dorset
Captains at Trafalgar_ (1906), and _Nelson's Hardy, his Life, Letters
and Friends_ (1909).

HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (1378-1465), English chronicler, was born in the north, and as a boy entered the service of Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), with whom he was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). He then passed into the service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he was constable of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of Agincourt in 1415 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424 he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance of Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus Pompeius. Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng constable of Kyme in Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till his death about 1465. Hardyng was a man of antiquarian knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to investigate the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For this purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship. For his services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor of Geddington in Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439, he had a grant of L10 a year for similar services. In 1457 there is a record of the delivery of documents relating to Scotland by Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and his reward by a further pension of L20. It is clear that Hardyng was well acquainted with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him a bribe to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries, and were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng spent many years on the composition of a rhyming chronicle of England. His services under the Percies and Umfravilles gave him opportunity to obtain much information of value for 15th century history. As literature the chronicle has no merit. It was written and rewritten to suit his various patrons. The original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and was dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for Richard, duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final form was presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464.

The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best of
the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum.
Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ
much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts. Stow, who
was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on this
point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer version
of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812.

See Ellis' preface to Hardyng's _Chronicle_, and Sir F. Palgrave's
_Documents illustrating the History of Scotland_ (for an account of
Hardyng's forgeries). (C. L. K.)

HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903), English writer and traveller, was born at Rome in 1834. He was educated at Harrow school and at University College, Oxford. His name is familiar as the author of a large number of guide-books to the principal countries and towns of Europe, most of which were written to order for John Murray. They were made up partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that disarmed criticism. He also wrote _Memorials of a Quiet Life_--that of his aunt by whom he had been adopted when a baby (1872), and a tediously long autobiography in six volumes, _The Story of My Life_. He died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 22nd of January 1903.

HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager, was born in Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated at Giggleswick school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance on the stage at Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865, and acting for ten years with the Bancrofts. He soon made his mark, particularly in T. W. Robertson's comedies, and in 1875 became manager of the Court theatre. But it was in association with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's theatre from 1879 to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, in important "character" and "men of the world" parts, the joint management of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became lessee and manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he was often out of the cast) he produced several important plays, such as Pinero's _The Profligate_ and _The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith_, and had a remarkable personal success in the chief part in Sydney Grundy's _A Pair of Spectacles_. In 1897 he took the Globe theatre, where his acting in Pinero's _Gay Lord Quex_ was another personal triumph. He became almost as well known in the United States as in England, his last tour in America being in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907.

HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological writer, was born at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the 13th of September 1795. He came to England with his parents in 1799, but in 1804-1805 spent a winter with them at Weimar, where he met Goethe and Schiller, and received a bias to German literature which influenced his style and sentiments throughout his whole career. On the death of his mother in 1806, Julius was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he remained till 1812, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There he became fellow in 1818, and after some time spent abroad he began to read law in London in the following year. From 1822 to 1832 he was assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his attention from law to divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826; and, on the death of his uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich family living of Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, where he accumulated a library of some 12,000 volumes, especially rich in German literature. Before taking up residence in his parish he once more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of the Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his work, _Hippolytus and his Age_. In 1840 Hare was appointed archdeacon of Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of sermons at Cambridge (_The Victory of Faith_), followed in 1846 by a second, _The Mission of the Comforter_. Neither series when published attained any great popularity. Archdeacon Hare married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his friend Frederick Maurice. In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in Chichester; and in 1853 he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He died on the 23rd of January 1855.

Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the "Broad Church party,"
though some of his opinions approach very closely to those of the
Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague and
undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to recognize and
come under the influence of German thought and speculation, and,
amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy, did much to vindicate
the authority of the sounder German critics. His writings, which are
chiefly theological and controversial, are largely formed of charges
to his clergy, and sermons on different topics; but, though valuable
and full of thought, they lose some of their force by the cumbrous
German structure of the sentences, and by certain orthographical
peculiarities in which the author indulged. In 1827 _Guesses at Truth
by Two Brothers_[1] appeared. Hare assisted Thirlwall, afterwards
bishop of St David's, in the translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of
Niebuhr's _History of Rome_ (1828 and 1832), and published a
_Vindication of Niebuhr's History_ in 1829. He wrote many similar
works, among which is a _Vindication of Luther against his recent
English Assailants_ (1854). In 1848 he edited the _Remains of John
Sterling_, who had formerly been his curate. Carlyle's _Life of John
Sterling_ was written through dissatisfaction with the "Life" prefixed
to Archdeacon Hare's book. _Memorials of a Quiet Life_, published in
1872, contain accounts of the Hare family.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus
William Hare (1792-1834), who, after a distinguished career at
Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire. He died
prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of _Sermons to a
Country Congregation_, published in 1837.

HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now designated _Lepus europaeus_ (although formerly termed, incorrectly, _L. timidus_). In a wider sense the name includes all the numerous allied species which do not come under the designation of rabbits (see RABBIT). Over the greater part of Europe, where the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its place is taken by the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), the true _L. timidus_ of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus _Lepus_ and the family _Leporidae_ (see RODENTIA). The second is a smaller animal than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head, and the ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the southern districts of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous grey colour, with black tips to the ears, but in more northerly districts the fur--except the black ear-tips--changes to white in winter, and still farther north the animal appears to be white at all seasons of the year. The range of the common or brown hare, inclusive of its local races, extends from England across southern and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the blue or mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern Europe and Asia to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to Alaska.

The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during the day on its "form," as the slight depression is called which it makes in the open field, usually among grass. This it leaves at nightfall to seek fields of young wheat and other cereals whose tender herbage forms its favourite food. It is also fond of gnawing the bark of young trees, and thus often does great damage to plantations. In the morning it returns to its form, where it finds protection in the close approach which the colour of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus fail, however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its extraordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close to the ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great speed, and the cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine pursuers, form the chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes readily to the water, where it swims well; an instance having been recorded in which one was observed crossing an arm of the sea about a mile in width. Hares are remarkably prolific, pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female bringing forth several broods in the year, each consisting of from two to five leverets (from the Fr. _lievre_), as the young are called. These are born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe this species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance has recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare. Hares (and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the exception of Madagascar and Australasia; and are now divided into numerous genera and subgenera, mentioned in the article RODENTIA. Reference may here be made to a few species. Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the Common Indian _L. ruficaudatus_ and the black-necked hare _L. nigricollis_, are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking its name from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small spiny hare (_Caprolagus hispidus_), with the habits of a rabbit; and an allied species (_Nesolagus nitscheri_) inhabits Sumatra, and a third (_Pentalagus furnessi_) the Liu-kiu Islands. The plateau of Tibet is very rich in species, among which _L. hypsibius_ is very common.

Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (_L. aegyptius_) is a small animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are the Cape hare (_L. capensis_), the long-eared rock-hare (_L. saxatilis_) and the diminutive _Pronolagus crassicaudatus_, characterized by its thick red tail.

North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which are locally known as "cotton-tails" and others as "jack-rabbits." The most northern are the Polar hare (_L. arcticus_), the Greenland hare (_L. groenlandicus_) and the Alaska hare (_L. timidus tschuktschorum_), all allied to the blue hare. Of the others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (_L. campestris_) and the smaller varying hare (_L. [Poecilolagus] americanus_), turn white in winter; the former having long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears are shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not change colour, the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, _Sylvilagus floridanus_, is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly allied to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several forms distinguished by having a more or less distinct black stripe on the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (_L. [Macrotolagus] californicus_), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona and Sonora (_L. M alleni_), the Texan jack-rabbit (_L. M texanus_) and the black-eared hare (_L. M melanotis_) of the Great Plains, which differs from the third only by its shorter ears and richer coloration. In S. America, the small tapiti or Brazilian hare (_Sylvilagus brasiliensis_) is nearly allied to the wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under surface to the tail.

See also COURSING. (R. L.*)

HAREBELL (sometimes wrongly written HAIRBELL), known also as the blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a well-known perennial wild flower, _Campanula rotundifolia_, a member of the natural order Campanulaceae. The harebell has a very slender slightly creeping root-stock, and a wiry, erect stem. The radical leaves, that is, those at the base of the stem, to which the specific name _rotundifolia_ refers, have long stalks, and are roundish or heart-shaped with crenate or serrate margin; the lower stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and the upper ones linear, subsessile, acute and entire, rarely pubescent. The flowers are slightly drooping, arranged in a panicle, or in small specimens single, having a smooth calyx, with narrow pointed erect segments, the corolla bell-shaped, with slightly recurved segments, and the capsule nodding, and opening by pores at the base. There are two varieties:--(a) _genuina_, with slender stem leaves, and (b) _montana_, in which the lower stem-leaves are broader and somewhat elliptical in shape. The plant is found on heaths and pastures throughout Great Britain and flowers in late summer and in autumn; it is widely spread in the north temperate zone. The harebell has ever been a great favourite with poets, and on account of its delicate blue colour has been considered as an emblem of purity.

HAREM, less frequently HARAM or HARIM (Arab _harim_--commonly but wrongly pronounced harem--"that which is illegal or prohibited"), the name generally applied to that part of a house in Oriental countries which is set apart for the women; it is also used collectively for the women themselves. Strictly the women's quarters are the _haremlik_ (_lik_, belonging to), as opposed to _selamlik_ the men's quarters, from which they are in large houses separated by the _mabein_, the private apartments of the householder. The word _harem_ is strictly applicable to Mahommedan households only, but the system is common in greater or less degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy is permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio (Ital. _serraglio_, literally an enclosure, from Lat. _sera_, a bar; wrongly narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion with Turkish _serai_ or _sarai_, palace or large building, cf. _caravanserai_); Zenana (strictly _zanana_, from Persian _zan_, woman, allied with Gr. [Greek: gyne]), used specifically of Hindu harems; Andarun (or Anderoon), the Persian word for the "inner part" (_sc._ of a house). The Indian harem system is also commonly known as _pardah_ or _purdah_, literally the name of the thick curtains or blinds which are used instead of doors to separate the women's quarters from the rest of the house. A male doctor attending a zenana lady would put his hand between the _purdah_ to feel her pulse.

The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to the Oriental conception of the sex relation, and its origin must, therefore, be sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set forth in the Koran, which merely regulate a practically universal Eastern custom.[1] It is inferred from the remains of many ancient Oriental palaces (Babylonian, Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy nobles devoted a special part of the palace to their womankind. Though in comparatively early times there were not wanting men who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets of Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been any real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel of her male relatives. A man may have as many wives and concubines as he can support, but each of these women must be his exclusive property. The object of this insistence upon female chastity is partly the maintenance of the purity of the family with special reference to property, and partly to protect women from marauders, as was the case with the people of India when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for women to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoretically a woman must veil her face to all men except her father, her brother and her husband; any violation of this rule is still regarded by strict Mahommedans as the gravest possible offence, though among certain Moslem communities (e.g. in parts of Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in public unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may lose his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital offence, the husband having absolute power of life and death, to such an extent that, especially in the less civilized parts of the Moslem world, no one would think of questioning a man's right to mutilate or kill a disobedient wife or concubine.

_Turkish Harems._--A good deal of misapprehension, due to ignorance combined with strong prejudice against the whole system, exists in regard to the system in Turkey. It is often assumed, for example, that the sultan's seraglio is typical, though on a uniquely large scale, of all Turkish households, and as a consequence that every Turk is a polygamist. This is far from being the case, for though the Koran permits four wives, and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of average possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial seraglio separately.

Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means as numerous as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul Hamid contained about 1000 women, all of whom were of slave origin. This body of women form an elaborately organized community with a complete system of officers, disciplinary and administrative, and strict distinctions of status. The real ruler of this society is the sultan's mother, the _Sultana Valide_, who exercises her authority through a female superintendent, the _Kyahya Khatun_. She has also a large retinue of subordinate officials (_Kalfas_) ranging downwards from the _Hasnadar ousta_ ("Lady of the Treasury") to the "Mistress of the Sherbets" and the "Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under her a number of pupil-slaves (_alaiks_), whom she trains to succeed her if need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After the sultana valide (who frequently enjoys considerable political power and is a mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-apparent; she is called the _Bash Kadin Effendi_ ("Her excellency the Chief Lady"), and also _hasseki_ or _kasseky_, and is distinguished from the other three chief wives who only bear the title _Kadin Effendi_. Next come the ladies who have borne the younger children of the sultan, the _Hanum Effendis_, and after them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a perversion of _odalik_, from _odah_, chamber). These are subdivided, according to the degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or padishah, into _Ikbals_ ("Favourites") and _Geuzdes_ (literally the "Eyed" ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the course of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother. All the women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is contrary to etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his harem. The numbers are kept up by his female relatives and state officials, the latter of whom present girls annually on the evening before the 15th of Ramadan.

Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch receives a _daira_, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of apartments, and a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should be noted that, since all the harem women are slaves, the sultans, with practically no exceptions, have never entered into legal marriage contracts. Any slave, in however menial a position, may be promoted to the position of a kadin effendi. Hence all the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are carefully trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment, dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed in the Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (_namaz_); a certain number are specially trained in reading and writing for secretarial work. Discipline is strict, and continued disobedience leads to corporal punishment by the eunuchs. All the women of the harem are absolutely under the control of the sultana valide (who alone of the harem of her dead husband is not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), and owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having to obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her financial secretary, the _Haznadar Ousta_, succeeds to her power if she dies. The sultan's foster-mother also is a person of importance, and is known as the _Taia Kadin_.

The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs both black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the outer gates of the seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach the women's apartments, and obtain no posts of distinction. Their chief, however, the _kapu aghasi_ ("master of the gates") has part control over the ecclesiastical possessions, and even the vizier cannot enter the royal apartments without his permission. The black eunuchs have the right of entering the gardens and chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the _kislar aghasi_ ("master of the maidens"), though his true title is _darus skadet aga_ ("chief of the abode of felicity"), is an official of high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is deprived of his post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns of his own accord he is generally sent to Egypt with a pension of 100 francs a day. His secretary keeps count of the revenues of the mosques built by the sultans. He is usually succeeded by the second eunuch, who bears the title of treasurer, and has charge of the jewels, &c., of the women. The number of eunuchs is always a large one. The sultana valide and the sultana hasseki have each fifty at their service, and others are assigned to the kadins and the favourite odalisks.

The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very different scale. The _selamlik_ is on the ground floor with a separate entrance, and there the master of the house receives his male guests; the rest of the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen and perhaps the stables. The _haremlik_ is generally (in towns at least) on the upper floor fronting on and slightly overhanging the street; it has a separate entrance, courtyard and garden. The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with circular holes through which the women may watch without being seen. Communication with the _haremlik_ is effected by a locked door, of which the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving cupboard (_dutap_) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture, of the old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs, carpets and mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray of charcoal and wood ash is giving way to American stoves, and there is a tendency to import French furniture and decoration without regard to their suitability.

The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The expense of marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer a slave woman who is much more likely to be an amenable partner. If a slave woman bears a child she is often set free and then the marriage ceremony is gone through.

The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any high ideal of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however, should be noticed. The depravity of the system and the vapid idleness of harem life are much exaggerated by observers whose sympathies are wholly against the system. In point of fact much depends on the individuals. In many households there exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the standard of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman may not be seen in the streets without the _yashmak_ which covers her face except for her eyes, and does not leave her house except by her husband's permission, none the less in ordinary households the harem ladies frequently drive into the country and visit the shops and public baths. Their seclusion has very considerable compensations, and legally they stand on a far better basis in relation to their husbands than do the women of monogamous Christian communities. From the moment when a woman, free or slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man, she has a legally enforceable right against him both for her own and for her children's maintenance. She has absolute control over her personal property whether in money, slaves or goods; and, if divorce is far easier in Islam than in Christendom, still the marriage settlement must be of such amount as will provide suitable maintenance in that event.

On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest abuse, and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life of Moslem women and slaves is often far different from that of middle class women of European Turkey, where law is strict and culture advanced. The early age at which girls are secluded, the dulness of their surroundings, and the low moral standard which the system produces react unfavourably not only upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem woman is soon passee, and the lot of a woman past her youth, if she is divorced or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This is true especially of child-widows.

Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European customs and the direct influence of European administrators has brought about a certain change in the attitude of Orientals to the harem system. This movement is, however, only in its infancy, and the impression is still strong that the time is not ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in general so accustomed to their condition that few have any inclination to change it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any alteration of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent progressed beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women, but no radical reform has been set on foot.

_In India_ various attempts have been made by societies, missionary and other, as well as by private individuals, to improve the lot of the zenana women. Zenana schools and hospitals have been founded, and a few women have been trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes of protecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia. Thus in 1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was appointed by the Bengal government as legal adviser to the court of wards, so that she might give advice to the widowed mothers of minors within the harem walls. Similarly trained medical women are introduced into zenanas and harems by the Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women. Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for the attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are rigorously kept apart. In India, as in Turkey, the introduction of Western dress and education has begun to create new ideas and ambitions, and not a few Eastern women have induced English women to enter the harems as companions, nurses and governesses. But training and environment are extremely powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so steady, that reform has touched only the fringe of the system.

Among the principal societies which have been formed to better the condition of Indian and Chinese women in general with special reference to the zenana system are the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. Much information as to the medical, industrial and educational work done by these societies will be found in their annual reports and other publications. Among these are J. K. H. Denny's _Toward the Uprising_; Irene H. Barnes, _Behind the Pardah_ (1897), an account of the former society's work; the general condition of Indian women is described in Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's _Wrongs of Indian Womanhood_ (1900), and Maud Dover's _The Englishwoman in India_ (1909); see also article MISSIONS.

AUTHORITIES.--The literature of the subject is very large, though a
great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and
coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A. van
Sommer and Zwerner, _Our Moslem Sisters_ (1907), a collection of
essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahommedan
world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system; Mrs W. M.
Ramsay, _Everyday Life in Turkey_ (1897), cc. iv. and v., containing
an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar; cf. e.g. art.
"Harem" in Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_; Mrs S. Harvey's _Turkish
Harems and Circassian Homes_ (1871); for Mahomet's regulations, see
R. Bosworth Smith's _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (1889); for Egypt,
Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (1837); and E.
Lott, _Harem Life in Egypt and Constantinople_ (1869); for the
sultan's household in the 18th century, Lady Wortley Montagu's
_Letters_, with which may be compared S. Lane-Poole, _Turkey_ (ed.
1909); G. Dorys, _La Femme turque_ (1902); especially Lucy M. J.
Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie), _The Women of Turkey_ (London,
1901), and _The Turkish People_ (London, 1909). For the attempts which
have been made to modify and improve the Indian zenana system, see
e.g. the reports of the Dufferin Association and other official
publications. Other information will be found in Hoffman's article in
Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopadie_; Flandin in _Revue des deux mondes_
(1852) on the harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim Mirza; the count
de Beauvoir, in _Voyage round the World_ (1870), on Javanese and
Siamese harems; Hantzsche in _Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde_
(Berlin, 1864). (J. M. M.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In Africa also, among the non-Mahommedan negroes of the west
coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanza, the seclusion of women
of the upper classes has been practised in states (e.g. Ashanti and
Buganda) possessing a considerable degree of civilization.

HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine-Inferieure, about 6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864. It lies in the fertile valley of the Lezarde, at the foot of wooded hills not far from the north bank of the estuary of the Seine. The port, which had been rendered almost inaccessible owing to the deposits of the Lezarde, again became available on the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) connecting it with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing 18 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on a branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and carries on fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remarkable building in the town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a landmark for the pilots of the river. It dates from the 15th and 16th centuries, but the great portal is the work of the 17th, and the whole has undergone modern restoration. Of the old castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a fine park, stands the present castle, a building of the 17th century. The old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories, and the fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There is a statue of Jean de Grouchy, lord of Monterollier, under whose leadership the English were expelled from the town in 1435. The industries include distilling, metal founding and the manufacture of oil and grease.

Harfleur is identified with _Caracotinum_, the principal port of the ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name, Herosfloth, Harofluet or Hareflot, was still sufficiently uncorrupted to indicate its Norman derivation, it was the principal seaport of north-western France. In 1415 it was captured by Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 the people of the district of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the inhabitants opened the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got rid of the foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated by the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445 and 1449 the English were again in possession; but the town was recovered for the French by Dunois. In the 16th century the port began to dwindle in importance owing to the silting up of the Seine estuary and the rise of Havre. In 1562 the Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers and charters perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored by Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 1710 that it was subjected to the "taille."

HARIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the seat of a flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level upland plain, interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates the fields of a large number of its villages. Since the 14th century Hissar has been the local capital. During the troubled period which followed on the decline of the Mogul empire, Hariana formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, Bhattis and Sikhs met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole country was devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who established his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed by Sindhia's French general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed under British rule. On the conquest of the Punjab Hariana was broken up into the districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa, which last has in its turn been divided between Hissar and Ferozepore.

HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was born at Kelston, near Bath, in 1561. His father, John Harington, acquired considerable estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural daughter of Henry VIII., and after his wife's death he was attached to the service of the Princess Elizabeth. He married Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's accession he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the princess. John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson. He studied at Eton and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author of _Gammer Gurton's Needle_. He came up to London about 1583 and was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but his talents marked him out for success at court rather than for a legal career. Tradition relates that he translated the story of Giocondo from Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat at Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work. _Orlando Furioso_ in English heroical verse was published in 1591 and reprinted in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff of Somerset in 1592 and received Elizabeth at his house during her western progress of 1591. In 1596 he published in succession _The Metamorphosis of Ajax_, _An Anatomie of the Metamorphosed Ajax_, and _Ulysses upon Ajax_, the three forming collectively a very absurd and indecorous work of a Pantagruelistic kind. An allusion to Leicester in this book threw the writer into temporary disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to serve in Ireland under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the annoyance of Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign which increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl. Among some papers found in the chapter library at York was a _Tract on the Succession to the Crown_ (1602), written by Harington to secure the favour of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of a lantern constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late queen and James's own splendour. This pamphlet, which contains many details of great interest about Elizabeth and gives an unprejudiced sketch of the religious question, was edited for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir Clements Markham. Harington's efforts to win favour at the new court were unsuccessful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of Ireland and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which he preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879 with the title of _A Short View of the State of Ireland written in 1605_. Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of generosity and conciliation towards that country. He eventually succeeded in obtaining a position as one of the tutors of Prince Henry, for whom he annotated Francis Godwin's _De praesulibus Angliae_. Harington's grandson, John Chetwind, found in this somewhat scandalous production an argument for the Presbyterian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of _A Briefe View of the State of the Church, &c._

Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 1612. His _Epigrams_ were printed in a collection entitled _Alcilia_ in 1613, and separately in 1615. The translation of the _Orlando Furioso_ was carried out with skill and perseverance. It is not to be supposed that Harington failed to realize the ironic quality of his original, but he treated it as a serious allegory to suit the temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was neither a very exact scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he cannot be named in the same breath with Fairfax. The _Orlando Furioso_ was sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an _Apologie of Poetrie_, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among other technical matters, the author's use of disyllabic and trisyllabic rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington from various Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets show that he was almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy, and his epigrams are sometimes smart and always easy. His works include _The Englishman's Doctor, Or the School of Salerne_ (1608), and _Nugae antiquae_, miscellaneous papers collected in 1779.

_A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe Club edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above._

HARIRI [Abu Mahommed ul-Qasim ibn 'Ali ibn Mahommed al-Hariri,] i.e. "the manufacturer or seller of silk"] (1054-1122), Arabian writer, was born at Basra. He owned a large estate with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, a village near Basra. He is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this subject he wrote a grammatical poem the _Mulhat ul-'Irab_ (French trans. _Les Recreations grammaticales_ with notes by L. Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's _Anthologie arabe_, pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the educated called _Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig, 1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words containing the letters _sin_ and _shin_ (ed. in Arnold's _Chrestomathy_, pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fifty _maqamas_ (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section "Belles Lettres"). These were written in rhymed prose like those of Hamadhani, and are full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric.

The Maqamas have been edited with Arabic commentary by S. de Sacy
(Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and J. Derenbourg,
Paris, 1853); with English notes by F. Steingass (London, 1896). An
English translation with notes was made by T. Preston (London, 1850),
and another by T. Chenery and F. Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898).
Many editions have been published in the East with commentaries,
especially with that of Sharishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T.)