Chapter XV: Part 15

HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast of Norway, penetrating the mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe of islands off its mouth, the total distance from the open sea to the head of the fjord being 114 m. Its extreme depth is about 350 fathoms. The entrance at Toro is 50 m. by water south of Bergen, 60 deg. N., and the general direction is N.E. from that point. The fjord is flanked by magnificent mountains, from which many waterfalls pour into it. The main fjord is divided into parts under different names, and there are many fine branch fjords. The fjord is frequented by tourists, and the principal stations have hotels. The outer fjord is called the Kvindherredsfjord, flanked by the Melderskin (4680 ft.); then follow Sildefjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds island. Here Mauranger-fjord opens on the east; from Sundal on this inlet the great Folgefond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier (Bondhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on Hisfjord, Nordheimsund and Ostenso on Ytre Samlen, which throws off a fine narrow branch northward, the Fiksensund. There follow Indre Samlen and Utnefjord, with the station of Utne opposite Oxen (4120 ft.), and its northward branch, Gravenfjord, with the beautiful station of Eide at its head, whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangen. From the Utne terminal branches of the fjord run south and east; the Sorfjord, steeply walled by the heights of the Folgefond, with the frequented resort of Odde at its head; and the Eidfjord, with its branch Osefjord, terminating beneath a tremendous rampart of mountains, through which the sombre Simodal penetrates, the river flowing from Daemmevand, a beautiful lake among the fields, and forming with its tributaries the fine falls of Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on Eidfjord, and Ulvik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen. At Vik is the mouth of the Bjoreia river, which, in forming the Voringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin. A small stream entering Sorfjord forms in its upper course the Skjaeggedalsfos, of equal height with the Voringfos, and hardly less beautiful. The natives of Hardanger have an especially picturesque local costume.

HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1815-1873), American soldier, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on the 10th of November 1815 and graduated from West Point in 1838. As a subaltern of cavalry he was employed on a special mission to Europe to study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839). He was promoted captain in 1844 and served under Generals Taylor and Scott in the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in action in March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut.-colonel. After the war he served as a substantive major under Colonel Sidney Johnston and Lieut.-Colonel Robert Lee in the 2nd U.S. cavalry, and for some time before 1856 he was engaged in compiling the official manual of infantry drill and tactics which, familiarly called "Hardee's Tactics," afterwards formed the text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal and the Confederate armies. From 1856 to 1861 he was commandant of West Point, resigning his commission on the secession of his state in the latter year. Entering the Confederate service as a colonel, he was shortly promoted brigadier-general. He distinguished himself very greatly by his tactical leadership on the field of Shiloh, and was immediately promoted major-general. As a corps commander he fought under General Bragg at Perryville and Stone River, and for his distinguished services in these battles was promoted lieutenant-general. He served in the latter part of the campaign of 1863 under Bragg and in that of 1864 under J. E. Johnston. When the latter officer was superseded by Hood, Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the remainder of the war he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil War came to an end in 1865 he retired to his plantation near Selma, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, Virginia, on the 6th of November 1873.

HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822), Prussian statesman, was born at Essenroda in Hanover on the 31st of May 1750. After studying at Leipzig and Gottingen he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as councillor of the board of domains (_Kammerrat_); but, finding his advancement slow, he set out--on the advice of King George III.--on a course of travels, spending some time at Wetzlar, Regensburg (where he studied the mechanism of the Imperial government), Vienna and Berlin. He also visited France, Holland and England, where he was kindly received by the king. On his return he married, by his father's desire, the countess Reventlow. In 1778 he was raised to the rank of privy councillor and created a count. He now again went to England, in the hope of obtaining the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife becoming entangled in an _amour_ with the prince of Wales, so great a scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian service. In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick, and as president of the board of domains displayed a zeal for reform, in the manner approved by the enlightened despots of the century, that rendered him very unpopular with the orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In Brunswick, too, his position was in the end made untenable by the conduct of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly afterwards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this coincided with the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and Bayreuth to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave, Charles Alexander, in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be in Berlin at the time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg appointed administrator of the principalities (1792). The position, owing to the singular overlapping of territorial claims in the old Empire, was one of considerable delicacy, and Hardenberg filled it with great skill, doing much to reform traditional anomalies and to develop the country, and at the same time labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South Germany. After the outbreak of the revolutionary wars his diplomatic ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to Prussia's views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making peace with the French Republic had been recognized, he was appointed to succeed Count Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he signed the treaty of peace.

In 1797, on the accession of King Frederick William III., Hardenberg was summoned to Berlin, where he received an important position in the cabinet and was appointed chief of the departments of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, for Westphalia, and for the principality of Neuchatel. In 1793 Hardenberg had struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the influential minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter went away on leave (August-October) he appointed Hardenberg his _locum tenens_. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just occupied Hanover, and Haugwitz had urged upon the king the necessity for strong measures and the expediency of a Russian alliance. During his absence, however, the king's irresolution continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality which had so far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By the time Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon had caused the king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual declarations of the 3rd and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the two powers to take up arms in the event of a French attack upon Prussia or of further aggressions in North Germany. Finally, Haugwitz, unable to persuade the cabinet to a more vigorous policy, resigned, and on the 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg succeeded him as foreign minister.

If there was to be war, Hardenberg would have preferred the French alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the cession of Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern powers would scarcely have conceded, of their free will, so great an augmentation of Prussian power. But he still hoped to gain the coveted prize by diplomacy, backed by the veiled threat of an armed neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's contemptuous violation of Prussian territory by marching three French corps through Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his weakness, and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor. Haugwitz was despatched to Vienna with the document; but before he arrived the battle of Austerlitz had been fought, and the Prussian plenipotentiary had to make the best terms he could with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, by the treaty signed at Schonbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, received Hanover, but in return for all her territories in South Germany. One condition of the arrangement was the retirement of Hardenberg, whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a few months after the crisis of 1806 (April-July 1807); but Napoleon's resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions of the terms granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was Hardenberg's dismissal.

After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatisfactory interlude of the feeble Altenstein ministry, Hardenberg was again summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6, 1810). The campaign of Jena and its consequences had had a profound effect upon him; and in his mind the traditions of the old diplomacy had given place to the new sentiment of nationality characteristic of the coming age, which in him found expression in a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia and crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had worked out an elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy on Liberal lines; and when he came into power, though the circumstances of the time did not admit of his pursuing an independent foreign policy, he steadily prepared for the struggle with France by carrying out Stein's far-reaching schemes of social and political reorganization. The military system was completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, municipal institutions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open to all classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs of every section of the community.

When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test, after the Moscow campaign of 1812, it was Hardenberg who, supported by the influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined Frederick William to take advantage of General Yorck's loyal disloyalty and declare against France. He was rightly regarded by German patriots as the statesman who had done most to encourage the spirit of national independence; and immediately after he had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised to the rank of prince (June 3, 1814) in recognition of the part he had played in the War of Liberation.

Hardenberg now had an assured position in that close corporation of sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during the next few years, was to be governed. He accompanied the allied sovereigns to England, and at the congress of Vienna (1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of Prussia. But from this time the zenith of his influence, if not of his fame, was passed. In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose influence soon overshadowed his own in the councils of Europe, of Germany, and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of the powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after Waterloo, he failed to carry through his views as to the further dismemberment of France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to forestall him in making terms with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, which secured to Austria the preponderance in the German federal diet; on the eve of the conference of Carlsbad (1819) he signed a convention with Metternich, by which--to quote the historian Treitschke--"like a penitent sinner, without any formal _quid pro quo_, the monarchy of Frederick the Great yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal affairs." At the congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona the voice of Hardenberg was but an echo of that of Metternich.

The cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the loosely-knit Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenberg's character, which, never well balanced, had deteriorated with age. He continued amiable, charming and enlightened as ever; but the excesses which had been pardonable in a young diplomatist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not but weaken his influence with so pious a _Landesvater_ as Frederick William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experiments would have needed all the powers of an adviser at once wise and in character wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was wise enough; he saw the necessity for constitutional reform; but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the sweets of office, and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism he allowed himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never saw the light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful henchman of Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the Carlsbad Decrees and the Troppau Protocol. He died, soon after the closing of the congress of Verona, at Genoa, on the 26th of November 1822.

See L. v. Ranke, _Denkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von
Hardenberg_ (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877); J. R. Seeley, _The Life and
Times of Stein_ (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, _Reform der
Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg_ (ib., 1881); Chr.
Meyer, _Hardenberg und seine Verwaltung der Furstentumer Ansbach und
Bayreuth_ (Breslau, 1892); Koser, _Die Neuordnung des preussischen
Archivwesens durch den Staatskanzler Fursten v. Hardenberg_ (Leipzig,
1904).

HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the shores of the Zuider Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E. of Amersfoort. Pop. (1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town, approached by a fine avenue of trees, and standing in the midst of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk is chiefly important as being the depot for recruits for the Dutch colonial army. It contains a small fort and large barracks. The principal buildings are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a large 15th century church with a notable square tower, a municipal orphanage, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing, and a few domestic industries form the only employment of the inhabitants. As a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively to the Zuider Zee.

HARDICANUTE [more correctly HARDACNUT] (c. 1010-1042), son of Canute, king of England, by his wife Aelfgifu or Emma, was born about 1019. In the contest for the English crown which followed the death of Canute in 1035 the claims of Hardicanute were supported by Emma and her ally, Godwine, earl of the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, Canute's illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the witan at Oxford a compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold was temporarily elected regent of all England, pending the final settlement of the question on the return of Hardicanute from Denmark. The compromise was strongly opposed by Godwine and Emma, who for a time forcibly held Wessex in Hardicanute's behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; and early in 1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out and took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and together they concerted an attack on England. But next year Harold died; and Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short reign was marked by great oppression and cruelty. He caused the dead body of Harold to be dug up and thrown into a fen; he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his foreign fleet that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, and in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those sent to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of Worcester to the ground and devastated the surrounding country; in 1041 he permitted Edwulf, earl of Northumbria, to be treacherously murdered after having granted him a safe-conduct. While "he stood at his drink" at the marriage feast of one of his flegns he was suddenly seized with a fit, from which he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June 1042.

HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter, was born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of September 1792. Brought up in the wilderness of New York state, Harding, as a lad of splendid physique, standing over 6 ft. 3 in., marched as a drummer with the militia to the St Lawrence in 1813. He became subsequently chairmaker, peddler, inn-keeper, and house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and eventually going on the road, self-taught, as an itinerant portrait painter. He made enough money to take him to the schools at the Philadelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient enough to gain a competency, so that later he went to England and set up a studio in London. There he met with great success, painting royalty and the nobility, and, despite the lackings of an early education and social experience, he became a favourite in all circles. Returning to the United States, he settled in Boston and painted portraits of many of the prominent men and women of his time. He died on the 1st of April 1866.

HARDING, JAMES DUFFIELD (1798-1863), English landscape painter, was the son of an artist, and took to the same vocation at an early age, although he had originally been destined for the law. He was in the main a water-colour painter and a lithographer, but he produced various oil-paintings both at the beginning and towards the end of his career. He frequently contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour Society, of which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in 1822. He was also very largely engaged in teaching, and published several books developing his views of art--amongst others, _The Tourist in Italy_ (1831); _The Tourist in France_ (1834); _The Park and the Forest_ (1841); _The Principles and the Practice of Art_ (1845); _Elementary Art_ (1846); _Scotland Delineated in a Series of Views_ (1847); _Lessons on Art_ (1849). He died at Barnes on the 4th of December 1863. Harding was noted for facility, sureness of hand, nicety of touch, and the various qualities which go to make up an elegant, highly trained, and accomplished sketcher from nature, and composer of picturesque landscape material; he was particularly skilful in the treatment of foliage.

HARDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, VISCOUNT (1785-1856), British field marshal and governor-general of India, was born at Wrotham in Kent on the 30th of March 1785. After being at Eton, he entered the army in 1799 as an ensign in the Queen's Rangers, a corps then stationed in Upper Canada. His first active service was at the battle of Vimiera, where he was wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore when he received his death-wound. Subsequently he received an appointment as deputy-quartermaster-general in the Portuguese army from Marshal Beresford, and was present at nearly all the battles of the Peninsular War, being wounded again at Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for the British by taking the responsibility at a critical moment of strongly urging General Cole's division to advance. When peace was again broken in 1815 by Napoleon's escape from Elba, Hardinge hastened into active service, and was appointed to the important post of commissioner at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity he was present at the battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815, where he lost his left hand by a shot, and thus was not present at Waterloo, fought two days later. For the loss of his hand he received a pension of L300; he had already been made a K.C.B., and Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted the office of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post which he also filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844. In 1830 and 1834-1835 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he succeeded Lord Ellenborough as governor-general of India. During his term of office the first Sikh War broke out; and Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, magnanimously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh Gough; but disagreeing with the latter's plan of campaign at Ferozeshah, he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-general (see SIKH WARS). After the successful termination of the campaign at Sobraon he was created Viscount Hardinge of Lahore and of King's Newton in Derbyshire, with a pension of L3000 for three lives; while the East India Company voted him an annuity of L5000, which he declined to accept. Hardinge's term of office in India was marked by many social and educational reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 succeeded the duke of Wellington as commander-in-chief of the British army. While in this position he had the home management of the Crimean War, which he endeavoured to conduct on Wellington's principles--a system not altogether suited to the changed mode of warfare. In 1855 he was promoted to the rank of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned his office of commander-in-chief in July 1856, owing to failing health, and died on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park near Tunbridge Wells. His elder son, Charles Stewart (1822-1894), who had been his private secretary in India, was the 2nd Viscount Hardinge; and the latter's eldest son succeeded to the title. The younger son of the 2nd Viscount, Charles Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist (see Edward VII.), and was appointed governor-general of India in 1910, being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst.

See C. Hardinge, _Viscount Hardinge_ (Rulers of India series, 1891);
and R. S. Rait, _Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough_ (1903).

HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow division of the United Provinces. The town is 63 m. N.E. of Lucknow by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,174. It has a wood-carving industry, saltpetre works, and an export trade in grain.

The DISTRICT OF HARDOI has an area of 2331 sq. m. It is a level district watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha or Garra, Sukheta, Sai, Baita and Gumti--the three rivers first named being navigable by country boats. Towards the Ganges the land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of sand cultivated at the base, and their slopes covered with lofty _munj_ grass. Several large _jhils_ or swamps are scattered throughout the district, the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 to 2 m. broad. These _jhils_ are largely used for irrigation. Large tracts of forest jungle still exist. Leopards, black buck, spotted deer, and _nilgai_ are common; the mallard, teal, grey duck, common goose, and all kinds of waterfowl abound. In 1901 the population of the district was 1,092,834, showing a decrease of nearly 2% in the decade. The district contains a larger urban population than any other in Oudh, the largest town being Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its branches. The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco and saltpetre.

The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the Mussulman colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid Salar Masaud in 1028, but the permanent Moslem occupation did not begin till 1217. Owing to the situation of the district, Hardoi formed the scene of many sanguinary battles between the rival Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and Sandi was fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the rest of Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's proclamation of February 1856.

HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar, was born at Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste for literature in his father's book-shop, he sought and obtained about his sixteenth year admission into the order of the Jesuits. In Paris, where he went to study theology, he ultimately became librarian of the College Louis le Grand in 1683, and he died there on the 3rd of September 1729. His first published work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier (1612-1681) he undertook to edit the _Natural History_ of Pliny for the Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years. His attention having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to his great editorial labours, he published several learned works in that department, marred, however, as almost everything he did was marred, by a determination to be at all hazards different from other interpreters. It is sufficient to mention his _Nummi antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati_ (1684), _Antirrheticus de nummis antiquis coloniarum et municipiorum_ (1689), and _Chronologia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et nummis illustrata_ (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin was appointed to supervise the _Conciliorum collectio regia maxima_ (1715); but he was accused of suppressing important documents and foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the parlement of Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication of the work was delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much cited by scholars. Hardouin declared that all the councils supposed to have taken place before the council of Trent were fictitious. It is, however, as the originator of a variety of paradoxical theories that Hardouin is now best remembered. The most remarkable, contained in his _Chronologiae ex nummis antiquis restitutae_ (1696) and _Prolegomena ad censuram veterum scriptorum_, was to the effect that, with the exception of the works of Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the _Natural History_ of Pliny, the _Georgics_ of _Virgil_, and the _Satires and Epistles of Horace_, all the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious, having been manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under the direction of a certain Severus Archontius. He denied the genuineness of most ancient works of art, coins and inscriptions, and declared that the New Testament was originally written in Latin.

See A. Debacker, _Bibliotheque des ecrivains de la Compagnie de Jesus_
(1853).

HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian and orientalist, was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th of November 1660. He studied oriental languages in Jena and in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of oriental languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of February 1746. Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention: _Autographa Lutheri aliorumque celebrium virorum, ab anno 1517 ad annum 1546_, _Reformationis aetatem et historiam egregie illustrantia_ (1690-1691); _Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium_ (1697-1700); _Hebraeae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Syriacae linguae fundamenta_ (1694); _Elementa Chaldaica_ (1693); _Historia litteraria reformationis_ (1717); _Enigmata prisci orbis_ (1723). Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum.

See F. Lamey, _Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Briefen_ (Karlsruhe,
1891).

HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the Bavarian palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges range. It is, in the main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone formation, of a mean elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its highest point in the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The eastern slope, which descends gently towards the Rhine, is diversified by deep and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the Lauter and the Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of frequent feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of Richard I. of England), and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-fifths of the whole area is occupied by forests, principally oak, beech and fir. The lower eastern slope is highly cultivated and produces excellent wine.

HARDWAR, or HURDWAR, an ancient town of British India, and Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m. N.E. of Rurki, with a railway station. The Ganges canal here takes off from the river. A branch railway to Dehra was opened in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of great antiquity, and has borne many names. It was originally known as Kapila from the sage Kapila. Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo, the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three temples, decorated with broken stone sculptures. The great object of attraction at present is the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing _ghat_, with the adjoining temple of Gangadwara. The _charan_ or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone let into the upper wall of the _ghat_, forms an object of special reverence. A great assemblage of people takes place annually, at the beginning of the Hindu solar year, when the sun enters Aries; and every twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity occurs, known as a _Kumbh-mela_. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair amounts to 100,000, and at the Kumbh-mela to 300,000; in 1903 there were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary improvements have been made for the benefit of the annual concourse of pilgrims. In early days riots and also outbreaks of cholera were of common occurrence. The Hardwar meeting also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the principal horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and food-stuffs forms a lucrative traffic.

HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1ST EARL OF (1690-1764), English lord chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was born at Dover, on the 1st of December 1690. Through his mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon of Rolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Gibbon the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not very thorough education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, however, he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office in London. Here he gave some attention to literature and the classics as well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress that his employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered him at the Middle Temple in November 1708; and soon afterwards recommended him to Lord Chief Justice Parker (afterwards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor to his sons. In 1715 he was called to the bar, where his progress was, says Lord Campbell, "more rapid than that of any other debutant in the annals of our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by the patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718, when Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western circuit. In the following year he established his reputation as an equity lawyer in a case in which Sir Robert Walpole's family was interested, by an argument displaying profound learning and research concerning the jurisdiction of the chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between law and equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 1719 as member for Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood, in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years' standing. His conduct of the prosecution of Christopher Layer in that year for treason as a Jacobite further raised Sir Philip Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having already become attorney-general, he passed through the House of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not exert himself to save his patron from disgrace largely brought about by Macclesfield's partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and still more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable service to Walpole's government by his support of the bill for prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of the army (1732) and of the excise bill (1733). In 1733 Yorke was appointed lord chief justice of the king's bench, with the title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council; and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus becoming a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office conferred on him by Talbot.

Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by his removal to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the measures of the government. He resisted Carteret's motion to reduce the army in 1738, and the resolutions hostile to Spain over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. But when Walpole bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke advocated energetic measures for its conduct; and he tried to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no sufficient ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of Sir Robert was brought about by Hardwicke's treachery. No one was more surprised than himself when he retained the chancellorship in the following administration, and he resisted the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of his finest speeches in May 1742. He exercised a leading influence in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many years from this time he was the controlling power in the government. During the king's absences on the continent Hardwicke was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his policy for meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the unnecessary severity meted out to the rebels, and especially for the cruel, though not illegal, executions on obsolete attainders of Charles Radcliffe and (in 1753) of Archibald Cameron. He carried, however, a great reform in 1746, of incalculable benefit to Scotland, which swept away the grave abuses of feudal power surviving in that country in the form of private heritable jurisdictions in the hands of the landed gentry. On the other hand his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and prohibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of the calendar in 1751; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the naturalization of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a salutary reform of the marriage law, which became the basis of all subsequent legislation on the subject.

On the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hardwicke retired with him. He played an important and disinterested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of George III. Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels published by members of parliament were protected by parliamentary privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March 1764.

Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential minister, he was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other hand he was one of the greatest judges who ever sat on the English bench. He did not, indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-justiceship of the king's bench leave any impress on the common law; but Lord Campbell pronounces him "the most consummate judge who ever sat in the court of chancery, being distinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory decision of the causes which came before him, but for the profound and enlightened principles which he laid down, and for perfecting English equity into a systematic science." He held the office of lord chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a single exception; and the same high authority quoted above asserts that as an equity judge Lord Hardwicke's fame "has not been exceeded by that of any man in ancient or modern times. His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, appealed to as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the great juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this country and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the United States of America, regulates property and personal rights more than the ancient common law."[1] Hardwicke had prepared himself for this great and enduring service to English jurisprudence by study of the historical foundations of the chancellor's equitable jurisdiction, combined with profound insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incorporated into his administration of English equity in the absence of precedents bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment. His decisions on particular points in dispute were based on general principles, which were neither so wide as to prove inapplicable to future circumstances, nor too restricted to serve as the foundation for a coherent and scientific system. His recorded judgments--which, as Lord Campbell observes, "certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial excellence"--combine luminous method of arrangement with elegance and lucidity of language.

Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hardwicke's only service to the administration of justice. Born within two years of the death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was powerful in obliterating the evil traditions of the judicial bench under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges. While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former "bloodhounds of the crown"; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as "naturally humane, moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete control over his temper; he was always urbane and decorous and usually dignified. His exercise of legal patronage deserves unmixed praise. As a public man he was upright and, in comparison with most of his contemporaries, consistent. His domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault was avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that, though a colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corruption. But he had a keen and steady eye to his own advantage, and he was said to be jealous of all who might become his rivals for power. His manners, too, were arrogant. Lord Waldegrave said of Hardwicke that "he might have been thought a great man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike a gentleman." Although in his youth he contributed to the _Spectator_ over the signature "Philip Homebred," he seems early to have abandoned all care for literature, and he has been reproached by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters. He married, on the 16th of May 1719, Margaret, daughter of Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, sister of Lord Chancellor Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five sons and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married Lord Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert Heathcote. Three of his younger sons attained some distinction. Charles Yorke (q.v.), the second son, became like his father lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, was a diplomatist, and was created Lord Dover; while James, the fifth son, became bishop of Ely.

Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son, PHILIP YORKE (1720-1795), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the 19th of March 1720, and educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he became a fellow of the Royal Society. With his brother, Charles Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to _Athenian Letters; or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the King of Persia residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian War_ (4 vols., London, 1741), a work that for many years had a considerable vogue and went through several editions. He sat in the House of Commons as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards for Cambridgeshire; and he kept notes of the debates which were afterwards embodied in Cobbett's _Parliamentary History_. He was styled Viscount Royston from 1754 till 1764, when he succeeded to the earldom. In politics he supported the Rockingham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the exchequer, and was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous state papers and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections in the British Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May 1790. He married Jemima Campbell, only daughter of John, 3rd earl of Breadalbane, and grand-daughter and heiress of Henry de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in her own right marchioness de Grey.

In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, PHILIP YORKE (1757-1834), 3rd earl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who was born on the 31st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge. He was M.P. for Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions of his family; but after his succession to the earldom in 1790 he supported Pitt, and took office in 1801 as lord lieutenant of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported Catholic emancipation. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of the Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son.

He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1799-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English admiral, eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), who was second son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor, by his second wife, Agneta Johnson. Charles Philip was born at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was educated at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on the North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining the rank of captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831) and Cambridgeshire (1832-1834) in the House of Commons; and after succeeding to the earldom in 1834, was appointed a lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In 1858 he retired from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was a member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general and lord privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter of the 1st Lord Ravensworth, by whom he had five sons and three daughters. His eldest son, CHARLES PHILIP YORKE (1836-1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was comptroller of the household of Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of the buckhounds (1874-1880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, daughter of the 1st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son ALBERT EDWARD PHILIP HENRY YORKE (1867-1904), 6th earl of Hardwicke, who, after holding the posts of under-secretary of state for India (1900-1902) and for war (1902-1903), died unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the title then went to his uncle, JOHN MANNERS YORKE (1840-1909), 7th earl of Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined the royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854-1855). This earl died on the 13th of March 1909 and was succeeded by his son Charles Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl.

The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke
are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the period and in
numerous collections of correspondence in the British Museum. See,
especially, the _Hardwicke Papers_; the _Stowe MSS.; Hist. MSS.
Commission_ (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Walpole, _Letters_
(ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859); _Letters to Sir H.
Mann_ (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-1844); _Memoirs of the
Reign of George II._ (ed. by Lord Holland, 2nd ed. revised, London,
1847); _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (ed. by G. F. R. Barker,
4 vols., London, 1894); _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors of
England, Scotland and Ireland_ (ed. by T. Park, 5 vols., London,
1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to Hardwicke, and his
criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme reserve. See also the
earl Waldegrave, _Memoirs 1754-1758_ (London, 1821); Lord
Chesterfield, _Letters_ (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols., London, 1892);
Richard Cooksey, _Essay on John, Lord Somers, and Philip, Earl of
Hardwicke_ (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe, _Memoirs of Sir R.
Walpole_ (4 vols., London, 1816); _Memoirs of the Administration of
Henry Pelham_ (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord Campbell, _Lives of the
Lord Chancellors_, vol. v. (8 vols., London, 1845); Edward Foss, _The
Judges of England_, vols. vii. and viii. (9 vols., London, 1848-1864);
George Harris, _Life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke; with Selections
from his Correspondence, Diaries, Speeches and Judgments_ (3 vols.,
London, 1847). The last-named work may be consulted for the lives of
the 2nd and 3rd earls. For the 3rd earl see also the duke of
Buckingham, _Memoirs of the Court and Cabinets of George III._ (4
vols., London, 1853-1855). For the 4th earl see _Charles Philip
Yorke_, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of Ledbury (1910).
(R. J. M.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Lord Campbell, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors_, v. 43 (London,
1846).

HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631), French dramatist, was born in Paris. He was one of the most fertile of all dramatic authors, and himself claimed to have written some six hundred plays, of which, however, only thirty-four are preserved. He seems to have been connected all his life with a troupe of actors headed by a clever comedian named Valleran-Lecomte, whom he provided with plays. Hardy toured the provinces with this company, which gave some representations in Paris in 1599 at the Hotel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the same theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for some years. In consequence of disputes with the Confrerie de la Passion, who owned the privilege of the theatre, they played elsewhere in Paris and in the provinces for some years; but in 1628, when they had long borne the title of "royal," they were definitely established at the Hotel de Bourgogne. Hardy's numerous dedications never seem to have brought him riches or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas (d. 1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he was on friendly terms with the poet Theophile, who addressed him in some verses placed at the head of his _Theatre_ (1632), and Tristan l'Hermite had a similar admiration for him. Hardy's plays were written for the stage, not to be read; and it was in the interest of the company that they should not be printed and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 he published _Les Chastes et loyales amours de Theagene et Cariclee_, a tragi-comedy in eight "days" or dramatic poems; and in 1624 he began a collected edition of his works, _Le Theatre d'Alexandre Hardy, parisien_, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were published, one at Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise eleven tragedies: _Didon se sacrifiant_, _Scedase ou l'hospitalite violee_, _Panthee_, _Meleagre_, _La Mort d'Achille_, _Coriolan_, _Marianne_, a trilogy on the history of Alexander, _Alcmeon, ou la vengeance feminine_; five mythological pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies, among them _Gesippe_, drawn from Boccaccio; _Phraarte_, taken from Giraldi's _Cent excellentes nouvelles_ (Paris, 1584); _Cornelie_, _La Force du sang_, _Felismene_, _La Belle Egyptienne_, taken from Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which the best is _Alphee, ou la justice d'amour_. Hardy's importance in the history of the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their hold on the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of Etienne Jodelle and his followers had been written for the learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's work was nearly over and Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very few literary dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made possible the dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had abundant practical experience of the stage, and modified tragedy accordingly, suppressing chorus and monologue, and providing the action and variety which was denied to the literary drama. He was the father in France of tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly be called a disciple of the romantic school of England and Spain. It is impossible to know how much later dramatists were indebted to him in detail, since only a fraction of his work is preserved, but their general obligation is amply established. He died in 1631 or 1632.

The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The account
given by the brothers Parfaict in their _Hist. du theatre francais_
(1745, &c., vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution, and no
documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified him with the
provincial playwright picturesquely described in chap. xi. of _Le Page
disgracie_ (1643), the autobiography of Tristan l'Hermite, but if the
portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more probably drawn from
Theophile. See _Le Theatre d'Alexandre Hardy_, edited by E. Stengel
(Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E. Lombard, "Etude sur
Alexandre Hardy," in _Zeitschr. fur neufranz. Spr. u. Lit._ (Oppeln
and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K. Nagel, _A. Hardy's
Einfluss auf Pierre Corneille_ (Marburg, 1884); and especially E.
Rigal, _Alexandre Hardy ..._ (Paris, 1889) and _Le Theatre francais
avant la periode classique_ (Paris, 1901.)