Chapter XII: Part 12

Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at this new prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into voluntary exile. First he journeyed to Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where he was honourably received by Antiochus III. of Syria, who was then preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him to equip a fleet and throw a body of troops on the south of Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to courtiers and flatterers, and would not entrust Hannibal with any important charge. In 190 he was placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, but was defeated in a battle off the river Eurymedon.

From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went back to Asia, and sought refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him out, and they sent Flaminius to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to fall into his enemies' hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora, he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter of controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died in the same year as Scipio Africanus.

As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and Gauls. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally great, among which he singles out his "more than Punic perfidy" and "an inhuman cruelty." For the first there would seem to be no further justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favourably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal.

AUTHORITIES.--Polybius iii.-xv., xxi.-ii., xxiv.; Livy xxi.-xxx.;
Cornelius Nepos, _Vita Hannibalis_; Appian, _Bellum Hannibalicum_; E.
Hennebert, _Histoire d'Annibal_ (Paris, 1870-1891, 3 vols.); F. A.
Dodge, _Great Captains, Hannibal_ (Boston and New York, 1891); D.
Grassi, _Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Livio_ (Vicenza, 1896);
W. How, _Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage_
(London, 1899); Te Montanari, _Annibale_, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigo,
1901); K. Lehmann, _Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf Italien_
(Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also PUNIC WARS and articles
on the chief battle sites. On Hannibal's passage through Gaul and the
Alps see T. Arnold, _The Second Punic War_ (ed. W. T. Arnold, London,
1886), Appendix B, pp. 362-373, with bibliography; D. Freshfield in
_Alpine Journal_ (1883), pp. 267-300; L. Montlahuc, _Le Vrai Chemin
d'Annibal a travers les Alpes_ (Paris, 1896); J. Fuchs, _Hannibals
Alpenubergang_ (Vienna, 1897); G. E. Marindin in _Classical Review_
(1899), pp. 238-249; W. Osiander, _Der Hannibalweg neu untersucht_
(Berlin, 1900); P. Azan, _Annibal dans les Alpes_ (Paris, 1902); J. L.
Colin, _Annibal en Gaule_ (Paris, 1904); E. Hesselmeyer, _Hannibals
Alpenubergang im Lichte der neueren Kriegsgeschichte_, (1906);
Kromyer, in _N. Jahrb. f. kl. Alt._ (1907). (M. O. B. C.)

HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop. (1890), 12,857; (1900), 12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836 negroes; (1910) 18,341. It is served by the Wabash, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by boat lines to Saint Louis, Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business section is in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites with beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at Hannibal, which is the setting of _Life on the Mississippi_, _Huckleberry Finn_ and _Tom Sawyer_; Hannibal Cave, described in _Tom Sawyer_, extends for miles beneath the river and its bluffs. Hannibal has a good public library (1889; the first in Missouri); other prominent buildings are the Federal building, the court house, a city hospital and the high school. The river is here spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with East Hannibal, Ill. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and manufactories of lumber, shoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime, Portland cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells); the value of the city's factory products increased from $2,698,720 in 1900 to $4,442,099 in 1905, or 64.6%. In the vicinity are valuable deposits of crinoid limestone, a coarse white building stone which takes a good polish. The electric-lighting plant is owned and operated by the municipality. Hannibal was laid out as a town in 1819 (its origin going back to Spanish land grants, which gave rise to much litigation) and was first chartered as a city in 1839. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to it in 1843.

HANNINGTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was born at Hurstpierpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September 1847. From earliest childhood he displayed a love of adventure and natural history. At school he made little progress, and left at the age of fifteen for his father's counting-house at Brighton. He had no taste for office work, and much of his time was occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers and in charge of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised a remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He was, however, a desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to go to the little village of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading, but distinguished himself more by his daring climbs after sea-gulls' eggs and his engineering skill in cutting a pathway along precipitous cliffs to some caves. In 1872 the death of his mother made a deep impression upon him. He began to read hard, took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in Devon. Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts were turned by the murder of two missionaries on the shores of Victoria Nyanza to mission work. He offered himself to the Church Missionary Society and sailed on the 17th of May 1882, at the head of a party of six, for Zanzibar, and thence set out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and dysentery, he was obliged to return to England in 1883. On his recovery he was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June 1884), and in January 1885 started again for the scene of his mission, and visited Palestine on the way. On his arrival at Freretown, near Mombasa, he visited many stations in the neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea of opening a new route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near Victoria Nyanza in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion of the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged in a filthy hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight days his men were murdered, and on the 29th of October 1885 he himself was speared in both sides, his last words to the soldiers appointed to kill him being, "Go, tell Mwanga I have purchased the road to Uganda with my blood."

His _Last Journals_ were edited in 1888. See also _Life_ by E. C.
Dawson (1887); and W. G. Berry, _Bishop Hannington_ (1908).

HANNINGTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern rift-valley just south of the equator and in the shadow of the Laikipia escarpment. It is 7 m. long by 2 m. broad. The water is shallow and brackish. Standing in the lake and along its shores are numbers of dead trees, the remains of an ancient forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons and eagles. The banks and flats at the north end of the lake are the resort of hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is named after Bishop James Hannington.

HANNO, the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers and statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most important are the following[1]:--

1. HANNO, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished about 500 B.C. It has been conjectured that he was the son of the Hamilcar who was killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing to prove this. He was the author of an account of a coasting voyage on the west coast of Africa, undertaken for the purpose of exploration and colonization. The original, inscribed on a tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up in the temple of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally supposed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant, under the title of _Periplus_, although its authenticity has been questioned. Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far as Cape Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of his voyage the explorer found a number of hairy women, whom the interpreters called Gorillas ([Greek: Gorillas]).

Valuable editions by T. Falconer (1797, with translation and defence
of its authenticity) and C. W. Muller in _Geographici Graeci minores_,
i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, i., and
treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography.

2. HANNO (3rd century B.C.), called "the Great," Carthaginian statesman and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the chief opponent of Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have gained his title from military successes in Africa, but of these nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove Hamilcar's veteran mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, and when invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful that Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his enemy Hamilcar (q.v.). Hanno subsequently remained at Carthage, exerting all his influence against the democratic party, which, however, had now definitely won the upper hand. During the Second Punic War he advocated peace with Rome, and according to Livy even advised that Hannibal should be given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he was one of the ambassadors sent to Scipio to sue for peace. Remarkably little is known of him, considering the great influence he undoubtedly exercised amongst his countrymen.

Livy xxi. 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius i. 67 ff.; Appian, _Res
Hispanicae_, 4, 5, _Res Punicae_, 34, 49, 68.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] For others of the name see CARTHAGE; HANNIBAL; PUNIC WARS.
Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ has notices of some thirty of the
name.

HANOI, capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on the right bank of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from its mouth in the Gulf of Tongking. Taking in the suburban population the inhabitants numbered in 1905 about 110,000, including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 French, exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded native quarter built round a picturesque lake lies close to the river with the European quarter to the south of it. The public buildings include the palace of the governor-general, situated in a spacious botanical and zoological garden, the large military hospital, the cathedral of St Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and the theatre. The barracks and other military buildings occupy the site of the old citadel, an area of over 300 acres, to the west of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the Great Buddha is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m. long. Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is the seat of the general government of Indo-China, of the resident-superior of Tongking, and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of central Tongking. It is administered by an elective municipal council with a civil service administrator as mayor. It has a chamber of commerce, the president of which has a seat on the superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the court of appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and is the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry produces carved and inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-work, silk embroidery, &c. Hanoi is the junction of railways to Hai-Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, Vinh, and the Chinese frontier via Lang-Son. It is in frequent communication with Hai-Phong by steamboat.

See C. Madrolle, _Tonkin du sud: Hanoi_ (Paris, 1907).

HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853- ), French statesman and historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the department of Aisne. He received his historical training in the Ecole des Chartes, and became _maitre de conferences_ in the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. His political career was rather that of a civil servant than of a party politician. In 1879 he entered the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose step by step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1889, he returned to his diplomatic career, and on the 31st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles Dupuy to be minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption (during the Ribot ministry, from the 26th of January to the 2nd of November 1895) he held this portfolio until the 14th of June 1898. During his ministry he developed the _rapprochement_ of France with Russia--visiting St Petersburg with the president, Felix Faure--and sent expeditions to delimit the French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898 was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England is frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he published _Origines de l'institution des intendants de provinces_ (1884), which is the authoritative study on the intendants; _Etudes historiques sur les XVI^e et XVII^e siecles en France_ (1886); _Histoire de Richelieu_ (2 vols., 1888); and _Histoire de la Troisieme Republique (1904, &c.), the standard history of contemporary France._ He also edited the _Instructions des ambassadeurs de France a Rome, depuis les traites de Westphalie_ (1888). He was elected a member of the French Academy on the 1st of April 1897.

HANOVER (Ger. _Hannover_), formerly an independent kingdom of Germany, but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded on the N. by the North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Mecklenburg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony and the duchy of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian provinces of Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These boundaries include the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of Bremen, the former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province in the south is separated from Hanover proper by the interposition of part of Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873 the province was increased by the addition of the Jade territory (purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), lying south-west of the Elbe and containing the great naval station and arsenal of Wilhelmshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m.

_Physical Features._--The greater part of Hanover is a plain with
sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the banks
of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, rich meadows
are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep
ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main feature of the
northern plain is the so-called _Luneburger Heide_, a vast expanse of
moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood (though here and there
are oases of fine beech and oak woods) and intersected by shallow
valleys, and extending almost due north from the city of Hanover to
the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg. The southern portion of the
province is hilly, and in the district of Klausenburg, containing the
Harz, mountainous. The higher elevations are covered by dense forests
of fir and larch, and the lower slopes with deciduous trees. The
eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir.
The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and
the rivers consequently flow in that direction. The three chief rivers
of the province are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms
the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau,
Seve, Este, Luhe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with
its important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards);
and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Leda.
Still farther West is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to
the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various river
systems.

The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and 2 m.
broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-Lippe; the
Dummersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. in circuit; the
lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands of the north; the
Seeburger See, near Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100
ft. above the level of the sea.

_Climate._--The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is
moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and
variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E. and E., in
summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is about 46 deg.
Fahr.; in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average annual
rainfall is about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different
districts. In the west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the
burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence.

_Population; Divisions._--The province contains an area of 14,869 sq.
m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was
2,759,699 (1,384,161 males and 1,375,538 females). In this connexion
it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German states and
provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male births over
female. The density of the population is 175 to the sq. m. (English),
and the proportion of urban to rural population, roughly, as 1 to 3 of
the inhabitants. The province is divided into the six
_Regierungsbezirke_ (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim, Luneburg,
Stade, Osnabruck and Aurich, and these again into Kreise (circles, or
local government districts)--76 in all. The chief towns--containing
more than 10,000 inhabitants--are Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck,
Hildesheim, Geestemunde, Wilhelmshaven, Harburg, Luneburg, Celle,
Gottingen and Emden. Religious statistics show that 84% of the
inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman
Catholic and less than 1% to the Jewish communities. The Roman
Catholics are mostly gathered around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim
and Osnabruck and close to Munster (in Westphalia) on the western
border, and the Jews in the towns. A court of appeal for the whole
province sits at Celle, and there are eight superior courts. Hanover
returns 19 members to the _Reichstag_ (imperial diet) and 36 to the
_Abgeordnetenhaus_ (lower house) of the Prussian parliament
(_Landtag_).

_Education._--Among the educational institutions of the province the
university of Gottingen stands first, with an average yearly
attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college
in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Munden, a mining college in
Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in
Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14
commercial schools. There are also two naval academies, asylums for
the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions.

_Agriculture._--Though agriculture constitutes the most important
branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward
state. The greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much
that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. Of the entire
area of the country 28.6% is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture land,
14% in forests, 37.2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from 17 to
18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to be found
in the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Gottingen and Grubenhagen,
on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland. Rye is
generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is
admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important
article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Potatoes,
hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also extensively grown, the
latter, in connexion with the sugar industry, showing each year a
larger return. Apples, pears, plums and cherries are the principal
kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild red cranberries from the
Harz and the black bilberries from the Luneburger Heide form an
important article of export.

_Live Stock._--Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock
generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of
horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The
Luneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the
_Heidschnucken_, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of
flavour. Horses famous for their size and quality are reared in the
marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for
breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally
kept on the Luneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very
considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands;
their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and
their feathers are prepared for sale. The rivers yield trout, salmon
(in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have
their chief centre at Geestemunde.

_Mining._--Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The Harz
Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is found
around Osnabruck, on the Deister, at Osterwald, &c., lignite in
various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall
and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Luneburg; and petroleum may be
obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions of the northern lowlands
peat occurs in beds of immense thickness.

_Manufactures._--Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver,
lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron
works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and near
Osnabruck; there are extensive foundries and machine factories at
Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, Hameln, Geestemunde, Harburg, Osterode,
&c., and manufactories of arms at Herzberg, and of cutlery in the
towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger Forest. The textile industries
are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn and cloth are largely
manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabruck and Hildesheim,
and bleaching is engaged in extensively; woollen cloths are made to a
considerable extent in the south about Einbeck, Gottingen and Hameln;
cotton-spinning and weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and
Linden. Glass houses, paper-mills, potteries, tile works and
tobacco-pipe works are numerous. Wax is bleached to a considerable
extent, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries,
breweries, vinegar works and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an
important industry, especially at Wilhelmshaven, Papenburg, Leer,
Stade and Harburg; and at Munden river-barges are built.

_Commerce._--Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great
extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the province
counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, together,
55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-Geestemunde and to
it is directed the river traffic down the Weser, which practically
forms the chief commercial artery of the province.

_Communications._--The roads throughout are, on the whole, well laid,
and those connecting the principal towns macadamized. Hanover is
intersected by important trunk lines of railway; notably the lines
from Berlin to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main, from
Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to Amsterdam.

_History._--The name Hanover (_Hohenufer_ = high bank), originally confined to the town which became the capital of the duchy of Luneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to designate, first, the duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate of Brunswick-Luneburg; and it was officially recognized as the name of the state when in 1814 the electorate was raised to the rank of a kingdom.

The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy of Brunswick (q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg and its offshoots, the duchies of Luneburg-Celle and Luneburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest I. (1497-1546), duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who introduced the reformed doctrines into Luneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which was afterwards responsible for the birth of the kingdom of Hanover. By this agreement the greater part of the duchy, with its capital at Celle, came to William (1535-1592), the younger of the brothers, who gave laws to his land and added to its area; and this duchy of Luneburg-Celle was subsequently ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611), Christian (1566-1633), Augustus (d. 1636) and Frederick (d. 1648). In addition to these four princes Duke William left three other sons, and in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a compact that the duchy should not be divided, and that only one of them should marry and continue the family. Casting lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the sixth brother, George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during the period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all parts of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Denmark, the emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both before and after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 1617 he aided his brother, Duke Christian, to add Grubenhagen to Luneburg, and after the extinction of the family of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for himself, making Hanover the capital of his small dukedom. In 1648, on Duke Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665), became duke of Luneburg-Celle; and at this time he handed over Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death, to his second brother, George William (d. 1705). When Christian Louis died George William succeeded him in Luneburg-Celle; but the duchy was also claimed by a younger brother, John Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince who had forsaken the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick received Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in absolute fashion, creating a standing army and modelling his court after that of Louis XIV., and which came on his death in 1679 to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus (1630-1698), the Protestant bishop of Osnabruck. During the French wars of aggression the Luneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis XIV. and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George William, influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the Imperialists, while John Frederick was ranged on the side of France. In 1689 George William was one of the claimants for the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left without a ruler in that year; and after a struggle with John George III., elector of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the duchy by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and advancement of the house. Having introduced the principle of primogeniture into Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined to secure for himself the position of an elector, and the condition of Europe and the exigencies of the emperor favoured his pretensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's difficulties; and in 1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance to the Empire and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and title of elector of Brunswick-Luneburg with the office of standard-bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests followed this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition to the electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon for assistance; and the constitution of the Empire was reduced to a state of chaos. This agitation, however, soon died away; and in 1708 George Louis, the son and successor of Ernest Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the imperial diet. George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only child of George William of Luneburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death in 1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, with his paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His father, Ernest Augustus, had taken a step of great importance in the history of Hanover when he married Sophia, daughter of the elector palatine, Frederick V., and grand-daughter of James I. of England, for, through his mother, the elector George Louis became, by the terms of the Act of Settlement of 1701, king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714.

From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Luneburg or Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great Britain, and this personal union was not without important results for both countries. Under George I. Hanover joined the alliance against Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715; and by the peace of Stockholm in November 1719 the elector received the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an important addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II., who founded the university of Gottingen in 1737, was on bad terms with his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia, and his nephew Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between Prussia and Hanover was only just avoided. In 1743 George took up arms on behalf of the empress Maria Theresa; but in August 1745 the danger in England from the Jacobites led him to sign the convention of Hanover with Frederick the Great, although the struggle with France raged around his electorate until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Induced by political exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757 his son William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled after his defeat at Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven and to abandon Hanover to the French. English money, however, came to the rescue; in 1758 Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and Hanover suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George I. and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of residence, and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of complaint that the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed to those of the smaller country. But George III. was more British than either his grandfather or his great-grandfather, and owing to a variety of causes the foreign policies of the two countries began to diverge in the later years of his reign. Two main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealousy felt by Prussia at the increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its position as a vulnerable outpost of Great Britain. From 1793 the Hanoverian troops fought for the Allies against France, until the treaty of Basel between France and Prussia in 1795 imposed a forced neutrality upon Hanover. At the instigation of Bonaparte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a few months in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of Luneville the secularized bishopric of Osnabruck was added to the electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the rupture of the peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that the odds against them were too great; and in June 1803 by the convention of Sulingen their territory was occupied by the French. The formation of the third coalition against France in 1805 induced Napoleon to purchase the support of Prussia by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, after the defeat of Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern part of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the northern portion to France in 1810. The French occupation was costly and aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom were found in the allied armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon and the return of the old order. Represented at the congress of Vienna by Ernest, Count Munster, the elector was granted the title of king; but the British ministers wished to keep the interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. The result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new kingdom, which received East Friesland, the secularized bishopric of Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of territory, in return for the surrender of the greater part of the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia.

Like those of the other districts of Germany, the estates of the different provinces which formed the kingdom of Hanover had met for many years in an irregular fashion to exercise their varying and ill-defined authority; and, although the elector Ernest Augustus introduced a system of administrative councils into Celle, these estates, consisting of the three orders of prelates, nobles and towns, together with a body somewhat resembling the English privy council, were the only constitution which the country possessed, and the only check upon the power of its ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great Britain in 1714 he appointed a representative, or _Statthalter_, to govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries was attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well as in Great Britain. Responsible of course to the elector, the Statthalter, aided by the privy council, conducted the internal affairs of the electorate, generally in a peaceful and satisfactory fashion, until the welter of the Napoleonic wars. On the conclusion of peace in 1814 the estates of the several provinces of the kingdom were fused into one body, consisting of eighty-five members, but the chief power was exercised as before by the members of a few noble families. In 1819, however, this feudal relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers were established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected representatives; but although they were authorized to control the finances, their power with regard to legislation was very circumscribed. This constitution was sanctioned by the prince regent, afterwards King George IV.; but it was out of harmony with the new and liberal ideas which prevailed in Europe, and it hardly survived George's decease in 1830. The revolution of that year compelled George's brother and successor, William, to dismiss Count Munster, who had been the actual ruler of the country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover; one of the viceroy's earliest duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new constitution. This was done, and after William had insisted upon certain alterations, it was accepted and promulgated in 1833. Representation was granted to the peasants; the two chambers were empowered to initiate legislation; ministers were made responsible for all acts of government; a civil list was given to the king in return for the surrender of the crown lands; and, in short, the new constitution was similar to that of Great Britain. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely allay the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured to thwart the working of the new order, and matters came to a climax on the death of William IV. in 1837.

By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne, and accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as sovereign in 1837, thus separating the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover after a union of 123 years. Ernest, a prince with very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of the constitution of 1833, and his first important act as king was to declare it invalid. He appears to have been especially chagrined because the crown lands were not his personal property, but the whole of the new arrangements were repugnant to him. Seven Gottingen professors who protested against this proceeding were deprived of their chairs; and some of them, including F. C. Dahlmann and Jakob Grimm, were banished from the country for publishing their protest. To save the constitution an appeal was made to the German Confederation, which Hanover had joined in 1815; but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recovering the crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial responsibility, the legislative power of the two chambers, and other reforms, virtually restoring affairs to their condition before 1833. The inevitable crisis was delayed until the stormy year 1848, when the king probably saved his crown by hastily giving back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, having been restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and attempted to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken out when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this reign the foreign policy of Hanover both within and without Germany had been coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the king's autocratic ideas. Refusing to join the Prussian _Zollverein_, Hanover had become a member of the rival commercial union, the _Steuerverein_, three years before Ernest's accession; but as this union was not a great success the _Zollverein_ was joined in 1851. In 1849, after the failure of the German parliament at Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns of Prussia and Saxony to form the "three kings' alliance"; but this union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he soon transferred his support to Austria and became a member of the "four kings' alliance."

George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately blind, sharing his father's political ideas, at once appointed a ministry whose aim was to sweep away the constitution of 1848. This project, however, was resisted by the second chamber of the _Landtag_, or parliament; and after several changes of government a new ministry advised the king in 1855 to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was done, and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid. Acting on this verdict, not only was a ministry formed to restore the constitution of 1840, but after some trouble a body of members fully in sympathy with this object was returned to parliament in 1857. But these members were so far from representing the opinions of the people that popular resentment compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862. But the more liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which was more in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost both interest and importance owing to the condition of affairs in Germany. Bismarck, the director of the policy of Prussia, was devising methods for the realization of his schemes, and it became clear after the war over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein that the smaller German states would soon be obliged to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After a period of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the decisive step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June 1866. At once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed and neutral during the war, and with equal promptness King George refused to assent to these demands. Prussian troops then crossed his frontier and took possession of his capital. The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle of Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh bodies of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days later. By the terms of this surrender the king was not to reside in Hanover, his officers were to take no further part in the war, and his ammunition and stores became the property of Prussia. The decree of the 20th of September 1866 formally annexed Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that kingdom, while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained loyal to their sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph Legion, which was maintained largely at his expense in France, where a paper, _La Situation_, was founded by Oskar Meding (1829-1903) and conducted in his interests. These and other elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring about the return of the king to Hanover, though the Guelph party continued to agitate and to hope even after the Franco-German War had immensely increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, continued to maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and refused to be reconciled with Prussia. Owing to this attitude the German imperial government refused to allow him to take possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which he inherited on the extinction of the elder branch of his family in 1884, and again in 1906 when the same subject came up for settlement on the death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia.

In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to the value of about L1,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation of his estates in Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his continued hostility to Prussia, the Prussian government sequestrated this property; and, known as the _Welfenfonds_, or _Reptilienfonds_, it was employed as a secret service fund to combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of Europe; until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to incorporate the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the kingdom of Prussia, and there is little doubt but that the great majority of the Hanoverians have submitted to the inevitable, and are loyal subjects of the king of Prussia.

AUTHORITIES.--A. Hune, _Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover und des
Herzogtums Braunschweig_ (Hanover, 1824-1830); A. F. H. Schaumann,
_Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und Braunschweig_
(Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, _Geschichte der allgemeinen
landstandischen Verfassung des Konigreichs Hannover, 1814-1848_
(Hanover, 1857); H. A. Oppermann, _Zur Geschichte des Konigreichs
Hannover_, 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier, _Hannoversche
Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1898-1899); W. von
Hassell, _Das Kurfurstentum Hannover vom Baseler Frieden bis zur
preussischen Okkupation_ (Hanover, 1894); and _Geschichte des
Konigreichs_ Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H. von Treitschke, _Der
Herzog von Cumberland und das hannoversche Staatsgrundgesetz von 1833_
(Leipzig, 1888); M. Bar, _Ubersicht uber die Bestande des koniglichen
Staatsarchivs zu Hannover_ (Leipzig, 1900); _Hannoversches Portfolio_
(Stuttgart, 1839-1841); and the authorities given for the history of
Brunswick.

HANOVER, the capital of the Prussian province of the same name, situated in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which here receives the Ihme, 38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E. of Bremen, and at the crossing of the main lines of railway, Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. On the north and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods and groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public park. The Leine flows through the city, having the old town on its right and the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left bank and the Ihme. The old town is irregularly built, with narrow streets and old-fashioned gabled houses. In its centre lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice of the 14th century, containing interesting monuments and some fine stained-glass windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest in Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the market square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus), with an historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded for municipal business by a new building, and now contains the civic archives and museum. The new town, surrounding the old on the north and east, and lying between it and the woods referred to, has wide streets, handsome buildings and beautiful squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square at the railway station--the Ernst August-Platz--with an equestrian statue of King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Platz, with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the Georgs-Platz, with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old town, on the banks of the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with a column of victory, 154 ft. high, having inscribed on it the names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at Waterloo. In the adjacent gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust of the philosopher Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count von Alten, the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among the other churches the most noticeable are the Neustadterkirche, with a graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the Kreuzkirche, built about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the Aegidienkirche among ancient edifices, and among modern ones the Christuskirche, a gift of King George V., the Lukaskirche, the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic church of St Mary, with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of Ludwig Windthorst, "his little excellency," for many years leader of the Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of secular buildings the most remarkable is the royal palace--Schloss--built 1636-1640, with a grand portal and handsome quadrangle. In its chapel are preserved the relics of saints which Henry the Lion brought from Palestine. The new provincial museum built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and the Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also contains interesting and valuable collections of works of art. The other principal public buildings are the royal archives and library, containing a library of 200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts; the old provincial museum, which houses a variety of collections, such as natural, historical and ethnographical, and a collection of modern paintings; the theatre (built 1845-1852), one of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, the railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last, begun in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never occupied by the Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has been occupied by the technical high school, an academy with university privileges. Close to it lies the famous Herrenhausen, the summer palace of the former kings of Hanover, with fine gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an orangery, and approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length.

Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat of several learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign students, especially English, attracted by the educational facilities it offers and by the reputed purity of the German spoken. Hanover is the headquarters of the X. Prussian army corps, has a large garrison of nearly all arms and a famous military riding school. It occupies a leading position among the industrial and commercial towns of the empire, and of recent years has made rapid progress in prosperity. It is connected by railway with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, Altenbeken and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed its trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are represented; chief among them are machine-building, the manufacture of india-rubber, linen, cloth, hardware, chemicals, tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. The commerce consists principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and cereals. There are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the first German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace of Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel, of Iffland and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz died there in 1716.

Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing town
of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with Hanover, is
treated under a separate heading.

The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th century. It belonged to the family of Welf, then to the bishops of Hildesheim, and then, in 1369, it came again into the possession of the Welfs, now dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic League, and was later the residence of the branch of the ducal house, which received the title of elector of Hanover and ascended the British throne in the person of George I. One or two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which from 1810 to 1813 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom of Hanover since its foundation in 1815.

See O. Ulrich, _Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit_ (1891); Hoppe,
_Geschichte der Stadt Hannover_ (1845); Hirschfeld, _Hannovers
Grossindustrie und Grosshandel_ (Leipzig, 1891); Frensdorff, _Die
Stadtverfassung Hannovers in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1883); W.
Bahrdt, _Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover_ (1891);
Hartmann, _Geschichte von Hannover mit besonderer Rucksichtnahme auf
die Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover_ (1886); _Hannover und
Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustande seiner Industrie und Gewerbe_
(1874); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover_ (1860, fol.).

HANOVER, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1900) 377; (1910) 356. It is served by boats on the Ohio river and by stages to Madison, the nearest railway station. Along the border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 ft. above the river is Hanover College, an institution under Presbyterian control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, and offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music; there is no charge for tuition. In 1908-1909 there were 211 students, 75 being in the Academy. The institution was opened in a log cabin in 1827, was incorporated as Hanover Academy in 1828, was adopted as a synodical school by the Presbyterian Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a Theological department be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its present name. In 1840, however, the theological department became a separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence in 1859 it was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first, the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-west, and, in 1886, the McCormick Theological Seminary. In the years immediately after its incorporation in 1833 Hanover College introduced the "manual labor system" and was for a time very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender the charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison. This effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a more liberal charter for the college. In 1880 the college became coeducational.

HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 1884; (1910) 2075. No railway enters this township; the Ledyard Free Bridge (the first free bridge across the Connecticut) connects it with Norwich, Vt., which is served by the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged hills, broken by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink Brook, rise near the river and culminate in the E. section in Moose Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose Mountain is the birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture, dairying and lumbering are the chief pursuits of the inhabitants. The village of Hanover, the principal settlement of the township, occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. corner, and is the seat of Dartmouth College (q.v.), which has a strikingly beautiful campus, and among its buildings several excellent examples of the colonial style, notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary Hitchcock memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected in 1890-1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The charter of the township was granted by Gov. Benning Wentworth on the 4th of July 1761, and the first settlement was made in May 1765. The records of the town meetings and selectmen, 1761-1818, have been published by E. P. Storrs (Hanover, 1905).

See Frederick Chase, _A History of Dartmouth College and the Town of
Hanover_ (Cambridge, 1891).