Chapter XII: Part II: The Practice of Horticulture (10)

_Hospital Economics._--There is no doubt that the voluntary system of
hospital government is far more economical than any system of state or
rate-supported hospitals. That the present condition of the voluntary
hospitals in regard to economy is all that can be wished is not, of
course, true. Still, resting as this system does upon the goodwill of
the public for its continuance and maintenance, it is satisfactory to
note that there is a continuous improvement in system and method,
which makes for economy. It has taken many years to perfect and
enforce the uniform system of hospital accounts, but this system with
the co-operation of the great funds has produced economical results of
the first importance. This system originated at the Queen's Hospital,
Birmingham, in 1869, and was devised by an eminent Birmingham
accountant, William Laundy, and Sir Henry Burdett. It proved so
fruitful in practice that six years later it was introduced at the
"Dreadnought" Seamen's Hospital, the first London hospital to use it,
and was then adopted spontaneously by a few of the best-administered
hospitals where the managers were keen in enforcing economy. In 1891,
in order to secure for comparative purposes an identical
classification of the items and charges included in the system, a
glossary or index of classification was prepared and published in the
_Hospital Annual_ of that year. This index enabled the same
classification of the many items included in the expenditure of a
great institution to be adopted generally. In the same year a
committee of hospital secretaries, at the instigation of the
Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund, revised and elaborated the index of
classification, and the new index was adopted by a general meeting of
hospital secretaries in January 1892. The Council of the Metropolitan
Hospital Sunday Fund approved it, and the Uniform System of Accounts
was formulated by that body for the use of the metropolitan hospitals.
In 1906 the whole of this system was inquired into on behalf of the
King's Fund by Mr John G. Griffiths, F.C.A., when a committee of
hospital secretaries and representatives of the King's Fund prepared a
further revision of the system. This was completed in the course of
the year and adopted by the King's, the Hospital Sunday and the
Hospital Saturday Funds. The publication of a book by Sir Henry
Burdett led to the adoption of the system in several of the British
Colonies, and as a result of the action taken in the British Empire
the Uniform System of Accounts has recently been set up and adopted by
the principal hospitals of the United States of America. The prince of
Wales (George V.) testified to the value of this system in enforcing
control over expenditure, and Sir Henry Burdett adapted it for the use
of the authorities of all charities of every class. It is probable
that no single reform has had a greater influence for good upon the
administration of charitable institutions than the evolution and
enforcement of the uniform system of accounts.

_Nursing._--The arrangements for nursing the sick have greatly
improved in recent times, although controversy still goes on as to the
best method of carrying it out. In arranging for the nursing in a
hospital both efficiency and economy have to be considered. No ward in
a general hospital for acute cases should contain more than 24 beds.
In hospitals with clinical schools the proportion of nurses to
patients should be about one nurse to every three patients, and if
possible every ward should have a probationer on duty at night in
addition to the night nurse. In all well-conducted hospitals it is now
arranged that the nurses on night duty have a hot meal served in the
general dining-room during the night, and this is only possible where
a nurse and a probationer are allowed for each ward. The nurses'
quarters should be separate from the hospital proper, and connected by
a conservatory or covered way. Each nurse should have a separate
bedroom, measuring not less than 12 ft. long, 9 ft. broad and 10 ft.
high. A bath should be allowed for every eight rooms, and the
water-closets and sinks should, if possible, be in sanitary towers cut
off from the main block of buildings.

Circumstances must to a large extent determine the arrangement, but it
seems desirable on the whole that the work of a nurse should be
confined to a single ward at a time if possible. The duties of nurses
ought also to be distinctly confined to attendance on the sick, and no
menial work, such as scrubbing floors and the like, should be demanded
of them; a proper staff of servants ought to be employed for such
purposes. It is also desirable that a separate pavilion for lodging
the nurses should be set apart, and that fair and reasonable time for
rest and recreation should be allowed. Some discussion has taken place
as to the advisability of placing the nursing of a hospital in the
hands of a sisterhood or a separate corporation. It will, however, be
admitted that the best plan is for the nursing staff of each hospital
to be special and under one head within the establishment itself, even
though it may be connected with some main institution outside. The
nursing must, of course, be carried on in accordance with the
directions and treatment of the physicians and surgeons.

_General._--The kitchen, laundry, dispensary and other offices must be
in a separate pavilion or pavilions, away from the wards, but within
convenient access. A separate pavilion for isolation of infectious
cases is desirable. This may be a wooden hut, or in some cases even a
tent; either is probably preferable to a permanent block of buildings.
A disinfecting chamber ought to be provided where heat can be applied
to clothes and bedding, for the destruction both of vermin and of the
germs of disease. It is advisable to expose all bedding and clothing
to its influence after each occasion of wear. Although this may entail
additional expense from the deterioration of fabric, it is worth the
outlay to secure immunity from disease. This plan is rigidly followed
at the Royal South Hants Infirmary at Southampton. It is of great
importance that the wards should be periodically emptied and kept
unoccupied for not less than one month in each year, and longer if
possible. During such period thorough cleansing and flushing with air
could be carried out, so as to prevent any continuous deposit of
organic matter.

_Gate House or Admission Block._--If the efficiency of a hospital and
the regular and smooth working of its departments are to be secured,
the proper management and control of the admission department is of
the greatest importance. When one considers for a moment the number of
applicants of all ages in various stages of disease, and the number of
accident cases of every degree of severity who present themselves
every day seeking admission, it will be evident that the most careful
supervision must be exercised on the very threshold. It is essential
that every precaution be taken against the admission of an unsuitable
case, or the refusal, without careful examination, of any patient
seeking admission. It is only necessary to instance the case of a
patient with delirium tremens being admitted to a general ward at a
late hour, or a case of infectious disease admitted through an
overlook, or a case refused admission and expiring on the way home, in
order to illustrate the danger and trouble which might arise should
the supervision exercised over this department not be systematic,
stringent and thorough.

To secure this proper control it is necessary that the admission
department should be designed on a definite plan suitable for the
purposes in view. It is not sufficient to utilize any available rooms,
say, in the basement of the building, where patients may be casually
interviewed by a house surgeon or physician. This department should be
as carefully designed and equipped as any other department of the
hospital.

Within recent years much more attention has been devoted to the
details of construction than was formerly considered necessary, but
even in the best type of hospital there is still much to be desired in
this respect. It is essential for an architect in designing any
building to have before him an accurate idea of all the requirements,
and the use to which each foot of space is to be put; for unless he is
furnished with this information it is not possible for him to design
his building so as to give effect to all the details which are so
necessary. The following is an endeavour in a general way to enumerate
the various points which an architect should have before him in
designing the admission department of a general hospital:--

The admission department should be conveniently placed on the ground
floor of the hospital--or it may be a detached building--with a large
court where ambulance wagons or other vehicles may easily pass each
other on approaching or retiring from the institution. The entrance to
the admission department for patients should, if possible, be entirely
separate and distinct from that for the staff and students. An
additional entrance should be provided for patients' friends on
visiting days, in order that they may be able to enter the hospital
without passing through the patients' entrance, or coming into contact
with an accident case or other patient seeking admission. The main
entrance door should be protected by a covered porch so that patients
may be removed from the ambulance or cab to the examination room
without being exposed to the weather or the gaze of inquisitive
onlookers. This door should be sufficiently wide to allow two hand
ambulances or barrows to pass should they require to be brought out to
the ambulance or cab, and to facilitate this the floor of the entrance
hall should be as nearly as possible on a level with that of the
outside porch. Adjoining the entrance vestibule, lavatory
accommodation should be provided for males and females who may
accompany the patient. Lavatory accommodation should also be provided
for porters on duty, and all lavatories should have a cut-off
ventilating passage.

A recess to store ambulance barrows should adjoin the entrance, and
this recess must be in proportion to the size of the hospital, in
order that a hand ambulance may always be available when an accident
or urgent case arrives. The vestibule should lead into a large
waiting-hall with an inquiry office at its entrance, provided with a
telephone exchange, private exchange box, also letter and parcel
racks. If possible a window of the inquiry office should command a
view of the main entrance. A room should be provided for the medical
officer on duty, so that a medical officer may be always at hand and
that no delay will occur in attending to a patient on arrival.

Leading off from this waiting-hall, well-lit examination rooms should
be available for the thorough examination of patients, both male and
female, the number of rooms, of course, varying with the size of the
hospital and the amount of work to be done. Each of these rooms should
be fitted with a wash-hand basin and sink, and a plentiful supply of
hot and cold water.

Two rooms, with recovery rooms adjoining, should be fitted up as small
operating-rooms for the treatment of minor casualties. A special room
should also be furnished with an X-ray outfit, and arrangements should
be made whereby this room can be readily darkened so that suspected
fractures, &c. may be examined with the fluorescent screen.

Adjoining the admission department two small wards should be provided
for the accommodation of drunk or noisy cases unfit to be placed in
the general wards. To these "emergency wards" must be attached the
usual bathroom and lavatory accommodation, nurses' room, ward kitchen
and urine-test room or small lavatory. These wards should have double
windows in order to prevent noise being heard outside if the wards are
near other buildings.

The interior walls of the admission department should, as far as
possible, have a smooth and impervious surface, in order that they may
be easily cleaned. All angles should be avoided and all corners
rounded. Although glazed tiles are open to the criticism that they
have numerous joints, they probably make the most suitable wall yet
devised, as they can be easily washed down at very small cost. The
corridors and waiting-hall should be tiled to a height of 6 ft. 6 in.,
and the upper walls covered with Parian or Kean's cement, and be
treated with three coats of flat paint and two coats of enamel, or,
what is equally suitable and less costly, enamellette. The floors of
the passages and corridors throughout the department should be covered
with terrazzo, which is a mixture of Portland cement and marble chips.
A margin of 1 ft. round the rooms should be treated in this way, and
the terrazzo carried up this same distance on the wall to join the
tiles. The remainder of the floors should be covered with hard wood,
such as American maple or teak. As these floors require to be
frequently washed, oak is not so suitable. Oak very soon becomes
destroyed with water; the same trouble is experienced with pitch pine.
The doors should also be made of a hard wood, preferably teak, and
have no mouldings or grooves where dust can lodge. They should be wide
enough to admit an ambulance barrow or bed with ease. In no case
should the doors of an examination room be less than 3 ft. 6 in. in
width.

As an aid to a complete understanding of the varied work which has to
be provided for, and the most effective method of carrying it out, the
accompanying plans are given of an admission block designed to embody
the main principles which govern the construction of such a
department.

All accidents and patients seeking admission to this hospital enter
through the central gateway, and on the left is shown the porters'
room, where a porter is always in readiness to attend to any
applicant. This room has suitable accommodation for parcels, letters,
telephones, &c., and adjoining it is a small lavatory for the use of
porters. At the side of the porters' room is the entrance to the
central waiting-hall, which is lit from the roof. On one side of this
hall are examination and dressing-rooms for males, with lavatory
accommodation; and on the other side similar provision for females,
with the addition of a nurses' duty room. At the end of the central
hall are two operating theatres, with recovery room adjoining each;
one theatre for males, and the other for females. Between these
theatres are rooms for sterilizers and dressings. An X-ray examination
room is provided beyond the male examination room on the right of the
hall. In the basement, under the entrance-hall and operating theatres
are two bathrooms for males and two for females, with W.C.'s for each.
The remainder of the basement is used as a store for patients'
clothes, and a hot-air chamber is provided for purposes of
disinfection. The basement can be reached by a lift or by a wide
staircase which is situated at the end of the waiting-hall.

In the above plan provision is made for a sitting-room for the medical
officer on duty. This is a new and essential feature in the admission
block unit of all hospitals in large cities, for it should secure that
no patient is kept waiting for many minutes before being seen. One of
the blots on the management of many hospitals is that regrettable
delays often take place, and much dissatisfaction and avoidable
suffering may arise from this difficulty in the administration of a
general hospital. We have given this plan of a model gatehouse or
admission block for a modern general hospital, because the block as it
stands contains all the elements necessary for a receiving-house block
in cities in connexion with a great Hospital city situated outside its
area, in fulfilment of the suggestion for a Hospital city made above.
Apart from its interest as a new feature which all new hospitals
should adopt, the gatehouse or admission block has an importance in
the wider sense, that it may come to form the key to the solution of
the problem of how best to provide hospital accommodation for the poor
in great cities under the best hygienic conditions, while protecting
them from the misery and danger of prolonged delay in first treatment,
especially in connexion with accidents and other cases of urgency.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir H. Burdett, _Cottage Hospitals, General, Fever and
Convalescent, their Construction, Management and Work_ (London, 1877,
1880 and 1896); Tollet, _Les Edifices hospitaliers depuis leur_
_origine jusqu'a nos jours_ (Paris, 1892); Sir H. Burdett, _Hospitals
and Asylums of the World_, with large portfolio of plans to a uniform
scale (London, 1893) (a supplement is published every year bringing
the information up to date, entitled _Burdett's Hospitals and
Charities_); J. S. Billings, _The Principles of Ventilation, Heating
and their Practical Application_ (New York, 1893); Galton, _Healthy
Hospitals_ (London, 1893); Tollet, _Les Hopitaux au XIX^e siecle_
(Paris, 1894); Billings and Hurd, _Suggestions to Hospital and Asylum
Visitors_ (Philadelphia, 1895); Oswald Kuhn, "Hospitals," _Handbuch
der Architektur_, 4th part, 5th half-volume, part i. (Stuttgart,
1897); _Plans for the Johns Hopkins Hospital_ (Baltimore, 1875);
_Report of State Board of Health for Massachusetts for 1879_.
(H. Bt.)

HOSPITIUM (Gr. [Greek: xenia, proxenia]), "hospitality," among the Greeks and Romans, was of a twofold character: (1) private; (2) public.

(1) In Homeric times all strangers without exception were regarded as being under the protection of Zeus Xenios, the god of strangers and suppliants. It is doubtful whether, as is commonly assumed, they were considered as _ipso facto_ enemies; they were rather guests. Immediately on his arrival, the stranger was clothed and entertained, and no inquiry was made as to his name or antecedents until the duties of hospitality had been fulfilled. When the guest parted from his host he was often presented with gifts ([Greek: xenia]), and sometimes a die ([Greek: astragalos]) was broken between them. Each then took a part, a family connexion was established, and the broken die served as a symbol of recognition; thus the members of each family found in the other hosts and protectors in case of need. Violation of the duties of hospitality was likely to provoke the wrath of the gods; but it does not appear that anything beyond this religious sanction existed to guard the rights of a traveller. Similar customs seem to have existed among the Italian races. Amongst the Romans, private hospitality, which had existed from the earliest times, was more accurately and legally defined than amongst the Greeks, the tie between host and guest being almost as strong as that between patron and client. It was of the nature of a contract, entered into by mutual promise, the clasping of hands, and exchange of an agreement in writing (_tabula hospitalis_) or of a token (_tessera_ or _symbolum_), and was rendered hereditary by the division of the tessera. The advantages thus obtained by the guest were, the right of hospitality when travelling and, above all, the protection of his host (representing him as his patron) in a court of law. The contract was sacred and inviolable, undertaken in the name of Jupiter Hospitalis, and could only be dissolved by a formal act.

(2) This private connexion developed into a custom according to which a state appointed one of the citizens of a foreign state as its representative ([Greek: proxenos]) to protect any of its citizens travelling or resident in his country. Sometimes an individual came forward voluntarily to perform these duties on behalf of another state ([Greek: etheloproxenos]). The proxenus is generally compared to the modern consul or minister resident. His duties were to afford hospitality to strangers from the state whose proxenus he was, to introduce its ambassadors, to procure them admission to the assembly and seats in the theatre, and in general to look after the commercial and political interests of the state by which he had been appointed to his office. Many cases occur where such an office was hereditary; thus the family of Callias at Athens were proxeni of the Spartans. We find the office mentioned in a Corcyraean inscription dating probably from the 7th century B.C., and it continued to grow more important and frequent throughout Greek history. There is no proof that any direct emolument was ever attached to the office, while the expense and trouble entailed by it must often have been very great. Probably the honours which it brought with it were sufficient recompense. These consisted partly in the general respect and esteem paid to a proxenus, and partly in many more substantial honours conferred by special decree of the state whose representative he was, such as freedom from taxation and public burdens, the right of acquiring property in Attica, admission to the senate and popular assemblies, and perhaps even full citizenship. Public hospitium seems also to have existed among the Italian races; but the circumstances of their history prevented it from becoming so important as in Greece. Cases, however, occur of the establishment of public hospitality between two cities (Rome and Caere, Livy v. 50), and of towns entering into a position of clientship to some distinguished Roman, who then became patronus of such a town. Foreigners were frequently granted the right of public hospitality by the senate down to the end of the republic. The public hospes had a right to entertainment at the public expense, admission to sacrifices and games, the right of buying and selling on his own account, and of bringing an action at law without the intervention of a Roman patron.

A full bibliography of the subject will be found in the article in
Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, to which may be
added R. von Jhering, _Die Gastfreundschaft im Altertum_ (1887); see
also Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed.,
1890).

HOSPODAR, a term of Slavonic origin, meaning "lord" (Russ. _gospodar_). It is a derivative of _gospod_, "lord," and is akin to _gosudar_, which primarily means "sovereign," and is now also used in Russia as a polite form of address, equivalent to "sir." The pronunciation as _hospodar_ of a word written _gospodar_ in all but one of the Slavonic languages which retain the Cyrillic alphabet is not, as is sometimes alleged, due to the influence of Little Russian, but to that of Church Slavonic. In both of these g is frequently pronounced h. In Little Russian the title _hospodar_ is specially applied to the master of a house or the head of a family. The rulers of Walachia and Moldavia were styled _hospodars_ from the 15th century to 1866. At the end of this period, as the title had been held by many vassals of Turkey, its retention was considered inconsistent with the growth of Rumanian independence. It was therefore discarded in favour of _domn_ (_dominus_, "lord"), which continued to be the official princely title up to the proclamation of a Rumanian kingdom in 1881.

HOST. (1) (Through the O. Fr. _oste_ or _hoste_, modern _hote_, from Lat. _hospes_, a guest or host; _hospes_ being probably from an original _hostipes_, one who feeds a stranger or enemy, from _hostis_ and the root of _pascere_), one who receives another into his house and provides him with lodging and entertainment, especially one who does this in return for payment. The word is thus transferred, in biology, to an animal or plant upon which a parasite lives. (2) (From Lat. _hostis_, a stranger or enemy; in Med. Latin a military expedition), a very large gathering of men, armed for war, an army, and so used generally of any multitude. In biblical use the word is applied to the company of angels in heaven; or to the sun, moon and stars, the "hosts of heaven," and also to translate "Jehovah Sabaoth," the Lord God of hosts, the lord of the armies of Israel or of the hosts of heaven. (3) (From Lat. _hostia_, a victim or sacrifice), the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood in the Eucharist, more particularly the consecrated wafer used in the service of the mass in the Roman Church (see EUCHARIST).

HOSTAGE (through Fr. _ostage_, modern _otage_, from Late Lat. _obsidaticum_, the state of being an obses or hostage; Med. Lat. _ostaticum_, _ostagium_), a person handed over by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against certain acts of war. The practice of taking hostages is very ancient, and has been used constantly in negotiations with conquered nations, and in cases such as surrenders, armistices and the like, where the two belligerents depended for its proper carrying out on each other's good faith. The Romans were accustomed to take the sons of tributary princes and educate them at Rome, thus holding a security for the continued loyalty of the conquered nation and also instilling a possible future ruler with ideas of Roman civilization. This practice was also adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India, and by France in her relations with the Arab tribes in North Africa.[1] The position of a hostage was that of a prisoner of war, to be retained till the negotiations or treaty obligations were carried out, and liable to punishment (in ancient times), and even to death, in case of treachery or refusal to fulfil the promises made. The practice of taking hostages as security for the carrying out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. The last occasion was at the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, when two British peers, Henry Bowes Howard, 11th earl of Suffolk, and Charles, 9th Baron Cathcart, were sent to France as hostages for the restitution of Cape Breton to France.

In modern times the practice may be said to be confined to two occasions: (1) to secure the payment of enforced contributions or requisitions in an occupied territory and the obedience to regulations the occupying army may think fit to issue; (2) as a precautionary measure, to prevent illegitimate acts of war or violence by persons not members of the recognized military forces of the enemy. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Germans took as hostages the prominent people or officials from towns or districts when making requisitions and also when foraging, and it was a general practice for the mayor and _adjoint_ of a town which failed to pay a fine imposed upon it to be seized as "hostages" and retained till the money was paid. The last case where "hostages" have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject of much discussion. In 1870 the Germans found it necessary to take special measures to put a stop to train-wrecking by parties in occupied territory not belonging to the recognized armed forces of the enemy, an illegitimate act of war. Prominent citizens were placed on the engine of the train "so that it might be understood that in every accident caused by the hostility of the inhabitants their compatriots will be the first to suffer." The measure seems to have been effective. In 1900 during the Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria (June 19th), Lord Roberts adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards (July 29) it was abandoned (see _The Times' History of the War in S. Africa_, iv. 402). The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its final occupation, took "hostages" as security against outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. Most writers on international law have regarded this method of preventing such acts of hostility as unjustifiable, on the ground that the persons taken as hostages are not the persons responsible for the act;[2] that, as by the usage of war hostages are to be treated strictly as prisoners of war, such an exposure to danger is transgressing the rights of a belligerent; and as useless, for the mere temporary removal of important citizens till the end of a war cannot be a deterrent unless their mere removal deprives the combatants of persons necessary to the continuance of the acts aimed at (see W. E. Hall, _International Law_, 1904, pp. 418, 475). On the other hand it has been urged (L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, 1905, vol. ii., "War and Neutrality," pp. 271-273) that the acts, the prevention of which is aimed at, are not legitimate acts on the part of the armed forces of the enemy, but illegitimate acts by private persons, who, if caught, could be quite lawfully punished, and that a precautionary and preventive measure is more reasonable than "reprisals." It may be noticed, however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy.

In France, after the revolution of Prairial (June 18, 1799), the so-called "law of hostages" was passed, to meet the insurrection in La Vendee. Relatives of _emigres_ were taken from disturbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, with heavy fines on the whole body of hostages. The law only resulted in an increase in the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal with the insurrection in Lombardy (_Correspondance de Napoleon I._ i. 323, 327, quoted in Hall, _International Law_).

In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune, took place the massacre of the so-called hostages. Strictly they were not "hostages," for they had not been handed over or seized as security for the performance of any undertaking or as a preventive measure, but merely in retaliation for the death of their leaders E. V. Duval and Gustave Flourens. It was an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valerien on the 4th of April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21st of May. Among the many victims who were shot in batches the most noticeable were Monsignor Darboy, archbishop of Paris, the Abbe Deguery, cure of the Madeleine, and the president of the Court of Cassation, Louis Bernard Bonjean.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The sultan of Bagiemi, in Central Africa, in 1906 sent his nephew
to undergo military training with a squadron of Spahis, and at the
same time to serve as a guarantee of his fidelity to the French
(_Bulletin du Comite de l'Afrique francaise_, Oct. 1906).

[2] Article 50 of the Hague War Regulations lays it down that "no
general penalty, pecuniary or otherwise, can be inflicted on the
population on account of the acts of individuals for which it cannot
be regarded as collectively responsible." The regulations, however,
do not allude to the practice of taking hostage.

HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (1780-1828), British naval captain, was the son of Dixon Hoste, rector of Godwick and Tittleshill in Norfolk. He was born on the 26th of August 1780 at Ingoldsthorpe, and entered the navy in April 1793, under the special care of Nelson, who had a lively affection for him. He became lieutenant in 1798, and was appointed commander of the "Mutine" brig after the battle of the Nile, at which he was present as lieutenant of the "Theseus." In 1802 he was promoted post captain by Lord St Vincent. During all his active career, he was employed in the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. From 1808 to 1814 he held the command of a detached force of frigates, and was engaged in operations against the French who held Dalmatia at the time, and in watching, or, when they came out, fighting, the ships of the squadron formed at Venice by Napoleon's orders. The work was admirably done, and was also lucrative; and Hoste, although he occasionally complained that his exertions did not put much money in his pocket, made a fortune of at least L60,000 by the capture of Italian and Dalmatian merchant ships. He also made many successful attacks on the French military posts on shore. His most brilliant feat was performed on the 13th of March 1811. A Franco-Venetian squadron of six frigates and five small vessels, under the command of a French officer named Dubourdieu, assailed Hoste's small force of four frigates near the island of Lissa. The French officer imitated Nelson's attack at Trafalgar by sailing down on the English line from windward with his ships in two lines. But the rapid manoeuvring and gunnery of Hoste's squadron proved how little virtue there is in any formation in itself. Dubourdieu was killed, one of the French frigates was driven on shore, and two of the Venetians were taken. After the action, which attracted a great deal of attention, Hoste returned to England, but in 1812 he was back on his station, where he remained till the end of the war. During the peace he did not again go to sea, and he died on the 6th of December 1828. He married Lady Harriet Walpole in April 1817, and left three sons and three daughters.

In 1833 his widow published his _Memoirs and Letters_. See also
Marshall, _Roy. Nav. Biog._ vol. iii., and James, _Naval History_.

HOSTEL, the old name for an inn (see HOSPITAL, ad init.); also employed at Oxford and Cambridge to designate the lodgings which were in ancient times occupied by students of the university and to a certain extent regulated by the authorities. In some English public schools what is known as the "hostel" system provides for an organization of the lodging accommodation under separate masterships.

HOSTIUS, Roman epic poet, probably flourished in the 2nd century B.C. He was the author of a _Bellum Histricum_ in at least seven books, of which only a few fragments remain. The poem is probably intended to celebrate the victory gained in 129 by Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul and himself an annalist) over the Illyrian Iapydes (Appian, _Illyrica_, 10; Livy, _epit._ 59). Hostius is supposed by some to be the "doctus avus" alluded to in Propertius (iv. 20. 8), the real name of Propertius's Cynthia, according to Apuleius (_Apologia_ x.) and the scholiast on Juvenal (vi. 7), being Hostia (perhaps Roscia).

Fragments in E. Bahrens, _Fragmenta poetarum Romanorum_ (1884); A.
Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum reliquiae_ (1830).

HOSUR, a town of British India, in the Salem district of Madras, 24 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901) 6695. It contains an old fort, frequently mentioned in the history of the Mysore wars, and a fine castellated mansion built by a former collector. Close by is the remount depot, established in 1828, where Australian horses are acclimatized and trained for artillery and cavalry use in southern India.

HOTCH-POT, or HOTCH-POTCH (from Fr. _hocher_, to shake; used as early as 1292 as a law term, and from the 15th century in cookery for a sort of broth with many ingredients, and so used figuratively for any heterogeneous mixture), in English law, the name given to a rule of equity whereby a person, interested along with others in a common fund, and having already received something in the same interest, is required to surrender what has been so acquired into the common fund, on pain of being excluded from the distribution. "It seemeth," says Littleton, "that this word _hotch-pot_ is in English a pudding; for in a pudding is not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing with other things together." The following is an old example given in Coke on Littleton: "If a man seized of 30 acres of land in fee hath issue only two daughters, and he gives with one of them 10 acres in marriage to the man that marries her, and dies seized of the other 20; now she that is thus married, to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put her part given in marriage into hotch-pot; i.e. she must refuse to take the profits thereof, and cause her land to be so mingled with the other that an equal division of the whole may be made between her and her sister, as if none had been given to her; and thus for her 10 acres she shall have 15, or otherwise the sister will have the 20." In the common law this seems to have been the only instance in which the rule was applied, and the reason assigned for it is that, inasmuch as daughters succeeding to lands take together as coparceners and not by primogeniture, the policy of the law is that the land in such cases should be equally divided. The law of hotch-pot applies only to lands descending in fee-simple. The same principle is noticed by Blackstone as applying in the customs of York and London to personal property. It is also expressly enacted in the Statute of Distributions (S 5) that no child of the intestate, except his heir-at-law, who shall have any estate in land by the settlement of the intestate, or who shall be advanced by the intestate in his lifetime by pecuniary portion equal to the distributive shares of the other children, shall participate with them in the surplus; but if the estate so given to such child by way of advancement be not equivalent to their shares, then such part of the surplus as will make it equal shall be allotted to him. It has been decided that this provision applies only to advancements by _fathers_, on the ground that the rule was founded on the custom of London, which never affected a widow's personal estate. The heir-at-law is not required to bring any land which he has by descent or otherwise from the deceased into hotch-pot, but advancements made to him out of the personal property must be brought in. The same principle is to be found in the _collatio bonorum_ of the Roman law: emancipated children, in order to share the inheritance of their father with the children unemancipated, were required to bring their property into the common fund. It is also found in the law of Scotland.

HOTEL-DE-VILLE, the town hall of every French municipality. The most ancient example still in perfect preservation is that at St-Antonin (Tarn-et-Garonne) dating from the middle of the 12th century. Other fine town halls are those of Compiegne, Orleans, Saumur, Beaugency and St Quentin. The Hotel de Ville in Paris built in the 16th century was burnt by the Commune in 1871 and has since been rebuilt on an extended site, the central portion of the main front being a reproduction of the old design. There is only one town hall in a French town, those erected for the mayors of the different arrondissements in Paris being called _mairies_.

HOTEL-DIEU, the name given to the principal hospital in any French town. The Hotel-Dieu in Paris was founded in the year A.D. 660, has been extended at various times, and was entirely rebuilt between 1868-1878. One of the most ancient in France is at Angers, dating from 1153. The Hotel-Dieu of Beaune (Cote-d'Or), founded 1443, is one of the most interesting, as it retains the picturesque disposition of its courtyard, with covered galleries on two storeys and large dormer windows; and the great hall of the Hotel-Dieu at Tonnerre, Yonne (1338), nearly 60 ft. wide and over 300 ft. long, is still preserved as part of the chief hospital of the town.

HOTHAM, SIR JOHN (d. 1645), English parliamentarian, belonged to a Yorkshire family, and fought on the continent of Europe during the early part of the Thirty Years' War. In 1622 he was made a baronet, and he was member of parliament for Beverley in the five parliaments between 1625 and 1640, being sheriff of Yorkshire in 1635. In 1639 he was deprived by the king of his office of governor of Hull, and joining the parliamentary party refused to pay ship-money. In January 1642 Hotham was ordered by the parliament to seize Hull, where there was a large store of munitions of war; this was at once carried out by his son John. Hotham took command of Hull and in April 1642 refused to admit Charles I. to the town. Later he promised his prisoner, Lord Digby, that he would surrender it to the king, but when Charles appeared again he refused a second time and drove away the besiegers. Meanwhile the younger Hotham was taking an active part in the Civil War in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, but was soon at variance with other parliamentary leaders, especially with the Fairfaxes, and complaints about his conduct and that of his troops were made by Cromwell and by Colonel Hutchinson. Soon both the Hothams were corresponding with the earl of Newcastle, and the younger one was probably ready to betray Hull; these proceedings became known to the parliament, and in June 1643 father and son were captured and taken to London. After a long delay they were tried by court-martial, were found guilty and were sentenced to death. The younger Hotham was beheaded on the 2nd of January 1645, and in spite of efforts made by the House of Lords and the Presbyterians to save him, the elder suffered the same fate on the following day. Sir John Hotham had two other sons who were persons of some note: Charles Hotham (1615-c. 1672), rector of Wigan, a Cambridge scholar and author of _Ad philosophiam Teutonicam Manuductio_ (1648); and Durant Hotham (1617-1691), who wrote a _Life of Jacob Boehme_ (1654).

HOTHAM, WILLIAM HOTHAM, 1st Baron (1736-1813), British Admiral, son of Sir Beaumont Hotham (d. 1771), a lineal descendant of the above Sir John Hotham, was educated at Westminster School and at the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth. He entered the navy in 1751, and spent most of his midshipman's time in American waters. In 1755 he became lieutenant in Sir Edward Hawke's flagship the "St George," and he soon received a small command, which led gradually to higher posts. In the "Syren" (20) he fought a sharp action with the French "Telemaque" of superior force, and in the "Fortune" sloop he carried, by boarding, a 26-gun privateer. For this service he was rewarded with a more powerful ship, and from 1757 onwards commanded various frigates. In 1759 his ship the "Melampe," with H.M.S. "Southampton," fought a spirited action with two hostile frigates of similar force, one of which became their prize. The "Melampe" was attached to Keppel's squadron in 1761, but was in the main employed in detached duty and made many captures. In 1776, as a commodore, Hotham served in North American waters, and he had a great share in the brilliant action in the Cul de Sac of St Lucia (Dec. 15th, 1778). Here he continued till the spring of 1781, when he was sent home in charge of a large convoy of merchantmen. Off Scilly Hotham fell in with a powerful French squadron, against which he could effect nothing, and many of the merchantmen went to France as prizes. In 1782 Commodore Hotham was with Howe at the relief of Gibraltar, and at the time of the Spanish armament of 1790 he flew his flag as rear-admiral of the red. Some time later he was made vice-admiral. As Hood's second-in-command in the Mediterranean he was engaged against the French Revolutionary navy, and when his chief retired to England the command devolved upon him. On March 12th, 1794 he fought an indecisive fleet action, in which the brunt of the fighting was borne by Captain Horatio Nelson, and some months later, now a full admiral, he again engaged, this time under conditions which might have permitted a decisive victory; of this affair Nelson wrote home that it was a "miserable action." A little later he returned to England, and in 1797 he was made a peer of Ireland under the title of Baron Hotham of South Dalton, near Hull. He died in 1813. Hotham lacked the fiery energy and genius of a Nelson or a Jervis, but in subordinate positions he was a brave and capable officer.

As Hotham died unmarried his barony passed to his brother, Sir Beaumont Hotham (1737-1814), who became 2nd Baron Hotham in May 1813. Beaumont, who was a baron of the exchequer for thirty years, died on the 4th of March 1814, and was succeeded as 3rd baron by his grandson Beaumont Hotham (1794-1870), who was present at the battle of Waterloo, being afterwards a member of parliament for forty-eight years. He died unmarried in December 1870 and was succeeded by his nephew, Charles (1836-1872), and then by another nephew, John (1838-1907). In 1907 his cousin Frederick William (b. 1863) became the 6th baron.

Other distinguished members of this family were the 2nd baron's son, Sir Henry Hotham (1777-1833), a vice-admiral, who saw a great deal of service during the Napoleonic wars; and Sir William Hotham (1772-1848), a nephew of the 1st baron, who served with Duncan in 1797 off Camperdown and elsewhere.

See Charnock, _Biographia navalis_, vi. 236.

HOTHO, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1873), German historian of art, was born at Berlin in 1802, and died in his native city on Christmas day 1873. During boyhood he was affected for two years with blindness consequent on an attack of measles. But recovering his sight he studied so hard as to take his degree at Berlin in 1826. A year of travel spent in visiting Paris, London and the Low Countries determined his vocation. He came home delighted with the treasures which he had seen, worked laboriously for a higher examination and passed as "docent" in aesthetics and art history. In 1829 he was made professor at the university of Berlin. In 1833 G. F. Waagen accepted him as assistant in the museum of the Prussian capital; and in 1858 he was promoted to the directorship of the print-room. During a long and busy life, in which his time was divided between literature and official duties, Hotho's ambition had always been to master the history of the schools of Germany and the Netherlands. Accordingly what he published was generally confined to those countries. In 1842-1843 he gave to the world his account of German and Flemish painting. From 1853 to 1858 he revised and published anew a part of this work, which he called "The school of Hubert van Eyck, with his German precursors and contemporaries." His attempt later on to write a history of Christian painting overtasked his strength, and remained unfinished. Hotho is important in the history of aesthetics as having developed Hegel's theories; but he was deficient in knowledge of Italian painting.

HOTI-MARDAN, or MARDAN, a frontier cantonment of British India in the Peshawar district of the North-West Frontier Province, situated 15 m. N. of Nowshera. Pop. (1901) 3572. It is notable as the permanent headquarters of the famous corps of Guides, and also contains a cavalry brigade belonging to the 1st division of the northern army.

HOTMAN, FRANCOIS (1524-1590), French publicist, eldest son of Pierre Hotman, was born on the 23rd of August 1524, at Paris, his family being of Silesian origin. His name is latinized by himself Hotomanus, by others Hotomannus and Hottomannus. His father, a zealous Catholic, and a counsellor of the parlement of Paris, destined him for the law, and sent him at the age of fifteen to the university of Orleans. He obtained his doctorate in three years, and became a pleader at Paris. The arts of the barrister were not to his taste; he turned to the study of jurisprudence and literature, and in 1546 was appointed lecturer in Roman Law at the university of Paris. The fortitude of Anne Dubourg under torture gained his adhesion to the cause of Reform. Giving up a career on which he had entered with high repute, he went in 1547 to Lyons, and thence to Geneva and to Lausanne, where, on the recommendation of Calvin, he was appointed professor of belles-lettres and history, and married Claudine Aubelin, a refugee from Orleans. On the invitation of the magistracy, he lectured at Strassburg on law in 1555, and became professor in 1556, superseding Francois Baudouin, who had been his colleague in Paris. His fame was such that overtures were made to him by the courts of Prussia and Hesse, and by Elizabeth of England. Twice he visited Germany, in 1556 accompanying Calvin to the Diet at Frankfort. He was entrusted with confidential missions from the Huguenot leaders to German potentates, carrying at one time credentials from Catherine de Medici. In 1560 he was one of the principal instigators of the conspiracy of Amboise; in September of that year he was with Antoine of Navarre at Nerac. In 1562 he attached himself to Conde. In 1564 he became professor of civil law at Valence, retrieving by his success the reputation of its university. In 1567 he succeeded Cujas in the chair of jurisprudence at Bourges. Five months later his house and library were wrecked by a Catholic mob; he fled by Orleans to Paris, where L'Hopital made him historiographer to the king. As agent for the Huguenots, he was sent to Blois to negotiate the peace of 1568. He returned to Bourges, only to be again driven away by the outbreak of hostilities. At Sancerre, during its siege, he composed his _Consolatio_ (published in 1593). The peace of 1570 restored him to Bourges, whence a third time he fled, in consequence of the St Bartholomew massacre (1572). In 1573, after publishing his _Franco-Gallia_, he left France for ever with his family, and became professor of Roman law at Geneva. On the approach of the duke of Savoy he removed to Basel in 1579. In 1580 he was appointed councillor of state to Henry of Navarre. The plague sent him in 1582 to Montbeliard; here he lost his wife. Returning to Geneva in 1584 he developed a kind of scientific turn, dabbling in alchemy and the research for the philosopher's stone. In 1589 he made his final retirement to Basel, where he died on the 12th of February 1590, leaving two sons and four daughters; he was buried in the cathedral.

Hotman was a man of pure life, real piety (as his _Consolatio_ shows) and warm domestic virtues. His constant removals were inspired less by fear for himself than by care for his family, and by a temperament averse to the conditions of warfare, and a constitutional desire for peace. He did much for 16th-century jurisprudence, having a critical knowledge of Roman sources, and a fine Latin style. He broached the idea of a national code of French law. His works were very numerous, beginning with his _De gradibus cognationis_ (1546), and including a treatise on the Eucharist (1566); a treatise (_Anti-Tribonien_, 1567) to show that French law could not be based on Justinian; a life of Coligny (1575); a polemic (_Brutum fulmen_, 1585) directed against a bull of Sixtus V., with many other works on law, history, politics and classical learning. His most important work, the _Franco-Gallia_ (1573), was in advance of his age, and found favour neither with Catholics nor with Huguenots in its day; yet its vogue has been compared to that obtained later by Rousseau's _Contrat Social_. It presented an ideal of Protestant statesmanship, pleading for a representative government and an elective monarchy. It served the purpose of the Jesuits in their pamphlet war against Henry IV.

See Bayle, Dictionnaire; R. Dareste, _Essai sur F. Hotman_ (1850); E.
Gregoire, in _Nouvelle Biog. generale_ (1858). (A. Go.*)

HOT SPRINGS, a city of Arkansas, U.S.A., the county-seat of Garland county, at the easterly base of the Ozark mountains, 55 m. by rail W.S.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1880) 3554; (1890) 8086; (1900) 9973, of whom 3102 were of negro descent and 561 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,434. The transient population numbers more than 100,000 annually. Hot Springs is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Little Rock & Hot Springs Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. The city lies partly in several mountain ravines and partly on a plateau. A creek, flowing through the valley but walled over, empties into the Ouachita river several miles from Hot Springs. The elevation of the surrounding hills is about 1200 ft. above the sea and 600 above the surrounding country. The scenery is beautiful, and there is a remarkable view from a steel tower observatory, 150 ft. high, on the top of Hot Springs mountain. The climate is delightful. The average rainfall for the year is about 55 in. The springs are about forty-four in number, rising within an area of 3 acres on the slope of Hot Springs mountain. They are all included within a reservation held by the United States government, which (since 1903) exercises complete jurisdiction. The daily flow from the springs used is more than 800,000 gallons. Their temperature varies from 95 deg. to 147 deg. F. The waters are tasteless and inodorous, and contain calcium and magnesium bicarbonates, combinations of hydrogen and silicon, and of iodides, bromides and lithium. The national government maintains at Hot Springs an army and navy hospital, and a bath-house open gratuitously to indigent bathers. The business of Hot Springs consists mainly in caring for its visitors. Fruit-raising and small gardening characterize its environs. There are sulphur, lithia and other springs near the city, and an ostrich farm and an alligator farm in the suburbs. The finest of the novaculite rocks of central Arkansas are quarried near the city. The total value of its factory product in 1905 was $597,029, an increase of 213.1% since 1900.