Chapter IV: Part II: The Practice of Horticulture (2)

_The Fruit Room._--This important store should be dark, moderately dry, with a steady, moderately cool atmosphere, and with the means of giving sufficient ventilation to keep the air sweet. It should also be sufficiently commodious to permit of the fruit being arranged in single layers on the shelves or trays. A type of building which is becoming increasingly popular for this purpose, and which is in many respects superior to the older, and often more expensive structures, is built of wood, with or without brick foundations, and is thickly thatched with reeds or other non-conducting material externally--on walls and roof--while the interior is matchboarded. Ventilation is afforded at the ends, usually by tilting laths, operated by a cord. Two doors are provided at one end--an inner, and an outer--the inner being glazed at the top to admit light. They are generally span-roofed, about 6 ft. high at the eaves, and 8 or 10 ft. high at the ridge, according to width.

The length and breadth of these stores should be governed by the
amount and character of the storage accommodation to be provided. If
intended for storage only, a width of 9 ft. 6 in. would suffice, but
if intended to combine display with storage, the internal diameter
should be about 13 ft. In the former type, the walls are fitted with
four rows of shelves, about 3 ft. wide, and about 1 ft. 6 in. apart.
The shelves are of deal strips, 2 or 3 in. wide, laid about 1 in.
apart for ventilation. These are being superseded, however, by
sliding-out trays of convenient lengths and about 9 in. deep, working
on fixed framework. By this means the storage accommodation is nearly
doubled and the fruit is more easily manipulated. The central gangway
is about 3 ft. 6 in. wide. In the latter a central exhibition bench
about 3 ft. wide and of convenient height is provided. Gangways 2(1/2)
ft. wide flank this, while the shelves or drawers with which the walls
are fitted are about 2(1/2) ft. wide.

_Care of the Fruit Room._--This consists mainly in the storing only of
such fruits as are dry and in proper condition; in judicious
ventilation, especially in the presence of large quantities of
newly-gathered fruit; in the prompt removal of all decaying fruit; and
in the exclusion of vermin. It is also advisable to wash all woodwork
and gangways annually with a weak solution of formalin, or other
inodorous germicide.

_Heating Apparatus._--Plant houses were formerly heated in a variety of ways--by fermenting organic matter, such as dung, by smoke flues, by steam and by hot water circulating in iron pipes. The last-named method has proved so satisfactory in practice that it is now in general use for all ordinary purposes. The water is heated by a furnace, and is conveyed from the boiler into the houses by a main or "flow" pipe, connected by means of syphon branches with as many pipes as it is intended to serve. When cooled it is returned to the boiler by another main or "return" pipe. Heat is regulated in the structures by means of valves on the various branch pipes. The flow pipe is attached to the boiler at its highest point, to take the heated water as it ascends. The return pipe is connected with the boiler at or near its lowest point. The highest points of the pipes are fitted with small taps, for the removal of air, which would retard circulation if allowed to remain. Heating by hot water may be said to depend, in part, on the influence of gravity on water being to some extent overcome by heating in a boiler. It ascends the flow pipe by convection, where its onward journey would speedily end if it were not for the driving force of other molecules of water following, and the suction set up by the gravitation into the boiler of the cooled water by the return pipe. The power of water to conduct heat is very low. The conducting power of the iron in which it is conveyed is high. It is, however, probable that conduction is to some extent a factor in the process.

Pipes.--It is a mistake to stint the quantity of piping, since it is
far more economical and better for the plants to have a larger surface
heated moderately than a smaller surface heated excessively. In view
of the fact that air expands, becomes lighter and rises, under the
influence of heat, the pipes should be set near the floor. If intended
to raise the temperature of the structure, they should be set on iron
or brick supports just clear of walls, earth or other heat-absorbing
bodies. Those intended to provide bottom heat, however, are set in (a)
water tanks running under the beds, or (b) in enclosed dry chambers
under the beds, or are (c) embedded in the soil or plunging material.
The first-named method is distinctly superior to the others. Pipes of
2 in., 3 in., 4 in. and 6 in. diameters are mostly used, the 4 in.
size being the most convenient for general purposes. The joints are
packed or caulked with tow, smeared with a mixture of white and red
lead. Flanged joints are made to bolt together on washers of
vulcanized rubber.

_Boilers._--There are numerous types of boilers in use, illustrative
of efforts to secure as much exposure as possible to the action of the
flames. The water-tube type, with multiple waterways, consists of a
number of separate tubes joined together in various ways. Some of
these are built in the form of a blunt cone, and are known as conical
tubular boilers. Others are built with the tubes arranged
horizontally, and are known as horizontal tubular boilers. The
majority of the latter are more or less saddle-shaped. Boilers with a
single waterway are of three principal types, the Cornish, the saddle
and the conical. The Cornish is cylindrical with the furnace occupying
about half the length of the cylinder. The saddle is so named from its
supposed resemblance to a saddle. It is set to span the furnace,
additional exposure to heat being secured in a variety of ways by
flues. Exposure in the conical boiler is direct on its inner surface,
and is supplemented by flues. Tubular boilers, especially the
horizontal types, are very powerful and economical. The Cornish type
is a rather slow and steady boiler, and is much used for providing
heat for large areas. The saddle boiler is very commonly employed to
provide heat for moderately sized and small areas. Both are powerful
and economical. Conical boilers are more expensive to set by reason of
their shape, and are not so convenient to manipulate as the horizontal
kinds. All the above types require a setting of masonry. Portable
boilers are convenient for heating small areas, and are less expensive
to install than those described above. They are less economical,
however, owing to loss of heat from their exposed surfaces. What are
called sectional boilers as used in America and on the Continent are
being introduced to British gardens. Portions can be added or taken
away according to the amount of heating surface required.

_Water Supply._--Wastage of water in the boilers should be made good
automatically from a cistern controlled by means of a ball-cock. It
should be placed as high above the boiler as practicable. The feed
should connect with the return pipe near the point at which it enters
the boiler.

_Stokeholds._--These have usually to be excavated to admit of the
boilers being set below the level of the pipes they are intended to
serve. In consequence of their depth, the draining of stokeholds often
presents difficulties. Care should be taken to allow sufficient room
to properly manipulate the fires and to store fuel. It is important
that the ventilation should be as efficient as practicable, especially
where coke fuel is to be used.

_Stoking._--The management of the furnaces is relatively easy, and
consists in adapting the volume and intensity of the fires to
particular needs. It involves the keeping dean of flues, ashpits and
especially the fires themselves. Where coke or ordinary hard coal are
used, the removal of clinkers should be done systematically, and the
fires stirred. Anthracite coal fires should not be stirred more than
is absolutely necessary, and should not be fed in driblets. They
require more draught than coke fires, but care must be taken not to
give too much, as excessive heat is likely to melt or soften the
fire-bars. Draught is regulated in the ashpit by opening or closing
the bottom door of the furnace and by the damper on the smoke shaft.
The latter must be of a fairly good height, according to
circumstances, to secure a good draught.

_Solar Heat._--The importance of sun heat to the general well-being of
plant life, its influence on the production of flowers and the
ripening of edible fruits, has long been appreciated in horticulture.
The practice of "closing up" early in the afternoon, i.e. the closing
of ventilators (accompanied by syringing and damping of surfaces to
produce a humid atmosphere) has for its object the conservation of as
much solar heat as practicable.

_Ventilation._--This consists in the admission of air for the purpose
of preventing stagnation of the atmosphere and for the regulation of
temperature. Means of affording ventilation in all plant houses should
be provided in at least two places--as near the floor as practicable,
and at the top. Mechanical contrivances whereby whole sets of
ventilators may be operated simultaneously are now in common use, and
are much more convenient and economical than the older method of
working each ventilator separately. Efficient ventilating can only be
effected by the exercise of common sense and vigilance, and care must
be taken to avoid cold draughts through the houses.

III. _Garden Materials and Appliances._

_Soils and Composts._--The principal soils used in gardens, either alone, or mixed to form what are called composts, are--loam, sand, peat, leaf-mould and various mixtures and combinations of these made up to suit the different subjects under cultivation.

_Loam_ is the staple soil for the gardener; it is not only used extensively in the pure and simple state, but enters into most of the composts prepared specially for his plants. For garden purposes loam should be rather unctuous or soapy to the touch when moderately dry, not too clinging nor adhesive, and should readily crumble when a compressed handful is thrown on the ground. If it clings together closely it is too heavy and requires amelioration by the admixture of gritty material; if it has little or no cohesion when squeezed tightly in the hand, it is too light, and needs to be improved by the addition of heavier or clayey material. Sound friable loam cut one sod deep from the surface of a pasture, and stacked up for twelve months in a heap or ridge, is invaluable to the gardener. When employed for making vine borders, loam of a somewhat heavier nature can be used with advantage, on account of the porous materials which should accompany it. For stone fruits a calcareous loam is best; indeed, for these subjects a rich calcareous loam used in a pure and simple state cannot be surpassed. Somewhat heavy loams are best for potting pine apples, for melons and strawberries, fruit trees in pots, &c., and may be used with the addition of manures only; but for ornamental plants a loam of a somewhat freer texture is preferable and more pleasant to work. Loam which contains much red matter (iron) should be avoided.

_Sand_ is by itself of little value except for striking cuttings, for which purpose fine clean sharp silver sand is the best; and a somewhat coarser kind, if it is gritty, is to be preferred to the comminuted sands which contain a large proportion of earthy matter. River sand and the sharp grit washed up sometimes by the road side are excellent materials for laying around choice bulbs at planting time to prevent contact with earth which is perhaps manure-tainted. Sea sand may be advantageously used both for propagating purposes and for mixing in composts. For the growth of pot plants sand is an essential part of most composts, in order to give them the needful porosity to carry off all excess of moisture from the roots. If the finer earthy sands only are obtainable, they must be rendered sharper by washing away the earthy particles. Washed sand is best for all plants like heaths, which need a pure and lasting peaty compost.

_Peat_ soil is largely employed for the culture of such plants as rhododendrons, azaleas, heaths, &c. In districts where heather and gritty soil predominate, the peat soil is poor and unprofitable, but selections from both the heathy and the richer peat soils, collected with judgment, and stored in a dry part of the compost yard, are essential ingredients in the cultivation of many choice pot plants, such as the Cape heaths and many of the Australian plants. Many monocotyledons do well in peat, even if they do not absolutely require it.

_Leaf-mould_ is eminently suited for the growth of many free-growing plants, especially when it has been mixed with stable manure and has been subjected to fermentation for the formation of hot beds. It any state most plants feed greedily upon it, and when pure or free from decaying wood or sticks it is a very safe ingredient in composts; but it is so liable to generate fungus, and the mycelium or spawn of certain fungi is so injurious to the roots of trees, attacking them if at all sickly or weakened by drought, that many cultivators prefer not to mix leaf-mould with the soil used for permanent plants, as peaches or choice ornamental trees. For quick growing plants, however, as for example most annuals cultivated in pots, such as balsams, cockscombs, globe-amaranths and the like, for cucumbers, and for young soft-wooded plants generally, it is exceedingly useful, both by preventing the consolidation of the soil and as a manure. The accumulations of light earth formed on the surface in woods where the leaves fall and decay annually are leaf-mould of the finest quality. Leaves collected in the autumn and stored in pits or heaps, and covered with a layer of soil, make beautiful leaf-mould at the end of about twelve months, if frequently drenched with water or rain during this period.

_Composts_ are mixtures of the foregoing ingredients in varying proportions, and in combination with manures if necessary, so as to suit particular plants or classes of plants. The chief point to be borne in mind in making these mixtures is not to combine in the same compost any bodies that are antagonistic in their nature, as for example lime and ammonia. In making up composts for pot plants, the fibrous portion should not be removed by sifting, except for small-sized pots, but the turfy portions should be broken up by hand and distributed in smaller or larger lumps throughout the mass. When sifting is had recourse to, the fibrous matter should be rubbed through the meshes of the sieve along with the earthy particles. Before being used the turfy ingredients of composts should lie together in a heap only long enough for the roots of the herbage to die, not to decompose.

_Manures_ (see MANURE).--These are of two classes, organic and inorganic--the former being of animal and vegetable, the latter of mineral origin. The following are organic manures:

_Farm-yard manure_ consists of the mixed dung of horses and cattle
thrown together, and more or less soaked with liquid drainings of the
stable or byre. It is no doubt the finest stimulant for the growth of
plants, and that most adapted to restore the fertile elements which
the plants have abstracted from exhausted soils. This manure is best
fitted for garden use when in a moderately fermented state.

_Horse dung_ is generally the principal ingredient in all hot bed
manure; and, in its partially decomposed state, as afforded by
exhausted hot beds, it is well adapted for garden use. It is most
beneficial on cold stiff soils. It should not be allowed to lie too
long unmoved when fresh, as it will then heat violently, and the
ammonia is thus driven off. To avoid this, it should be turned over
two or three times if practicable, and well moistened--preferably with
farm-yard drainings.

_Cow dung_ is less fertilizing than horse dung, but being slower in
its action it is more durable; it is also cooler, and therefore better
for hot dry sandy soils. Thoroughly decayed, it is one of the best of
all manures for mixing in composts for florists' flowers and other
choice plants.

_Pig dung_ is very powerful, containing more nitrogen than horse dung;
it is therefore desirable that it should undergo moderate
fermentation, which will be secured by mixing it with litter and a
portion of earth. When weeds are thrown to the pigs, this fermentation
becomes specially desirable to kill their seeds.

_Night-soil_ is an excellent manure for all bulky crops, but requires
to be mixed with earth or peat, or coal-ashes, so as both to deodorize
it and to ensure its being equally distributed. Quicklime should not
be used, as it dispels the greater part of the ammonia. When prepared
by drying and mixing with various substances, night-soil is sold as
desiccated night-soil or native guano, the value of which depends upon
the materials used for admixture.

_Malt-dust_ is an active manure frequently used as a top-dressing,
especially for fruit trees in pots. It is rapid in its action, but its
effects are not very permanent. _Rape dust_ is somewhat similar in its
character and action.

_Bones_ are employed as a manure with decided advantage both to
vegetable crops and to fruit trees, as well as to flowers. For turnips
bone manure is invaluable. The effects of bones are no doubt mainly
due to the phosphates they contain, and they are most effectual on dry
soils. They are most quickly available when dissolved in sulphuric
acid.

_Guano_ is a valuable manure now much employed, and may be applied to
almost every kind of crop with decided advantage. It should be mixed
with six or eight times its weight of loam or ashes, charred peat,
charcoal-dust or some earthy matter, before it is applied to the soil,
as from its causticity it is otherwise not unlikely to kill or injure
the plants to which it is administered. Peruvian guano is obtained
from the excreta of South American sea-birds, and fish guano from the
waste of fish. Both are remarkable for the quantity of nitrates and
phosphates they contain.

_Pigeon dung_ approaches guano in its power as manure. It should be
laid up in ridges of good loamy soil in alternate layers to form a
compost, which becomes a valuable stimulant for any very choice
subjects if cautiously used. The dung of the domestic fowl is very
similar in character.

_Horn_, _hoof-parings_, _woollen rags_, _fish_, _blubber_ and _blood_,
after treatment with sulphuric acid, are all good manures, and should
be utilized if readily obtainable.

_Liquid manure_, consisting of the drainings of dung-heaps, stables,
cowsheds, &c., or of urine collected from dwelling houses or other
sources, is a most valuable and powerful stimulant, and can be readily
applied to the roots of growing plants. The urine should be allowed to
putrefy, as in its decomposition a large amount of ammonia is formed,
which should then be fixed by sulphuric acid or gypsum; or it may be
applied to the growing crops after being freely diluted with water or
absorbed in a compost heap. Liquid manures can be readily made from
most of the solid manures when required, simply by admixture with
water. When thus artificially compounded, unless for immediate use,
they should be made strong for convenience of storage, and applied as
required much diluted.

The following are inorganic manures:

_Ammonia_ is the most powerful and one of the most important of the
constituents of manures generally, since it is the chief source whence
plants derive their nitrogen. It is largely supplied in all the most
fertilizing of organic manures, but when required in the inorganic
state must be obtained from some of the salts of ammonia, as the
sulphate, the muriate or the phosphate, all of which, being extremely
energetic, require to be used with great caution. These salts of
ammonia may be used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre as a
top-dressing in moist weather. When dissolved in water they form
active liquid manures. The most commonly used nitrogenous manures are
nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash and sulphate of ammonia, the prices
of which are constantly fluctuating.

_Potash_ and _soda_ are also valuable inorganic manures in the form of
carbonates, sulphates, silicates and phosphates, but the most valuable
is the nitrate of potash. The price, however, is generally so high
that its use is practically nil, except in small doses as a liquid
manure for choice pot plants. Cheaper substitutes, however, are now
found in sulphate of potash, and muriate of potash and kainit. The two
last-named must not be applied direct to growing crops, but to the
soil some weeks in advance of sowing or cropping. The manures of this
class are of course of value only in cases where the soil is naturally
deficient in them. On this account the salts of soda are of less
importance than those of potash. The value of wood ashes as a manure
very much depends upon the carbonate and other salts of potash which
they contain.

_Phosphoric acid_, in the form of phosphates, is a most valuable plant
food, and is absorbed by most plants in fairly large quantities from
the soil. It induces the earlier production of flowers and fruits. In
a natural state it is obtained from bones, guano and wood ashes; and
in an artificial condition from basic slag or Thomas's phosphate,
coprolites and superphosphate of lime.

_Lime_ in the caustic state is beneficially applied to soils which
contain an excess of inert vegetable matter, and hence may be used for
the improvement of old garden soils saturated with humus, or of peaty
soils not thoroughly reclaimed. It does not supply the place of
organic manures, but only renders that which is present available for
the nourishment of the plants. It also improves the texture of clay
soils.

_Gypsum_, or sulphate of lime, applied as a top-dressing at the rate
of 2 to 3 cwt. per acre, has been found to yield good results,
especially on light soils. It is also employed in the case of liquid
manures to fix the ammonia.

_Gas lime_, after it has been exposed to the air for a few months is
an excellent manure on heavy soils. In a fresh state it is poisonous
and fatal to vegetation, and is often used for this reason to dress
land infested with wireworms, grubs, club-root fungus, &c.

_Burnt clay_ has a very beneficial effect on clay land by improving
its texture and rendering soluble the alkaline substances it contains.
The clay should be only slightly burnt, so as to make it crumble down
readily; in fact, the fire should not be allowed to break through, but
should be constantly repressed by the addition of material. The
burning should be effected when the soil is dry.

_Vegetable refuse_ of all kinds, when smother-burned in a similar way,
becomes a valuable mechanical improver of the soil; but the preferable
course is to decompose it in a heap with quicklime and layers of
earth, converting it into leaf-mould. Potato haulms, and club-rooted
cabbage crops should, however, never be mixed with ordinary clean
vegetable refuse, as they would be most likely to perpetuate the
terrible diseases to which they are subject. The refuse of such plants
should be burned as early as possible. The ash may be used as manure.

_Soot_ forms a good top-dressing; it consists principally of charcoal,
but contains ammonia and a smaller proportion of phosphates and
potash, whence its value as a manure is derived. It should be kept dry
until required for use. It may also be used beneficially in preventing
the attacks of insects, such as the onion gnat and turnip fly, by
dusting the plants or dressing the ground with it.

_Common salt_ acts as a manure when used in moderate quantities, but
in strong doses is injurious to vegetation. It suits many of the
esculent crops, as onions, beans, cabbages, carrots, beet-root,
asparagus, &c.; the quantity applied varies from 5 to 10 bushels per
acre. It is used as a top-dressing sown by the hand. Hyacinths and
other bulbs derive benefit from slight doses, while to asparagus as
much as 20 lb. to the rood has been used with beneficial effect. At
the rate of from 6 to 10 bushels to the acre it may be used on garden
lawns to prevent worm casts. For the destruction of weeds on gravel
walks or in paved yards a strong dose of salt, applied either dry or
in a very strong solution, is found very effective, especially a hot
solution, but after a time much of it becomes washed down, and the
residue acts as a manure; its continued application is undesirable, as
gravel so treated becomes pasty.

_Garden Tools, &c._--Most of these are so well known that we shall not discuss them here. They are, moreover, illustrated and described in the catalogues of most nurserymen and dealers in horticultural sundries.

_Tallies or Labels._--The importance of properly labelling plants can hardly be over-estimated. For ordinary purposes labels of wood of various sizes (sold in bundles) are the most convenient. These should be wiped with a little white paint or linseed oil, and written with a soft lead pencil before the surface becomes dry. Copying-ink pencils should not be used, as water will wash away the writing. For permanent plants, as trees, roses, &c., metallic labels with raised type are procurable from dealers, and are neat, durable and convenient. Permanent labels may also be made from sheet lead, the names being punched in by means of steel type. For stove and greenhouse plants, orchids, ferns, &c., labels made of xylonite, zinc and other materials are also used.

IV. _Garden Operations._

_Propagation._--The increase of plants, so far as the production of new individuals of particular kinds is concerned, is one of the most important and constantly recurring of gardening operations. In effecting this, various processes are adopted, which will now be described.

1. _By Seeds._--This may be called the natural means of increasing the
number of any particular kind of plant, but it is to be remembered
that we do not by that means secure an exact reproduction of the
parent, especially in the case of plants raised or evolved in the
course of generations by hybridization and selection. We may get a
progeny very closely resembling it, yet each plant possessing a
distinct individuality of its own; or we may get a progeny very unlike
the parent, or a mixed progeny showing various degrees of divergence.
Many seeds will grow freely if sown in a partially ripened state; but
as a general rule seeds have to be kept for some weeks or months in
store, and hence they should be thoroughly ripened before being
gathered. They should be sown in fine rich soil, and such as will not
readily get consolidated. In the case of outdoor crops, if the soil is
inclined to be heavy, it is a good plan to cover all the smaller seeds
with a light compost. Very small seeds should only have a sprinkling
of light earth or of sand, and sometimes only a thin layer of soft
moss to exclude light and preserve an equable degree of moisture.
Somewhat larger seeds sown indoors may be covered to the depth of
one-eighth or one-fourth of an inch, according to their size. Outdoor
crops require to be sown, the smaller seeds from 1/2 to 1 in., and the
larger ones from 2 to 4 in. under the surface, the covering of the
smaller ones especially being light and open. Many seeds grow well
when raked in; that is, the surface on which they are scattered is
raked backwards and forwards until most of them are covered. Whatever
the seeds, the ground should be made tolerably firm both beneath and
above them; this may be done by treading in the case of most kitchen
garden crops, which are also better sown in drills, this admitting the
more readily of the ground being kept clear from weeds by hoeing. All
seeds require a certain degree of heat to induce germination. For
tropical plants the heat of a propagating house--75 deg. to 80 deg.,
with a bottom heat of 80 deg. to 90 deg.--is desirable, and in many
cases absolutely necessary; for others, such as half-hardy annuals, a
mild hot bed, or a temperate pit ranging from 60 deg. to 70 deg., is
convenient; while of course all outdoor crops have to submit to the
natural temperature of the season. It is very important that seeds
should be sown when the ground is in a good working condition, and not
clammy with moisture.

2. _By Offsets._--This mode of increase applies specially to bulbous
plants, such as the lily and hyacinth, which produce little bulbs on
the exterior round their base. Most bulbs do so naturally to a limited
but variable extent; when more rapid increase is wanted the heart is
destroyed, and this induces the formation of a larger number of
offsets. The stem bulbs of lilies are similar in character to the
offsets from the parent bulb. The same mode of increase occurs in the
gladiolus and crocus, but their bulb-like permanent parts are called
corms, not bulbs. After they have ripened in connexion with the parent
bulb, the offsets are taken off, stored in appropriate places, and at
the proper season planted out in nursery beds.

3. _By Tubers._--The tuber is a fleshy underground stem, furnished
with eyes which are either visible, as in the potato and in some
familiar kinds of _Tropaeolum_ (_T. tuberosum_) and of _Oxalis_ (_O.
crenata_), or latent, as in the Chinese yam (_Dioscorea Batatas_).
When used for propagation, the tubers are cut up into what are called
"sets," every portion having an eye attached being capable of forming
an independent plant. The cut portions of bulky sets should be
suffered to lie a short time before being planted, in order to dry the
surface and prevent rotting; this should not, however, be done with
such tropical subjects as caladiums, the tubers of which are often cut
up into very small fragments for propagation, and of course require to
be manipulated in a properly heated propagating pit. No eyes are
visible in the Chinese yam, but slices of the long club-shaped tubers
will push out young shoots and form independent plants, if planted
with ordinary care.

4. _By Division._--Division, or partition, is usually resorted to in
the case of tufted growing plants, chiefly perennial herbs; they may
be evergreen, as chamomile or thrift, or when dormant may consist only
of underground crowns, as larkspur or lily-of-the-valley; but in
either case the old tufted plant being dug up may be divided into
separate pieces, each furnished with roots, and, when replanted,
generally starting on its own account without much check. Suffruticose
plants and even small shrubs may be propagated in this way, by first
planting them deeper than they are ordinarily grown, and then after
the lapse of a year, which time they require to get rooted, taking
them up again and dividing them into parts or separate plants.
Box-edging and southernwood are examples. The same ends may sometimes
be effected by merely working fine soil in amongst the base of the
stems, and giving them time to throw out roots before parting them.

5. _By Suckers._--Root suckers are young shoots from the roots of
plants, chiefly woody plants, as may often be seen in the case of the
elm and the plum. The shoots when used for propagation must be
transplanted with all the roots attached to them, care being taken not
to injure the parent plant. If they spring from a thick root it is not
to be wantonly severed, but the soil should be removed and the sucker
taken off by cutting away a clean slice of the root, which will then
heal and sustain no harm. Stem suckers are such as proceed from the
base of the stem, as is often seen in the case of the currant and
lilac. They should be removed in any case; when required for
propagation they should be taken with all the roots attached to them,
and they should be as thoroughly disbudded below ground as possible,
or they are liable to continue the habit of suckering. In this case,
too, the soil should be carefully opened and the shoots removed with a
suckering iron, a sharp concave implement with long iron handle (fig.
14). When the number of roots is limited, the tops should be
shortened, and some care in watering and mulching should be bestowed
on the plant if it is of value.

6. _By Runners._--The young string-like shoots produced by the
strawberry are a well-known example of runners. The process of rooting
these runners should be facilitated by fixing them close down to the
soil, which is done by small wooden hooked pegs or by stones;
hair-pins, short lengths of bent wire, &c., may also be used. After
the roots are formed, the strings are cut through, and the runners
become independent plants.

7. _By Proliferous Buds._--Not unlike the runner, though growing in a
very different way, are the bud-plants formed on the fronds of several
kinds of ferns belonging to the genera _Asplenium_, _Woodwardia_,
_Polystichum_, _Lastrea_, _Adiantum_, _Cystopteris_, &c. In some of
these (_Adiantum caudatum_, _Polystichum lepidocaulon_) the rachis of
the frond is lengthened out much like the string of the strawberry
runner, and bears a plant at its apex. In others (_Polystichum
angulare proliferum_) the stipes below and the rachis amongst the
pinnae develop buds, which are often numerous and crowded. In others
again (_Woodwardia orientalis_, _Asplenium bulbiferum_), buds are
numerously produced on the upper surface of the fronds. These will
develop on the plant if allowed to remain. For propagation the
buibiferous portion is pegged down on the surface of a pot of suitable
soil; if kept close in a moist atmosphere, the little buds will soon
strike root and form independent plants. In _Cystopteris_ the buds are
deciduous, falling off as the fronds acquire maturity, but, if
collected and pressed into the surface of a pot of soil and kept
close, they will grow up into young plants the following season. In
some genera of flowering plants, and notably in Bryophyllum, little
plants form on various parts of the leaves. In some Monocotyledons,
ordinarily in Chlorophytum, and exceptionally in Phalaenopsis and
others, new plants arise on the flower stems.

8. _By Layers._--Layering consists in preparing the branch of a plant
while still attached to the parent, bending it so that the part
operated on is brought under ground, and then fixing it there by means
of a forked peg. Some plants root so freely that they need only
pegging down; but in most cases the arrest of the returning sap to
form a callus, and ultimately young roots, must be brought about
artificially, either by twisting the branch, by splitting it, by
girding it closely with wire, by taking off a ring of bark, or by
"tonguing." In tonguing the leaves are cut off the portion which has
to be brought under ground, and a tongue or slit is then cut from
below upwards close beyond a joint, of such length that, when the cut
part of the layer is pegged an inch or two (or in larger woody
subjects 3 or 4 in.) below the surface, the elevation of the point of
the shoot to an upright position may open the incision, and thus set
it free, so that it may be surrounded by earth to induce it to form
roots. The whole branch, except a few buds at the extremity, is
covered with soil. The best seasons for these operations are early
spring and mid-summer, that is, before the sap begins to flow, and
after the first flush of growth has passed off. One whole summer,
sometimes two, must elapse before the layers will be fully rooted in
the case of woody plants; but such plants as carnations and picotees,
which are usually propagated in this way, in favourable seasons take
only a few weeks to root, as they are layered towards the end of the
blooming season in July, and are taken off and planted separately
early in the autumn. Fig. 15 shows a woody plant with one layer
prepared by tonguing and another by ringing.

In general, each shoot makes one layer, but in plants like the
_Wistaria_ or _Clematis_, which make long shoots, what is called
serpentine layering may be adopted; that is, the shoot is taken
alternately below and above the surface, as frequently as its length
permits. There must, however, be a joint at the underground part where
it is to be tongued and pegged, and at least one sound bud in each
exposed part, from which a shoot may be developed to form the top of
the young plant.

9. _By Circumposition._--When a plant is too high or its habit does
not conveniently admit of its being layered, it may often be increased
by what is called circumposition, the soil being carried up to the
branch operated on. The branch is to be prepared by ringing or
notching or wiring as in layering, and a temporary stand made to
support the vessel which is to contain the soil. The vessel may be a
flower-pot sawn in two, so that the halves may be bound together when
used, or it may be a flower-pot or box with a side slit which will
admit the shoot; this vessel is to be filled compactly with suitable
porous earth, the opening at the slit being stopped by pieces of slate
or tile. The earth must be kept moist, which is perhaps best done by a
thick mulching of moss, the moss being also bound closely over the
openings in the vessel, and all being kept damp by frequent
syringings. Gardeners often dispense with the pot, using sphagnum moss
and leaf-mould only when propagating india-rubber plants, perpetual
carnations, dracaenas, &c.

10. _By Grafts._--Grafting is so extensively resorted to that it is
impossible here to notice all its phases. It is perhaps of most
importance as the principal means of propagating our hardy kinds of
fruit, especially the apple and the pear; but the process is the same
with most other fruits and ornamental hardy trees and shrubs that are
thus propagated. The stocks are commonly divided into two
classes:--(1) free stocks, which consist of seedling plants, chiefly
of the same genus or species as the trees from which the scions are
taken; and (2) dwarfing stocks, which are of more diminutive growth,
either varieties of the same species or species of the same or some
allied genus as the scion, which have a tendency to lessen the
expansion of the engrafted tree. The French Paradise is the best
dwarfing stock for apples, and the quince for pears. In determining
the choice of stocks, the nature of the soil in which the grafted
trees are to grow should have full weight. In a soil, for example,
naturally moist, it is proper to graft pears on the quince, because
this plant not only thrives in such a soil, but serves to check the
luxuriance thereby produced. The scions should always be ripened
portions of the wood of the preceding year, selected from healthy
parents; in the case of shy-bearing kinds, it is better to obtain them
from the fruitful branches. The scions should be taken off some weeks
before they are wanted, and half-buried in the earth, since the stock
at the time of grafting should in point of vegetation be somewhat in
advance of the graft. During winter, grafts may be conveyed long
distances, if carefully packed. If they have been six weeks or two
months separated from the parent plant, they should be grafted low on
the stock, and the earth should be ridged up round them, leaving only
one bud of the scion exposed above ground. The best season for
grafting apples and similar hardy subjects in the open air is in March
and April; but it may be commenced as soon as the sap in the stock is
fairly in motion.

_Whip-grafting_ or _Tongue-grafting_ (fig. 16) is the most usual mode
of performing the operation when there is no great difference in
thickness between the stock and scion. The stock is headed off by an
oblique transverse cut as shown at a, a slice is then pared off the
side as at b, and on the face of this a tongue or notch is made, the
cut being in a downward direction; the scion c is pared off in a
similar way by a single clean sharp cut, and this is notched or
tongued in the opposite direction as the figure indicates; the two are
then fitted together as shown at d, so that the inner bark of each may
come in contact at least on one side, and then tied round with damp
soft bast as at e; next some grafting clay is taken on the forefinger
and pushed down on each side so as to fill out the space between the
top of the stock and the graft, and a portion is also rubbed over the
ligatures on the side where the graft is placed, a handful of the clay
is then taken, flattened out, and rolled closely round the whole point
of junction, being finished off to a tapering form both above and
below, as shown by the dotted line f. To do this deftly, the hands
should be plunged from time to time in dry ashes, to prevent the clay
from sticking to them. Various kinds of grafting wax are now
obtainable, and are a great improvement upon the clay process. Some
cold mastics become very pliable with the warmth of the hands. They
are best applied with a piece of flat wood; or very liquid waxes may
be applied with a brush.

_Cleft-grafting_ (fig. 17) is another method in common use. The stock
a is cleft down from the horizontal cut d (but not nearly so much as
the sketch would indicate), and the scion, when cut to a thin wedge
form, as shown at c and e, is inserted into the cleft; the whole is
then bound up and clayed as in the former case. This is not so good a
plan as whip-grafting; it is improved by sloping the stock on one side
to the size of the graft.

_Crown-grafting_ or _Rind-grafting_ (fig. 18) is preferable to
cleft-grafting, inasmuch as it leaves no open spaces in the wood. The
stock b is cut off horizontally or nearly so in January or February.
At grafting time a slit is cut in the bark f, f, a wedge-shaped piece
of iron or a small chisel being inserted to raise the bark; the scion
is then cut to the same wedge-shaped form g, h, and inserted in the
space opened for it between the alburnum and the bark, after which it
is tied down and clayed or waxed over in the manner already described.

_Side-grafting_ is performed like whip-grafting, the graft being
inserted on the side of a branch and not at the cut end of the stock.
It may be practised for the purpose of changing a part of the tree,
and is sometimes very useful for filling out vacant spaces, in trained
trees especially.

_Inarching_ is another form of side-grafting. Here the graft is fixed
to the side of the stock, which is planted or potted close to the
plant to be worked. The branches are applied to the stock while yet
attached to the parent tree, and remain so until united. In the case
of trained trees, a young shoot is sometimes inarched to its parent
stem to supply a branch where one has not been developed in the
ordinary way.

For the propagation by grafts of stove and greenhouse plants the
process adopted is whip-grafting or a modification of it. The parts
are, however, sometimes so small that the tongue of the graft is
dispensed with, and the two stems simply pared smooth and bound
together. In this way hardy rhododendrons of choice sorts, greenhouse
azaleas, the varieties of the orange family, camellias, roses, rare
conifers, clematises and numerous other plants are increased.
Raffia--which has taken the place of bast--is generally used for
tying, and grafting wax is only used occasionally with such plants
under glass. All grafting of this kind is done in the propagating
house, at any season when grafts are obtainable in a fit state--the
plants when operated on being placed in close frames warmed to a
suitable temperature. Roses and clematis, however, are generally
grafted from January to March and April.

_Root-grafting_ is sometimes resorted to where extensive increase is
an object, or where stem-grafting or other means of propagation are
not available. In this case the scion is grafted directly on to a
portion of the root of some appropriate stock, both graft and stock
being usually very small; the grafted root is then potted so as to
cover the point of junction with the soil, and is plunged in the bed
of the propagating house, where it gets the slight stimulus of a
gentle bottom heat. Dahlias (fig. 19), paeonies, and Wistarias may be
grafted by inserting young shoots into the neck of one of the fleshy
roots of each kind respectively--the best method of doing so being to
cut a triangular section near the upper end of the root, just large
enough to admit the young shoot when slightly pared away on two sides
to give it a similar form. In the case of large woody plants thus
worked (fig. 20) the grafted roots, after the operation is completed,
are planted in nursery beds, so that the upper buds only are exposed
to the atmosphere, as shown in the figure.

11. _By Buds._--Budding is the inserting of a bud of a choice variety
cut with a portion of bark into the bark of the stock of an inferior
nature where it is bound gently but firmly. Stone fruits, such as
peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, &c., are usually propagated in
this way, as well as roses and many other plants. In the propagating
house budding may be done at any season when the sap is in motion; but
for fruit trees, roses, &c., in the open air, it is usually done in
July or August, when the buds destined for the following year are
completely formed in the axils of the leaves, and when the bark
separates freely from the wood it covers. Those buds are to be
preferred, as being best ripened, which occur on the middle portion of
a young shoot, and which are quite dormant at the time.

The simplest and most generally practised form of budding is that
called _shield-budding_ or T-_budding_ (fig. 21). The operator should
be provided with a sharp budding knife having a thin ivory or bone
handle, for raising the bark of the stock. A horizontal incision is
made in the bark quite down to the wood, and from this a perpendicular
slit is drawn upwards to the extent of perhaps an inch, so that the
slit has a resemblance to the letter T, as at a. A bud is then cut by
a clean incision from the tree intended to be propagated, having a
portion of the wood attached to it, and so that the whole may be about
1 in. long, as at d. The bit of wood e must be gently withdrawn, care
being taken that the bud adheres wholly to the bark or shield, as it
is called, of which f is a side view. The bark on each side of the
perpendicular slit being then cautiously opened, as at b, with the
handle of the knife, the bud and shield are inserted as shown at c.
The upper tip of the shield is cut off horizontally, and brought to
fit the bark of the stock at the transverse incision. Slight ties of
soft cotton wool or worsted, or moist raffia, are then applied. In
about a month or six weeks the ligatures may be removed or slit with
the knife to allow for the swelling stem, when, if the operation has
been successful, the bud will be fresh and full, and the shield firmly
united to the wood. In the following spring a strong shoot will be
thrown out, and to prevent its being blown out by the wind, must be
fastened to a stake, or to the lower portion of the old stock which
has been left for the purpose.

To be successful the operation should be performed with a quick and
light hand, so that no part of the delicate tissues be injured, as
would happen if they were left for a time exposed, or if the bud were
forced in like a wedge. The union is effected as in grafting, by means
of the organizable sap or cambium, and the less this is disturbed
until the inner bark of the shield is pressed and fixed against it the
better. Trees to be grown in the form of a bush are usually budded low
down on the stem of the stock as near the root as possible to obviate
the development of wild suckers later on. Standard trees, however, are
budded on a sturdy young shoot close to the top. In either case the
stocks should have been carefully planted at least the previous
November when the work is to be done in the open air the following
July or August.

12. _By Branch Cuttings._--Propagation by cuttings is the mode of
increase most commonly adopted, next to that by seeds. It is effected
by taking a portion from a branch or shoot of the plant, and placing
it in the soil. There are great differences to be observed in the
selection and treatment of cuttings. Sometimes soft green leafy
shoots, as in _Verbena_ (fig. 22, a), are used; sometimes the shoots
must be half-ripened, and sometimes fully matured. So of the mode of
preparation; some will root if cut off or broken off at any point and
thrust into wet earth or sand in a warm place (fig. 22, a); others
require to be cut with the utmost care just below a joint or
leaf-base, and by a keen blade so as to sever the tissues without
tearing or bruising; and others again after being cut across may be
split up for a short distance, but there seems to be no particular
virtue in this. It is usual and in most cases necessary to cut away
the lower portion of a cutting up to just below the node or joint
(fig. 22, b, d, e). The internodal parts will not often divide so as
to form separate individual plants; sometimes, however, this happens;
it is said that the smallest piece of _Torenia asiatica_, for
instance, will grow. Then as to position, certain cuttings grow
readily enough if planted outdoors in the open soil, some preferring
shade, others sunshine, while less hardy subjects must be covered with
a bell-glass, or must be in a close atmosphere with bottom heat, or
must have the aid of pure silver sand to facilitate their rooting
(fig. 22, c). Cuttings should in all cases be taken from healthy
plants, and from shoots of a moderate degree of vigour. It is also
important to select leafy growths, and not such as will at once run up
to flower. Young shoots which have become moderately firm generally
make the best cuttings, but sometimes the very softest shoots strike
more readily. For all indoor plants in a growing state spring is a
good time for taking cuttings, but at any time during the summer
months is also favourable if cuttings are obtainable.

Cuttings of deciduous plants should be taken off after the fall of the
leaf. These cuttings should be about 6 in. to 1 ft. in length, and
should be planted at once in the ground so as to leave only the top
with the two or three preserved buds exposed. If a clean stem,
however, is desired, a longer portion may be left uncovered.
Gooseberries, currants, roses and many hardy deciduous trees and
shrubs are easily propagated in this way if the cuttings are inserted
in well-drained soil about the end of October or early in November.

Cuttings of growing plants are prepared by removing with a sharp
knife, and moderately close, the few leaves which would otherwise be
buried in the soil; they are then cut clean across just below a joint;
the fewer the leaves thus removed, however, the better, as if kept
from being exhausted they help to supply the elaborated sap out of
which the roots are formed. Free-rooting subjects strike in any
lightish sandy mixture; but difficult subjects should have thoroughly
well-drained pots, a portion of the soil proper for the particular
plants made very sandy, and a surfacing of clean sharp silver sand
about as deep as the length of the cutting.