Chapter IX: Part II: The Practice of Horticulture (7)

_Vegetable Garden._--If cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce are wanted to
plant in cold frames, the seed should be sown from about the 10th to
the 20th of this month; but judgment should be exercised, for, if sown
too early, cabbage and cauliflower are apt to run to seed. The best
date for latitude of New York is September 15th. The main crop of
spinach or sprouts that is wanted for winter or spring use should be
sown about the same date. The earth should be drawn up to celery with
a hoe preparatory to earthing up with a spade. Onions that were not
harvested and dried last month must now be attended to. Turnips of the
early or flat sorts may yet be sown the first week of this month in
the northern states, and in the south from two to four weeks later.

OCTOBER

_Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--In northern sections of the United
States, tender plants that are still outside should be got under cover
as early as possible. Delay using fire heat as long as possible,
unless the nights become so cold as to chill the plants inside the
house. Roses, carnations, camellias, azaleas, pelargoniums and the
hardier sorts of plants will do better if placed in a cold frame or
pit until the middle of November than they would in an ordinary
greenhouse. Look out for insects. Fall bulbs of all kinds may be
planted. Take up summer-flowering bulbs and tubers, such as dahlias,
tuberoses, gladioli, cannas, caladiums, tigridias, and dry them off
thoroughly, stowing them away afterwards in some place free from frost
and moisture during the winter. Before winter sets in see that the
lawn is freely top-dressed. Be careful not to mow the grass too short
in fall.

_Fruit Garden._--Strawberries that have been grown from pot-grown
layers may yet be planted in southern states; keep the runners trimmed
off. Fruit trees and shrubs may be set out; but, if planting is
deferred to the last of the month, the ground around the roots should
be mulched to the thickness of 3 or 4 in. with straw, leaves or rough
manure, as a protection against frost. The fruit garden must be
protected from the ravages of mice in winter. Mice will nest about the
plants if there is straw or other litter around them. Before winter,
all tall grass and loose litter should be taken away; if this is not
done, then the first snow should be tramped heavily around the plants,
in order to destroy any nesting-places.

_Vegetable Garden._--Celery will now be in full growth, and will
require close attention to earthing up, and during the last part of
the month the first lot may be stored away in trenches for winter. All
vegetable roots not designed to be left in the ground during the
winter should be dug up, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, sweet
potatoes, &c. The cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants grown from
seed sown last month should be pricked out in cold frames. If lettuce
is wanted for winter use, it may now be planted in the greenhouse or
cold frame, and will be ready for use about Christmas. If asparagus or
rhubarb is wanted for winter use, it should be taken up and stowed
away in pit, frame, shed or cellar for a month or two. It may then be
taken into the greenhouse and packed closely together under the stage,
and will be fit for use from January to March, according to the
temperature of the house. Vegetable gardens often become infested with
diseases that are carried over from year to year in the old plants and
litter; this is specially true of water-melons and of some diseases of
tomatoes. It is well, therefore, to burn the tops of the plants in the
fall, rather than to plough them under or to throw them on the compost
heap.

NOVEMBER

_Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Plants intended to be grown inside
should now all be indoors. Keep a sharp look-out for cold snaps, as
they come very unexpectedly in November, and many plants are lost
thereby. In cases where it is not convenient to use fire heat, 5 deg.
to 10 deg. of cold can be resisted by covering the plants over with
paper, and by using this before frost has struck the plants valuable
collections may be saved. When fire heat is freely used, be careful to
keep up the proper amount of moisture by sprinkling the paths with
water. Little can be done in the flower garden, except to clean off
all dead stalks, and straw up tender roses, vines, &c., and, wherever
there is time, to dig up and rake the borders, as it will greatly
facilitate spring work. Cover up all beds in which there are
hyacinths, tulips and other bulbs with a litter of leaves or straw to
the depth of 2 or 3 in. If short, thoroughly-decayed manure can be
spared, a good sprinkling spread over the lawn will help it to a finer
growth next spring.

_Fruit Garden._--Strawberry beds should be covered (in cold sections)
with hay, straw or leaf mulching, to a depth not exceeding 2 in. Fruit
trees and grape vines generally should be pruned; and, if the wood of
the vine is wanted for cuttings, or scions of fruit trees for grafts,
they should be tied in small bundles and buried in the ground until
spring. They may be taken in December or January if preferred.

_Vegetable Garden._--Celery that is to be stored for winter use should
be put away before the end of the month in all sections north of
Virginia; south of that it may be left in most places where grown
throughout the winter if well covered up. The stalks of the asparagus
bed should be cut off, and burned if there are berries on them, as the
seeds scattered in the soil sometimes produce troublesome weeds. Mulch
the beds with 2 or 3 in. of rough manure. All vegetable roots that are
yet in the ground, and not designed to be left there over winter, must
be dug up in this latitude before the middle of the month or they may
be frozen in. Cover up onions, spinach, sprouts, cabbage or lettuce
plants with a covering of 2 or 3 in. of leaves, hay, or straw, to
protect them during the winter. Cabbages that have headed may usually
be preserved against injury by frost until the middle of next month,
by simply pulling them up and packing them closely in a dry spot in
the open field with the heads down and roots up. On approach of cold
weather in December they should be covered up with leaves as high as
the tops of the roots, or, if the soil is light, it may be thrown over
them, if leaves are not convenient. Cabbages will keep this way until
March if the covering has not been put on too early. Plough all empty
ground if practicable, and, whenever time will permit, do trenching
and subsoiling. Cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce plants that are in
frames should be regularly ventilated by lifting the sash on warm
days, and on the approach of very cold weather they should be covered
with straw mats or shutters. In the colder latitudes, and even in the
middle states, it is absolutely necessary to protect cauliflower in
this way, as it is much more tender than cabbage and lettuce plants.

DECEMBER

_Flower Garden and Greenhouse._--Close attention must be paid to
protecting all tender plants, for it is not uncommon to have the care
of a whole year spoiled by one night's neglect. Vigilance and extra
hot fires will have to be kept up when the thermometer falls to 34
deg. or 35 deg. in the parlour or conservatory. It is well to set the
plants under the benches or on the walks of the greenhouses; if they
are in the parlour move them away from the cold point and protect them
with paper; this will usually save them even if the thermometer falls
to 24 deg. or 26 deg. Another plan in the greenhouse is to dash water
on the pipes or flues, which causes steam to rise to the glass and
freeze there, stopping up all the crevices. With plants outside that
require strawing up or to be mulched, this will have now to be
finished.

_Fruit Garden._--In sections where it is an advantage to protect grape
vines, raspberries, &c., from severe frost, these should be laid down
as close to the ground as possible, and covered with leaves, straw or
hay, or with a few inches of soil. Grapes may be pruned. Fruit trees
may be pruned from now till March in the north.

_Vegetable Garden._--Celery in trenches should receive the final
covering for the winter, which is best done by leaves or light stable
litter; in the latitude of New York it should not be less than 12 in.
thick. Potatoes, beets, turnips or other roots in pits, the spinach
crop in the ground, or any other article in need of protection, should
be attended to before the end of the month; manure and compost heaps
should be forwarded as rapidly as possible, and turned and mixed so as
to be in proper condition for spring. Remove the snow that accumulates
on cold frames or other glass structures, particularly if the soil
which the glass covers was not frozen before the snow fell; it may
remain on the sashes longer if the plants are frozen in, since they
are dormant, and would not be injured if deprived of light for eight
or ten days. If roots have been placed in cellars, attention must be
given to ventilation, which can be done by making a wooden box, say 6
by 8 in., to run from the ceiling of the cellar to the eaves of the
building above. (L. H. B.; P. H.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MODERN WORKS ON HORTICULTURE.--W. Robinson, _Alpine
Flowers_; Lord Redesdale (A. B. Freeman Mitford), _The Bamboo Garden_;
J. Weathers, _Bulbous Plants_ (33 col. plates); H. H. Cousins,
_Chemistry of the Garden_; W. Watson, _Cactus Culture for Amateurs_;
R. P. Brotherston and M. R. Smith, _Book of the Carnation_; J.
Weathers, _Cottage and Allotment Gardening_; J. Veitch and Sons,
_Manual of Coniferae_; W. Wells, _Culture of the Chrysanthemum_; Rev.
S. E. Bourne, _Book of the Daffodil_; Geo. Nicholson, _Dictionary of
Gardening_ (5 vols.); W. Robinson, _The English Flower Garden_; Geo.
Schneider, _Book of Choice Ferns_ (3 vols.); W. Robinson, _Flora and
Sylva_ (3 vols.; col. plates by the late H. G. Moon); J. Weathers,
_Flowering Trees and Shrubs_ (33 col. plates); J. Weathers, _French
Market-Gardening and Intensive Cultivation_; T. Smith, _French
Gardening_; Geo. Bunyard and O. Thomas, _The Fruit Garden_; Josh.
Brace, Fruit Trees in Pots; Dr R. Hogg, The Fruit Manual; M. C. Cooke,
_Fungoid Pests of Cultivated Plants_; Thos. H. Mawson, _The Art and
Craft of Garden-Making_; J. Weathers, _A Practical Guide to Garden
Plants_; W. Watson, _The Gardeners' Assistant_; C. H. Wright and D.
Dewar, _The Gardeners' Dictionary_; J. Weathers, _Garden Flowers for
Town and Country_ (33 col. plates); Chas. Baltet, _The Art of Grafting
and Budding_; W. Thomson, _The Grape Vine_; Thos. Baines, _Greenhouse
and Stove Plants_; R. Irwin Lynch, _The Book of the Iris_; G. Jekyll,
_Lilies for English Gardens_; E. A. Ormerod, _Manual of Injurious
Insects_; Dr A. B. Griffiths, _Manures for Fruit and other Trees_; F.
W. Burbridge and J. G. Baker, _The Narcissus_ (48 col. plates); H. A.
Burberry, _The Orchid Cultivator's Handbook_; B. S. Williams, _The
Orchid Grower's Manual_; J. Veitch & Sons, _Manual of Orchidaceous
Plants_; Dr Paul Sorauer and F. E. Weiss, _Physiology of Plants_; W.
Watson, _Orchids, their Culture and Management_; G. Massee, _Plant
Diseases_; Rev. A. Foster-Melliar, _Book of the Rose_; Wm. Paul, _The
Rose Garden_ (20 col. plates); G. Jekyll and E. Mawley, _Roses for
English Gardens_; J. Weathers, _Roses for Garden and Greenhouse_ (33
col. plates); _Nat. Rose Society, Handbook on Pruning Roses_; Rev. J.
H. Pemberton, _Roses, their History, Development and Culture_; Very
Rev. Dean Hole, _A Book about Roses_; J. Hoffmann, _The Amateur
Gardener's Rose Book_ (20 col. plates; translated from the German); A.
Gaut, _Seaside Planting of Trees and Shrubs_; E. Beckett, _Book of the
Strawberry_; W. Iggulden, _The Tomato_; J. Weathers, _Trees and Shrubs
for English and Irish Gardens_ (33 col. plates); Vilmorin et Cie.,
_The Vegetable Garden_ (Eng. ed. by W. Robinson); A. F. Barron, _Vines
and Vine Culture_; G. Jekyll, _Wall and Water Gardens_; W. Robinson,
_The Wild Garden_; L. H. Bailey, _Practical Garden Book_ (New York,
1908). (J. Ws.; W. R. W.)

HORTON, CHRISTIANA (c. 1696-c. 1756), English actress, first appeared in London as Melinda in _The Recruiting Officer_ in 1714 at Drury Lane. Here she remained twenty years, followed by fifteen at Covent Garden. At both houses during this long career she played all the leading tragedy and comedy parts, and Barton Booth (who "discovered" her) said she was the best successor of Mrs. Oldfield. She was the original Mariana in Fielding's _Miser_ (1733).

HORTON, ROBERT FORMAN (1855- ), British Nonconformist divine, was born in London on the 18th of September 1855. He was educated at Shrewsbury school and New College, Oxford, where he took first classes in classics. He was president of the Oxford Union in 1877. He became a fellow of his college in 1879, and lectured on history for four years. In 1880 he accepted an influential invitation to become pastor of the Lyndhurst Road Congregational church, Hampstead, and subsequently took a very prominent part in church and denominational work generally. He delivered the Lyman Beecher lectures at Yale in 1893; in 1898 he was chairman of the London Congregational Union; and in 1903 of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. In 1909 he took a prominent part in the 75th anniversary celebration of Hartford Theological Seminary. His numerous publications include books on theological, critical, historical, biographical and devotional subjects.

HORTON, SAMUEL DANA (1844-1895), American writer on bimetallism, was born in Pomeroy, Ohio, on the 16th of January 1844. He graduated at Harvard in 1864, and at the Harvard Law School in 1868, studied Roman law in Berlin in 1869, and in 1871 was admitted to the Ohio bar. He practised law in Cincinnati, and then in Pomeroy until 1885, when he gave up law for the advancement of bimetallism. His attention had been turned to monetary questions by the "greenback campaign" of 1875 in Ohio, in which, as in former campaigns, he had spoken, particularly effectively in German, for the Republican party. He was secretary of the American delegation to the Monetary Conference which met in Paris in 1878, and edited the report of the delegation. To the conference of 1881 he was a delegate, and thereafter he spent much of his time in Europe, whither he was sent by President Harrison in 1889 as special commissioner to promote the international restoration of silver. He died in Washington, D.C., on the 23rd of February 1895. Horton's principal works were _The Silver Pound_ (1887) and _Silver in Europe_ (1890), a volume of essays.

HORUS (Egyptian _Hor_), the name of an Egyptian god, if not of several distinct gods. To all forms of Horus the falcon was sacred; the name Hor, written with a standing figure of that bird, [Hieroglyph] is connected with a root signifying "upper," and probably means "the high-flyer." The tame sacred falcon on its perch [Hieroglyph] is the commonest symbol of divinity in early hieroglyphic writing; the commonest title of the king in the earliest dynasties, and his first title later, was that which named him Horus. Hawk gods were the presiding deities of Poi (Pe) and Nekhen, which had been the royal quarters in the capitals of the two primeval kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, at Buto and opposite El Kab. A principal festival in very early times was the "worship of Horus," and the kings of the prehistoric dynasties were afterwards called "the worshippers of Horus." The Northern Kingdom in particular was under the patronage of Horus. He was a solar divinity, but appears very early in the Osiris cycle of deities, a son of Isis and probably of Osiris, and opponent of Seth. On monuments of the Middle Kingdom or somewhat later we find besides Hor the following special forms: Har-behtet, i.e. Hor of Beht, the winged solar disk, god of Edfu (_Apollinopolis Magna_); Har-khentekthai, god of Athribis; Har-mesen (whose principal sacred animal was a lion), god of the Sethroite (?) nome; Har-khentemna, i.e. the blind (?) Horus (with a shrew-mouse) at Letopolis; Har-mert ("of two eyes") at Pharbaethus; Har-akht, Ra-har-akht, or Har-m-akhi (Harikakhis, "Hor of the horizon"), the sun-god of Heliopolis.

As a sun-god Horus not only worsted the hostile darkness and avenged his father, but also daily renewed himself. He was thus identical with his own father from one point of view. In the mythology, especially that of the New Kingdom, or of quite late times, we find the following standing epithets applied to more or less distinct forms or phases: Harendotes (Har-ent-yotf), i.e. "Hor, avenger of his father (Osiris)"; Harpokhrates (Har-p-khrat), i.e. "Hor the child," with finger in mouth, sometimes seated on a lotus-flower; Harsiesis (Har-si-Esi), i.e. "Hor, son of Isis," as a child; Har-en-khebi, "Hor in Chemmis," a child nursed by Isis in the papyrus marshes; Haroeris (Har-uer), i.e. "the elder Hor," at Ombos, &c., human-headed or falcon-headed; Harsemteus (Har-sem-teu), i.e. "Hor, uniter of the two lands," and others.

In the judgment scene Horus introduces the deceased to Osiris. To the Greeks Horus was equivalent to Apollo, but in the name of Hermopolis Parva (see DAMANHUR), which must have been among the first of the Egyptian cities to be known to them, he was apparently identified with Hermes. Although the falcon was the bird most properly sacred to Horus, not only its varieties, but also the sparrow-hawk, kestrel and other small hawks were mummified in his honour in late times.

See EGYPT: section _Religion_; Meyer, art. "Horos" in Roscher,
_Lexicon der Griech. und Rom. Mythologie_. (F. Ll. G.)

HORWICH, an urban district in the Westhoughton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 4 m. W.N.W. of Bolton, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 15,084. It lies beneath the considerable elevation of Rivington Pike, where formerly was a great forest. It has extensive locomotive works, and there are large stone quarries in the district. Bleaching and cotton-spinning and the manufacture of fire-bricks and tiles are carried on.

HOSANNA, the cry of praise or adoration shouted in recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus on his entry into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mark xi. 9 sq.; John xii. 13), and since used in the Christian Church. It is also a Jewish liturgical term, and was applied specifically to the "hosanna" branches carried in procession in the Feast of Booths or Tabernacles, the seventh day of which was called the Hosanna-day (so also in Syrian usage; cf. "Palm" Sunday). This festival (for which see Lev. xxiii. 39 sqq.; 2 Macc. x. 7; Jos. _Ant._ xii. 10. 4, xiii. 13. 15; and the Talmudic tractate _Sukkah_) already suggested a Dionysiac celebration to Plutarch (_Symp._ iv. 6), and was associated with a ceremonial drawing of water which, it was believed, secured fertilizing rains in the following year; the penalty for abstinence was drought (cf. Zech. xiv. 16 seq.). The evidence (see further _Ency. Bib._ cols. 3354, 4880 seq.; I. Levy, _Rev. des Et. juives_, 1901, pp. 192 sqq.) points to rites of nature-worship, and it is possible that in these the term Hosanna had some other application.

The old interpretation "save, now!" which may be a popular etymology,
is based on Ps. cxviii. 25 (Heb. _hoshi'ah-nna_), but this does not
explain the occurrence of the word in the Gospels, a complicated
problem, on which see the articles of J. H. Thayer in Hastings's
_Dict. Bib._, and more especially T. K. Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ s.v.

HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, _hoos_, stocking, Ger. _Hose_, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown), the name of an article of dress, used as a covering for the leg and foot. The word has been used for various forms of a long stocking covering both the foot and leg (see HOSIERY), and this is the usual modern sense. But it also formerly meant a kind of gaiter covering the leg from the knee to the ankle only, of the long tight covering for the whole of the lower limbs, and later of the short puffed or slashed breeches worn with the doublet--at this period, from the early part of the 16th century onwards, comes the distinction between the "hose" or "trunk hose" and the stocking (see COSTUME). The term is applied to certain objects resembling such a covering, as in its application to flexible rubber or canvas piping used for conveying water (see HOSEPIPE), and in botany, to the "sheath" covering, e.g. the ear of corn. The term "hose-in-hose" is thus used in botany for a flower in which the corolla has become doubled, as though a second were inserted in the throat of the first; it occurs sometimes in the primrose.

HOSEA, the son of Beeri, the first in order of the minor prophets of the Old Testament. The name Hosea ([Hebrew: Hoshea], LXX. [Greek:, Osee], Vulg. _Osee_, and so the English version in Rom. ix. 25) ought rather to be written Hoshea, and is identical with that borne by the last king of Ephraim, and by Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, Deut. xxxii. 44. Of the life of Hosea[1] we know nothing beyond what can be gathered from his prophecies. That he was a citizen of the northern kingdom appears from the whole tenor of the book, but most expressly from i. 2, where "the land," the prophet's land, is the realm of Israel, and vii. 5, where "our king" is the king of Samaria. The date at which Hosea flourished is given in the title, i. 1, by the reigning kings of Judah and Israel. He prophesied (i) in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah; (2) in the days of Jeroboam the son of Joash, king of Israel. The dates indicated by the title, which may be regarded as editorial, are, for the four kings of the southern kingdom, 789-740, 739-734, 733-721 and 720-693 B.C. respectively; and, for Jeroboam II., 782-743 (cf. _Ency. Bib._ col. 797-798). The book itself, however, plainly belongs to the period prior to 734 B.C. since, in that year, (a) the Syro-Ephraimitic war began, to which there is here no reference, nor is Assyria yet the open foe it then became; (b) Gilead became Tiglath-Pileser's (2 Kings xv. 29), whereas it is here described as still part of the territory of Israel (vi. 8; xii. 11; cf. the included place-names of v. 1). On the other hand, the prophet connects with the birth of his eldest child the approaching fall of the house of Jehu (i. 4), thus anticipating the death of Jeroboam II. in 743, and the period of anarchy which followed (2 Kings xv.). Thus the prophetic work of Hosea may be dated, with practical certainty, as beginning from some point previous to 743 and extending not later than 734.[2] This is corroborated by the general character of the book. Of its two parts, i.-iii. reflects the wealth and prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II., whilst iv.-xiv. contains frequent references to the social disorder and anarchy of the subsequent years.

The first part of Hosea's prophetic work, corresponding to chs. i.-iii., lay in the years of external prosperity immediately preceding the catastrophe of the house of Jehu in or near the year 743. The second part of the book is a summary of prophetic teaching during the subsequent troublous reign of Menahem, and, perhaps, that of his successor, Pekahiah, and must have been completed before 734 B.C. Apart from the narrative in chs. i.-iii., to which we shall presently recur, the book throws little or no light on the details of Hosea's life. It appears from ix. 7, 8, that his prophetic work was greatly embarrassed by opposition: "As for the prophet, a fowler's snare is in all his ways, and enmity in the house of his God." The enmity which had its centre in the sanctuary probably proceeded from the priests (comp. Amos vii.), against whose profligacy and profanation of their office our prophet frequently declaims--perhaps also from the degenerate prophetic gilds which had their seats in the holy cities of the northern kingdom, and with whom Hosea's elder contemporary Amos so indignantly refuses to be identified (Amos vii. 14). In ch. iv. 5 Hosea seems to comprise priests and prophets in one condemnation, thus placing himself in direct antagonism to all the leaders of the religious life of his nation. He is not less antagonistic to the kings and princes of his day (vii. 3-7, viii. 4, viii. 10 Septuagint, x. 7-15, xiii. 11).[3] In view of the familiarity shown with the intrigues of rulers and the doings of priests, it has been conjectured that Hosea held a prominent position, or even (by Duhm) that he was himself a priest (Marti, p. 2).

The most interesting problem of Hosea's history lies in the interpretation of the story of his married life (chs. i.-iii.). We read in these chapters that God's revelation to Hosea began when in accordance with a divine command he married a profligate wife, Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim. Three children were born in this marriage and received symbolical names, illustrative of the divine purpose towards Israel, which are expounded in ch. i. In ch. ii. the faithlessness of Israel to Jehovah (Yahweh), the long-suffering of God, the moral discipline of sorrow and tribulation by which He will yet bring back His erring people and betroth it to Himself for ever in righteousness, love and truth, are depicted under the figure of the relation of a husband to an erring spouse. The suggestion of this allegory lies in the prophet's marriage with Gomer, but the details are worked out quite independently, and under a rich multiplicity of figures derived from other sources. In the third chapter we return to the personal experience of the prophet. His faithless wife had at length left him and fallen, under circumstances which are not detailed, into a state of misery, from which Hosea, still following her with tender affection, and encouraged by a divine command, brought her back and restored her to his house, where he kept her in seclusion, and patiently watched over her for many days, yet not readmitting her to the privileges of a wife.

In these experiences the prophet again recognizes a parallel to Yahweh's long-suffering love to Israel, and the discipline by which the people shall be brought back to God through a period in which all their political and religious institutions are overthrown. Throughout these chapters personal narrative and prophetic allegory are interwoven with a rapidity of transition very puzzling to the modern reader; but an unbiassed exegesis can hardly fail to acknowledge that chs. i. and iii. narrate an actual passage in the prophet's life. The names of the three children are symbolical, but Isaiah in like manner gave symbolical names to his sons, embodying prominent points in his prophetic teaching (Shear-jashub, Isa. vii. 3, comp. x. 21; Maher-shalal-hash-baz, viii. 3). And the name of Gomer bath Diblaim is certainly that of an actual person, upon which all the allegorists, from the Targum, Jerome and Ephraem Syrus downwards, have spent their arts in vain, whereas the true symbolical names in the book are perfectly easy of interpretation.[4] That the ancient interpreters take the whole narrative as a mere parable is no more than an application of their standing rule that everything in the Biblical history is allegorical which in its literal sense appears offensive to propriety (comp. Jerome's proem to the book). But the supposed offence to propriety seems to rest on mistaken exegesis and too narrow a conception of the way in which the Divine word was communicated to the prophets.[5] There is no reason to suppose that Hosea knowingly married a woman of profligate character. The point of the allegory in i. 2 is plainly infidelity after marriage as a parallel to Israel's departure from the covenant God, and a profligate wife ([Hebrew: eshet znunim]) is not the same thing with an open prostitute ([Hebrew: zonna]). The marriage was marred by Gomer's infidelity; and the struggle of Hosea's affection for his wife with this great unhappiness--a struggle inconceivable unless his first love had been pure and full of trust in the purity of its object--furnished him with a new insight into Yahweh's dealings with Israel. Then he recognized that the great calamity of his life was God's own ordinance and appointed means to communicate to him a deep prophetic lesson. The recognition of a divine command after the fact has its parallel, as Wellhausen observes, in Jer. xxxii. 8.

It was in the experiences of his married life, and in the spiritual lessons opened to him through these, that Hosea first heard the revealing voice of Yahweh (i. 2).[6] Like Amos (Amos iii. 8), he was called to speak for God by an inward constraining voice, and there is no reason to think that he had any connexion with the recognized prophetic societies, or ever received such outward adoption to office as was given to Elisha. His position in Israel was one of tragic isolation. Amos, when he had discharged his mission at Bethel, could return to his home and to his friends; Hosea was a stranger among his own people, and his home was full of sorrow and shame. Isaiah in the gloomiest days of Judah's declensions had faithful disciples about him, and knew that there was a believing remnant in the land. Hosea knows no such remnant, and there is not a line in his prophecy from which we can conclude that his words ever found an obedient ear.

As already stated, this prophecy falls into two clearly distinguished sections,[7] the former (i.-iii.), already dealt with, accounting for the general standpoint of the latter (iv.-xiv.). It is not possible to make any convincing subdivisions of this latter section (cf. G. A. Smith, i. p. 223) which is best regarded as a series of separate discourses on certain recurrent topics, viz. (a) the cultus, (b) the social disorder and immorality, (c) political tendencies (alliance with either Assyria or Egypt sought).[8] In regard to each of these topics, the attitude of the prophet involves the discernment of present guilt, and the assertion of future punishment. For him the present condition of the people contained no germ or pledge of future amendment, and he describes the impending judgment, not as a sifting process (Amos ix. 9, 10) in which the wicked perish and the righteous remain, but as the total wreck of the nation which has wholly turned aside from its God. In truth, while the idolatrous feasts of Ephraim still ran their joyous round, while the careless people crowded to the high places, and there in unbridled and licentious mirth flattered themselves that their many sacrifices ensured the help of their God against all calamity, the nation was already in the last stage of internal dissolution. To the prophet's eye there was "no truth, nor mercy, nor knowledge of God in the land--nought but swearing, and lying, and killing, and stealing and adultery; they break out, and blood toucheth blood" (iv. 1, 2). The root of this corruption lay in total ignorance of Yahweh, whose precepts were no longer taught by the priests, while in the national calf-worship, and in the local high places, this worship was confounded with the service of the Canaanite Baalim. Thus the whole religious constitution of Israel was undermined. And the political state of the realm was in Hosea's eyes not more hopeful. The dynasty of Jehu, still great and powerful when the prophet's labours began, is itself an incorporation of national sin. Founded on the bloodshed of Jezreel, it must fall by God's vengeance, and the state shall fall with it (i. 4, iii. 4). This sentence stands at the head of Hosea's predictions, and throughout the book the civil constitution of Ephraim is represented as equally lawless and godless with the corrupt religious establishment. The anarchy that followed on the murder of Zachariah appears to the prophet as the natural decadence of a realm not founded on divine ordinance. The nation had rejected Yahweh, the only helper. And now the avenging Assyrian[9] is at hand. Samaria's king shall pass away as foam on the water. Fortress and city shall fall before the ruthless invader, who spares neither age nor sex, and thistles shall cover the desolate altars of Ephraim.

In our present book of Hosea, this condemnatory judgment on
contemporary Israel culminates in a chapter of appeal for penitence,
with promise of divine forgiveness. The question of the authenticity
of this and of other "restoration" passages[10] forms the chief
problem for literary criticism presented by the book.[11] Amongst the
more recent commentators, Davidson, G. A. Smith and Nowack regard
Hosea xiv. as written by the prophet, though the second admits its
chronological misplacement and the third its later expansion. On the
other hand, it is altogether rejected by Cheyne, Wellhausen, Marti and
Harper. These claim that the passage reflects the later standpoint of
completed punishment, and is therefore inconsistent in the prophet who
anticipates that punishment. But the case is different from that of
the epilogue to Amos, since Hosea's personal experience covers
forgiveness as well as discipline (Marti consistently, though without
ground, rejects this experience also). There seems, therefore, to be
no sufficient evidence for denying thoughts of restoration to Hosea,
whilst it is highly probable that such passages would be amplified in
a later age. Indeed, the importance of these passages for the
interpretation of Hosea is apt to be overrated, for, as one of those
rejecting them remarks, though Hosea "promised nothing," yet he
"contributed a conception of Yahweh which made such a future not only
possible but even probable" (Harper, p. cliii.). We may therefore read
the closing chapter as, at least, the explicit statement of a hope
implicit in Hosea's teaching.

Hosea could discern no faithful remnant in Ephraim, yet Ephraim in all his corruption is the son of Yahweh, a child nurtured with tender love, a chosen people, whose past history declares in every episode the watchful and patient affection of his father. And that father is God and not man, the Holy One who will not and cannot sacrifice His love even to the justest indignation (chap. xi.). To the prophet who knows this love of Yahweh, who has learned to understand it in the like experience of his own life, the very ruin of the state of Israel is a step in the loving guidance which makes the valley of trouble a door of hope (ii. 15), and the wilderness of tribulation as full of promise as the desert road from Egypt to Canaan was to Israel of old. Of the manner of Israel's repentance and conversion Hosea presents no clear image--nay, it is plain that on this point he had nothing to tell. The certainty that the people will at length return and seek Yahweh their God rests, not on any germ of better things in Israel, but on the invincible supremacy of Yahweh's love. And so the two sides of his prophetic declaration, the passionate denunciation of Israel's sin and folly, and the not less passionate tenderness with which he describes the final victory of divine love, are united by no logical bond. The unity is one of feeling only, and the sob of anguish in which many of his appeals to a heedless people seem to end turns once and again with sudden revulsion into the clear accents of evangelical promise, which in the closing chapter swell forth in pure and strong cadence out of a heart that has found its rest with God from all the troubles of a stormy life.

The strongly emotional temperament of Hosea suggests comparison with that of Jeremiah, who like himself is the prophet of the decline and fall of a kingdom. The subsequent influence of Hosea on the literature of the Old and New Testaments is very marked. Not only is it seen in the conception of the relation between God and His people as a marriage, which he makes current coin (cf. Marti, p. 15), but still more in the fact that his conception of the divine character becomes the inspiration of the book of Deuteronomy and so of the whole canon of Scripture. "In a special degree, the author of Deuteronomy is the spiritual heir of Hosea."[12]

RECENT LITERATURE (where references to older works will be found):
Cheyne, "Hosea" in _Cambridge Bible_ (1884); W. R. Smith, _The
Prophets of Israel_,^2 with Cheyne's introduction (1895); G. A. Smith,
"The Book of the Twelve," i., in _The Expositor's Bible_ (1896);
Nowack, _Die Kleinen Propheten_ (1897); Wellhausen, _Die Kleinen
Propheten_^3 (1898); Smend, _Alttest. Religionsgeschichte_,^2 pp. 204
f. (1899); Davidson, art. "Hosea" in Hastings' _Dictionary of the
Bible_, ii. pp. 419 f. (1900); Marti, art. "Hosea" in _Ency.
Biblica_, ii. c. 2119 (1901) (a revision of the original article by
W. R. Smith, in the _Ency. Britannica_, partially reproduced above);
Marti, _Dodekapropheton_ (1903); W. R. Harper, "Amos and Hosea" in
_Inter. Critical Commentary_ (1905) (with copious bibliography).
(W. R. S.; H. W. R.*)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Traditions about Hosea._--Beeri, the prophet's father, is
identified by the Rabbins with Beerah (1 Chron. v. 6), a Reubenite
prince carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. This view is already
expressed by Jerome, _Quaest. in Paralip._, and doubtless underlies
the statement of the Targum to Chronicles that Beerah was a prophet.
For it is a Jewish maxim that when a prophet's father is named, he,
too, was a prophet, and accordingly a tradition of R. Simon makes
Isa. viii. 19, 20 a prophecy of Beeri (Kimchi in loc.; _Leviticus
Rabba_, par. 15). According to the usual Christian tradition,
however, Hosea was of the tribe of Issachar, and from an unknown
town, Belemoth or Belemon (pseudo-Epiphanius, pseudo-Dorotheus,
Ephraem Syr. ii. 234; _Chron. Pasch._, Bonn ed., i. 276). As the
tradition adds that he died there, and was buried in peace, the
source of the story lies probably in some holy place shown as his
grave. There are other traditions as to the burial-place of Hosea. A
Jewish legend in the _Shalshelet haqqabala_ (Carpzov, _Introd._, pt.
iii. ch. vii. S 3) tells that he died in captivity at Babylon, and
was carried to Upper Galilee, and buried at [Hebrew: Zefat], that is,
Safed (Neubauer, Geog. _du Talmud_, p. 227); and the Arabs show the
grave of Nebi 'Osha, east of the Jordan, near Es-Salt (Baedeker's
_Palestine_, p. 337; Burckhardt's _Syria_, p. 353).

[2] The supposed reference of viii. 9-10 to the tribute paid by
Menahem to Tiglath-Pileser (2 Kings xv. 19), and dated, on the
monuments, 738 B.C., depends on a corrupt text: read v. 10 with
Septuagint.

[3] Some scholars hold that his attack is directed against the very
principle of monarchy (Nowack, p. 8; Smend, p. 209: "Hosea rejects
the kingship in itself"; Wellhausen, p. 125: "The making of kings in
Israel is for him, together with the heathen cultus, the fundamental
evil"). This view depends on a disputed interpretation of the
reference to Gibeah (x. 9; cf. ix. 9); and on the words: "I give thee
kings in mine anger, and I take them away in my wrath" (xiii. 11),
which may refer to the rise and fall of contemporary kings (cf.
Marti, ad loc). In any case, as Wellhausen himself says (p. 132): "He
does not start from a dogmatic theory, but simply from historical
experience."

[4] Theodorus Mops. remarks very justly, [Greek: kai to onoma kai ton
patera legei, os me plasma psilon ti dokoie to legomenon, historia de
alethes ton pragmaton.]

[5] This explanation of the narrative, which is essentially Ewald's,
is now generally accepted. It has the great advantage of supplying a
psychological key to the conception of Israel or the land of Israel
(i. 2) as the spouse of Yahweh, which dominates these chapters, but
in the later part of the book gives way to the personification of the
nation as God's son. This conception has, indeed, formal points of
contact with notions previously current, and even with the ideas of
Semitic heathenism. On the one hand, it is a standing Hebrew usage to
represent the land as mother of its people, while the representation
of worshippers as children of their god is found in Num. xxi. 29,
where the Moabites are called children of Chemosh, and is early and
widespread throughout the Semitic field (cf. _Trans. Bib. Arch._ vi.
438; _Jour. of Phil._ ix. 82). The combination of these two notions
gives at once the conception of the national deity as husband of the
land. On the other hand, the designation of Yahweh as Baal, which, in
accordance with the antique view of marriage, means husband as well
as lord and owner, was current among the Israelites in early times,
perhaps, indeed, down to Hosea's age (ii. 16). Now it is highly
probable that among the idolatrous Israelites the idea of a marriage
between the deity and individual worshippers was actually current and
connected with the immorality which Hosea often condemns in the
worship of the local Baalim whom the ignorant people identified with
Yahweh. For we have a Punic woman's name, [Hebrew: areshetbaal], "the
betrothed of Baal" (Euting, Punische Steine, pp. 9, 15), and a
similar conception existed among the Babylonians (Herod. i. 181,
182). But Hosea takes the idea of Yahweh as husband, and gives it an
altogether different turn, filling it with a new and profound
meaning, based on the psychical experiences of a deep human affection
in contest with outraged honour and the wilful self-degradation of a
spouse. It can hardly be supposed that all that lies in these
chapters is an abstract study in the psychology of the emotions. It
is actual human experience that gives Hosea the key to divine truth.

[6] Davidson (_D.B._ ii. 422) remarks that "it was not his
misfortunes that gave Hosea his prophetic word. Israel's apostasy was
plain to him, and he foreshadowed her doom in Jezreel, the name of
his first child, before any misfortunes overtook him. At most, his
misfortunes may at a later time have given a complexion to his
prophetic thoughts." Wellhausen (p. 108) objects to the emergence of
the call from the experience, on the ground that the name given to
the first child gives no indication that Hosea had yet reached his
specific message, the infidelity of his wife and of Israel, though it
shows him already as a prophet. Marti (p. 15) agrees with Davidson in
making the order (a) call, (b) marriage and birth of three children,
(c) comprehension of the significance of the marriage for himself and
for Israel. The statement made above must be interpreted of Hosea's
_specific_ message from Yahweh, as recorded in his book.

[7] Marti disregards this generally accepted division, arguing that
(a) i.-iii. was not written earlier than iv.-xiv., (b) iii. is not
Hoseanic, (c) ii. is much more akin to iv.-xiv. than to i.-iii.
(_Comm._ p. 1; cf. _Enc. Bib._ 2123 n.^3). He holds that another
wife, not Gomer, is intended in iii., which is an allegory referring
to Israel, as Gomer referred to Judah. His arguments are not
convincing.

[8] So, practically, Davidson, _D.B._ ii. p. 423 seq., where the
detailed references will be found.

[9] This is too definite for the data; cf. Davidson, _l.c._ "Hosea
has no clear idea of the instrument or means of Israel's destruction.
It is 'the sword' (vii. 16, xi. 6), the 'enemy' (viii. 3, v. 8-9); or
it is natural, internal decay (vii. 8-9, ix. 16), the moth and
rottenness (v. 12)."

[10] e.g. i. 10-ii. 1, ii. 14 f., iii. 5, v. 15-vi. 3, xi. 10-11.

[11] Apart from glosses and minor alterations, the only other
critical problem of importance is that of the references to _Judah_
scattered throughout the book (i. 7, iv. 15, v. 5, v. 10 f., vi. 4,
11, viii. 14, x. 11, xi. 12). There is no inherent improbability in
some mention of the sister kingdom; but some of the actual references
do suggest interpolation, especially i. 7, where the deliverance of
Judah from Sennacherib in 701 B.C. seems intended. Each case, as
Wellhausen implies, is to be considered on its merits. On these and
other suspected passages, cf. Cheyne, Intro. to W. R. Smith's
_Prophets of Israel_, pp. xvii.-xxii.; Marti, p. 8; Harper, p. clix.

[12] Driver, _Deuteronomy_, p. xxvii.

HOSE-PIPE, or simply "hose," the name given to flexible piping by means of which water may be conveyed from one place to another. One end of the pipe is connected to the source of the water, while the other end is free, so that the direction of the stream of water which issues from the pipe may be changed at will. The method of manufacture and the strength of the materials used depend naturally upon the particular use to which the finished article is to be put. Simple garden hose is often made of india-rubber or composition, but the hose intended for fire brigade and similar important purposes must be of a much more substantial material. The most satisfactory material is the best long flax, although cotton is also extensively used for many types of this fabric.

The flax fibre, after having been carefully spun into yarn, is boiled twice and then beetled; these two processes remove all injurious matter, and make the yarn soft and lustrous. The yarn is then wound on to large bobbins, and made into a chain; the number of threads in the chain depends upon the size of the hose, which may be anything from half an inch to 15 in. or even more in diameter. When the chain is warped, it is beamed upon the weaver's beam, and the ends--either double or triple--are drawn through the leaves of the cambs of heddles, passed through the reed and finally tied to the cloth beam. The preparation of the warp for any kind of loom varies very little, but the weaving may vary greatly. In all cases the hose fabric is essentially circular, although it appears quite flat during the weaving operation.

There are very few hand-made fabrics which can compete with the machine-made article, but the very best type of hose-pipe is certainly one of the former class. The cloth can be made much more cheaply in the power-loom than in the hand-loom, but, up to the present, no power-loom has been made which can weave as substantial a cloth as the hand-loom product; the weak part in all hose-pipes is where the weft passes round the sides from top to bottom of the fabric or vice versa, that is, the side corresponding to the selvages in an ordinary cloth; the hand-loom weaver can draw the weft tighter than is possible in the power-loom, hence the threads at the sides can be brought close together, and by this means the fabric is made almost, but not quite, as perfect here as in other parts. It is essential that the warp threads be held tightly in the loom, and to secure this, they pass alternately over and under three or four back rests before reaching the heddles or cambs, which are almost invariably made of wire. Although the warp yarn is made very soft and pliable by boiling and beetling, the weaver always tallows it in order to make it work more easily.

The commonest type of hose-pipe is made on the double-plain principle
of weaving, the cloth being perfectly plain but woven in such a manner
that the pipe is without seams of any kind. Fig. 1 is a design showing
two repeats or eight shots in the way of the weft, and six repeats or
twenty-four-threads in the way of the warp, consequently the weave is
complete on four threads, or leaves, and four picks. Fig. 2
illustrates the method of interlacing the threads and the picks: this
figure shows that twenty-three threads only are used, the first
thread--shown shaded in fig. 1--having been left out. It is necessary
to use a number of threads which is either one less or one more than
some multiple of four--the number of threads in the unit weave. The
sectional view (fig. 2), although indicating the crossings of the warp
and the weft, is quite different from an actual section through the
threads: the warp is almost invariably two or three ply, and in
addition two or more of these twisted threads pass through the same
heddle-eye in the camb; moreover, they are set very closely
together--so closely, indeed, that the threads entirely conceal the
weft; it is, therefore, impossible to give a correct sectional view
with satisfactory clearness, as the threads are so very rank, but fig.
3 gives some idea of the structure of the fabric. This view shows
ninety-nine threads and one complete round of weft; this round is, of
course, equal to two picks or shots--one pick for the top part of the
cloth and one for the bottom part. A comparison of this figure with
fig. 2 will, perhaps, make the description clearer. The weft in fig. 3
is thinner than the warp, but, in practice, it is always much thicker,
and may consist of from two to seventy threads twisted together.

Hose-pipes are also woven with the three-leaf twill on both sides, and
occasionally with the four-leaf twill. These pipes, woven with the
twill weaves, are usually lined with a pure rubber tube which is fixed
to the inside of the cloth by another layer of rubber after the cloth
leaves the loom. Such pipes have usually, but not invariably, a
smoother inner surface than those which are unlined, hence, when they
are used, less friction is presented to the flow of water, and there
is less tendency for the pipe to leak. They are, therefore, suitable
for hotels, public buildings and similar places where their temporary
use will not result in undue damage to articles of furniture, carpets
and general decoration.

The greatest care must be observed in the weaving of these fabrics,
the slightest flaw in the structure rendering the article practically
useless. After the cloth has been woven, it is carefully examined, and
then steeped in a chemical solution which acts as an antiseptic. The
cloth is thus effectively preserved from mildew, and is, in addition,
made more pliable. Finally the hose-pipe is dried artificially, and
then fitted with the necessary couplings and nozzles.

For a more detailed description of circular weaving see Woodhouse and
Milne, _Textile Design: Pure and Applied_. (T. Wo.)

HOSHANGABAD, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The town stands on the left bank of the Nerbudda, 1009 ft. above the sea, and has a railway station. Pop. (1901), 14,940. It is supposed to have been founded by Hoshang Shah, the second of the Ghori kings of Malwa, in the 15th century; but it remained an insignificant place till the Bhopal conquest about 1720, when a massive stone fort was constructed, with its base on the river, commanding the Bhopal road. It sustained several sieges during the 18th century, and passed alternately into the hands of the Bhopal and Nagpur rulers. Since 1818 it has been the residence of the chief British officials in charge of the district. It has a government high school, and agricultural school and a brass-working industry.

The DISTRICT OF HOSHANGABAD has an area of 3676 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 449,165, showing a decrease of 10% in the decade, due to famine. It may be described as a valley of varying breadth, extending for 150 m. between the Nerbudda river and the Satpura mountains. The soil consists chiefly of black basaltic alluvium, often more than 20 ft. deep; but along the banks of the Nerbudda the fertility of the land compensates for the tameness of the scenery. Towards the west, low stony hills and broken ridges cut up the level ground, while the Vindhyas and the Satpuras throw out jutting spurs and ranges. In this wilder country considerable regions are covered with jungle. On the south the lofty range which shuts in the valley is remarkable in mountain scenery, surpassing in its picturesque irregularity the Vindhyan chain in the north. Many streams take their rise amid its precipices, then, winding through deep glens, flow across the plain between sandy banks covered with low jungle till they swell the waters of the Nerbudda. None is of any importance except the Tawa, which is interesting to the geologist on account of the many minerals to be found along its course. The boundary rivers, the Nerbudda and Tapti, are the only considerable waters in Hoshangabad. The principal crops are wheat, millets and oil-seeds. The district is traversed throughout its length by the Great Indian Peninsula railway.