Chapter XX: Part II: The Practice of Horticulture (18)

WORKS.--The treatise _Uber die Willensfreiheit_ (1858), followed in 1859 by _Die Philosophie der Kirchenvater_, which was promptly placed upon the _Index_, and led to the prohibition of all Catholic students from attending his lectures; _Johannes Scotus Erigena_ (1861); _Die Idee der Unsterblichkeit_ (1864); _Studien_ (1867); _Der Proletarier; zur Orientirung in der sozialen Frage_ (1865); _Der Jesuitenorden nach seiner Verfassung und Doctrin, Wirksamkeit und Geschichte_ (1873), also placed upon the _Index_; _Der Pessimismus_ (1876); _Die Forschung nach der Materie_ (1877); _Zur Philosophie der Astronomie_ (1878); _Das Gedachtnis_ (1878). He also published adverse criticisms of Darwin, Strauss, Hartmann and Hackel; pamphlets on _Das Papsttum und der Staat_ (1870), and on _Die Freiheiten der franzosischen Kirche_ (1871); and a volume of _Kleine Schriften_ (1871).

See E. Zirngiebl, _Johannes Huber_ (1881); and M. Carriere in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xiii. (1881), and in _Nord und Sud_ (1879).

HUBER, LUDWIG FERDINAND (1764-1804), German author, was born in Paris on the 14th of September 1764, the son of Michael Huber (1727-1804), who did much to promote the study of German literature in France. In his infancy young Huber removed with his parents to Leipzig, where he was carefully instructed in modern languages and literature, and showed a particular inclination for those of France and England. In Leipzig he became intimate with Christian Gottfried Korner, father of the poet; in Dresden Huber became engaged to Dora Stock, sister of Korner's betrothed, and associated with Schiller, who was one of Korner's stanchest friends. In 1787 he was appointed secretary to the Saxon legation in Mainz, where he remained until the French occupation of 1792. While here he interested himself for the welfare of the family of his friend Georg Forster, who, favouring republican views, had gone to Paris, leaving his wife Therese Forster (1764-1829) and family in destitute circumstances. Huber, enamoured of the talented young wife, gave up his diplomatic post, broke off his engagement to Dora Stock, removed with the Forster family to Switzerland, and on the death of her husband in 1794 married Therese Forster. In 1798 Huber took over the editorship of the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ in Stuttgart. The newspaper having been prohibited in Wurttemberg, Huber continued its editorship in Ulm in 1803. He was created "counsellor of education" for the new Bavarian province of Swabia in the following year, but had hardly entered upon the functions of his new office when he died on the 24th of December 1804.

Huber was well versed in English literature, and in 1785 he published the drama _Ethelwolf_, with notes on Beaumont and Fletcher and the old English stage. He also wrote many dramas, comedies and tragedies, most of which are now forgotten, and among them only _Das heimliche Gericht_ (1790, new ed. 1795) enjoyed any degree of popularity. As a critic he is seen to advantage in the _Vermischte Schriften von dem Verfasser des heimlichen Gerichts_ (2 vols., 1793). As a publicist he made his name in the historical-political periodicals _Friedenspraliminarien_ (1794-1796, 10 vols.) and _Klio_ (1795-1798, 1819).

His collected works, _Samtliche Werke seit dem Jahre 1802_ (4 vols.,
1807-1819), were published with a biography by his wife Therese Huber.
See L. Speidel and H. Wittmann, _Bilder aus der Schiller-Zeit_ (1884).

HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727), bishop of Liege, whose festival is celebrated on the 3rd of November. The Bollandists have published seven different lives of the saint. The first is the only one of any value, and is the work of a contemporary. Unfortunately, it is very sparing of details. In it we see that Hubert in 708 succeeded Lambert in the see of Maestricht (Tongres), and that he erected a basilica to his memory. In 825 Hubert's remains were removed to a Benedictine cloister in the Ardennes, which thenceforth bore his name (St Hubert, province of Luxemburg, Belgium), and ultimately became a considerable resort of pilgrims. The later legends (_Bibliotheca hagiographica latina_, nos. 3994-4002) are devoid of authority. One of them relates, probably following the legend of St Eustace, the miracle of the conversion of St Hubert. This conversion, represented as having been brought about while he was hunting on Good Friday by a miraculous appearance of a stag bearing between his horns a cross or crucifix surrounded with rays of light, has frequently been made the subject of artistic treatment. He is the patron of hunters, and is also invoked in cases of hydrophobia. Several orders of knighthood have been under his protection; among these may be mentioned the Bavarian, the Bohemian and that of the electorate of Cologne.

See _Acta Sanctorum_, Novembris, i. 759-930; G. Kurth, _Chartes de
l'abbaye de St Hubert en Ardenne_ (Brussels, 1903); Anna Jameson,
_Sacred and Legendary Art_, i. 732-737 (London, 1896); Cahier,
_Caracteristiques des saints_, pp. 183, 775, &c. (Paris, 1867).
(H. De.)

HUBERTUSBURG, a chateau in the kingdom of Saxony, near the village of Wermsdorf and midway 6 m. between the towns Oschatz and Grimma. It was built in 1721-1724 by Frederick Augustus II., elector of Saxony, subsequently King Augustus III. of Poland, as a hunting box, and was often the scene of brilliant festivities. It is famous for the peace signed here on the 15th of February 1763, which ended the Seven Years' War. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it now serves the purpose of a lunatic asylum and a training school for nursing sisters.

See Riemer, _Das Schloss Hubertusburg, sonst und jetzt_ (Oschatz,
1881).

HUBLI, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of Bombay, 15 m. S.E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 60,214. It is a railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, where the lines to Bangalore and Bezwada branch off south and west. It is an important centre of trade and of cotton and silk weaving, and has two cotton mills and several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. Hubli was in early times the seat of an English factory, which, with the rest of the town, was plundered in 1673 by Sivaji, the Mahratta leader.

HUBNER, EMIL (1834-1901), German classical scholar, son of the historical painter Julius Hubner (1806-1882), was born at Dusseldorf on the 7th of July 1834. After studying at Berlin and Bonn, he travelled extensively with a view to antiquarian and epigraphical researches. The results of these travels were embodied in several important works: _Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae_ (1869, supplement 1892), _I. H. Christianae_ (1871, supplement 1900); _Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae_ (1873), _I. B. Christianae_ (1876); _La Arqueologia de Espana_ (1888); _Monumenta linguae Hibericae_ (1893). Hubner was also the author of two books of the greatest utility to the classical student: _Grundriss zu Vorlesungen uber die romische Literaturgeschichte_ (4th ed. 1878, edited, with large additions, by J. E. B. Mayor as _Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature_, 1875), and _Bibliographie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (2nd ed., 1889); mention may also be made of _Romische Epigraphik_ (2nd ed., 1892); _Exempla Scripturae Epigraphicae Latinae_ (1885); and _Romische Herrschaft in Westeuropa_ (1890). In 1870 Hubner was appointed professor of Classical Philology in the university of Berlin, where he died on the 21st of February 1901.

HUBNER, JOSEPH ALEXANDER, COUNT (1811-1892), Austrian diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 26th of November 1811. His real name was Hafenbredl, which he afterwards changed to Hubner. He began his public career in 1833 under Metternich, whose confidence he soon gained, and who sent him in 1837 as attache to Paris. In 1841 he became secretary of embassy at Lisbon, and in 1844 Austrian consul-general at Leipzig. In 1848 he was sent to Milan to conduct the diplomatic correspondence of Archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy. On the outbreak of the revolution he was seized as a hostage, and remained a prisoner for some months. Returning to Austria, he was entrusted with the compilation of the documents and proclamations relating to the abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand and the accession of Francis Joseph. His journal, an invaluable clue to the complicated intrigues of this period, was published in 1891 in French and German, under the title of _Une Annee de ma vie, 1848-1849_. In March 1849 he was sent on a special mission to Paris, and later in the same year was appointed ambassador to France. To his influence was in large measure due the friendly attitude of Austria to the Allies in the Crimean War, at the close of which he represented Austria at the congress of Paris in 1856. He allowed himself, however, to be taken by surprise by Napoleon's intervention on behalf of Italian unity, of which the first public intimation was given by the French emperor's cold reception of Hubner on New Year's Day, 1859, with the famous words: "I regret that our relations with your Government are not so good as they have hitherto been." He did not return to Paris after the war, and after holding the ministry of police in the Goluchowski cabinet from August to October 1859, lived in retirement till 1865, when he became ambassador at Rome. Quitting this post in 1867, he undertook extensive travels, his descriptions of which appeared as _Promenade autour du monde, 1871_ (1873; English translation by Lady Herbert, 1874) and _Through the British Empire_ (1886). Written in a bright and entertaining style, and characterized by shrewd observation, they achieved considerable popularity in their time. A more serious effort was his _Sixte-Quint_ (1870, translated into English by H. E. H. Jerningham under the title of _The Life and Times of Sixtus the Fifth_, 1872), an original contribution to the history of the period, based on unpublished documents at the Vatican, Simancas and Venice. In 1879 he was made a life-member of the Austrian Upper House, where he sat as a Clerical and Conservative. He had received the rank of Baron (Freiherr) in 1854, and in 1888 was raised to the higher rank of Count (Graf). He died at Vienna on the 30th of July 1892. Though himself of middle-class origin, he was a profound admirer of the old aristocratic regime, and found his political ideals in his former chiefs, Metternich and Schwarzenberg. As the last survivor of the Metternich school, he became towards the close of his life more and more out of touch with the trend of modern politics, but remained a conspicuous figure in the Upper House and at the annual delegations. That he possessed the breadth of mind to appreciate the working of a system at total variance with his own school of thought was shown by his grasp of British colonial questions. It is interesting, in view of subsequent events, to note his emphatic belief in the loyalty of the British colonies--a belief not shared at that time by many statesmen with far greater experience of democratic institutions.

See Sir Ernest Satow, _An Austrian Diplomatist in the Fifties_ (1908).

HUC, EVARISTE REGIS (1813-1860), French missionary-traveller, was born at Toulouse, on the 1st of August 1813. In his twenty-fourth year he entered the congregation of the Lazarists at Paris, and shortly after receiving holy orders in 1839 went out to China. At Macao he spent some eighteen months in the Lazarist seminary, preparing himself for the regular work of a missionary. Having acquired some command of the Chinese tongue, and modified his personal appearance and dress in accordance with Chinese taste, he started from Canton. He at first superintended a Christian mission in the southern provinces, and then passing to Peking, where he perfected his knowledge of the language, eventually settled in the Valley of Black Waters or He Shuy, a little to the north of the capital, and just within the borders of Mongolia. There, beyond the Great Wall, a large but scattered population of native Christians had found a refuge from the persecutions of Kia-King, to be united half a century later in a vast but vague apostolic vicariate. The assiduity with which Huc devoted himself to the study of the dialects and customs of the Tatars, for whom at the cost of much labour he translated various religious works, was an admirable preparation for undertaking in 1844, at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of Mongolia, an expedition whose object was to dissipate the obscurity which hung over the country and habits of the Tibetans. September of that year found the missionary at Dolon Nor occupied with the final arrangements for his journey, and shortly afterwards, accompanied by his fellow-Lazarist, Joseph Gabet, and a young Tibetan priest who had embraced Christianity, he set out. To escape attention the little party assumed the dress of lamas or priests. Crossing the Hwang-ho, they advanced into the terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After suffering dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Kansu, having recrossed the flooded Hwang-ho, but it was not till January 1845 that they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. Rather than encounter alone the horrors of a four months' journey to Lhasa they resolved to wait for eight months till the arrival of a Tibetan embassy on its return from Peking. Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan language and Buddhist literature, and during three months of their stay they resided in the famous Kunbum Lamasery, which was reported to accommodate 4000 persons. Towards the end of September they joined the returning embassy, which comprised 2000 men and 3700 animals. Crossing the deserts of Koko Nor, they passed the great lake of that name, with its island of contemplative lamas, and, following a difficult and tortuous track across snow-covered mountains, they at last entered Lhasa on the 29th of January 1846. Favourably received by the regent, they opened a little chapel, and were in a fair way to establish an important mission, when the Chinese ambassador interfered and had the two missionaries conveyed back to Canton, where they arrived in October of the same year. For nearly three years Huc remained at Canton, but Gabet, returning to Europe, proceeded thence to Rio de Janeiro, and died there shortly afterwards. Huc returned to Europe in shattered health in 1852, visiting India, Egypt and Palestine on his way, and, after a prolonged residence in Paris, died on the 31st of March 1860.

His writings comprise, besides numerous letters and memoirs in the
_Annales de la propagation de la foi_, the famous _Souvenirs d'un
voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les annees
1844-1846_ (2 vols., Paris, 1850; Eng. trans. by W. Hazlitt, 1851,
abbreviated by M. Jones, London, 1867); its supplement, crowned by the
Academy, entitled _L'Empire chinois_ (2 vols., Paris, 1854; Eng.
trans., London, 1859); and an elaborate historical work, _Le
Christianisme en Chine, &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1857-1858; Eng. trans.,
London, 1857-1858). These works are written in a lucid, racy,
picturesque style, which secured for them an unusual degree of
popularity. The _Souvenirs_ is a narrative of a remarkable feat of
travel, and contains passages of so singular a character as in the
absence of corroborative testimony to stir up a feeling of
incredulity. That Huc was suspected unjustly was amply proved by later
research. But he was by no means a practical geographer, and the
record of his travels loses greatly in value from the want of precise
scientific data.

See, for information specially relating to the whole subject, the Abbe
Desgodin's _Mission du Thibet de 1855 a 1870_ (Verdun, 1872); and
"Account of the Pundit's Journey in Great Tibet," in the _Royal
Geographical Society's Journal_ for 1877.

HUCBALD (HUGBALDUS, HUBALDUS), Benedictine monk, and writer on music, was born at the monastery of Saint Amand near Tournai, in or about 840, if we may believe the statement of his biographers to the effect that he died in 930, aged 90. He studied at the monastery, where his uncle Milo occupied an important position. Hucbald made rapid progress in the acquirement of various sciences and arts, including that of music, and at an early age composed a hymn in honour of St Andrew, which met with such success as to excite the jealousy of his uncle. It is said that Hucbald in consequence was compelled to leave St Amand, and started an independent school of music and other arts at Nevers. In 860, however, he was at St Germain d'Auxerre, bent upon completing his studies, and in 872 he was back again at St Amand as the successor in the headmastership of the convent school of his uncle, to whom he had been reconciled in the meantime. Between 883 and 900 Hucbald went on several missions of reforming and reconstructing various schools of music, including that of Rheims, but in the latter year he returned to St Amand, where he remained to the day of his death on the 25th of June 930, or, according to other chroniclers, on the 20th of June 932. The only work which can positively be ascribed to him is his _Harmonica Institutio_. The _Musica Enchiriadis_, published with other writings of minor importance in Gerbert's _Scriptores de Musica_, and containing a complete system of musical science as well as instructions regarding notation, has now been proved to have originated about half a century later than the death of the monk Hucbald, and to have been the work of an unknown writer belonging to the close of the 10th century and possibly also bearing the name of Hucbald. This work is celebrated chiefly for an essay on a new form of notation described in the present day as _Dasia Notation_. The author of the _Harmonica Institutio_ wrote numerous lives of the saints and a curious poem on bald men, dedicated to Charles the Bald.

AUTHORITIES.--Sir John Hawkins, _General History of the Science and
Practice of Music_ (i. 153); _Histoire litteraire de la France_ (vi.
216 et seq.); Coussemaker, _Memoire sur Hucbald_ (Paris, 1841); Hans
Muller, _Hucbald's echte und unechte Schriften uber Musik_ (Leipzig,
1884); Spitta, _Die Musica Enchiriadis und seine Zeitalter_
(_Vierteljahresschrift fur Musikwissenschaft_, 1889, 5th year).

HU-CHOW-FU, a city of China, in the province of Cheh-Kiang (30 deg. 48' N., 120 deg. 3' E.), a little S. of Tai-hu Lake, in the midst of the central silk district. According to Chinese authorities it is 6 m. in circumference, and contains about 100,000 families. A broad stream or canal crosses the city from south to north, and forms the principal highway for boat traffic. The main trade of the place is in raw silk, but some silk fabrics, such as flowered crape (_chousha_), are also manufactured. Silk is largely worn even by the lowest classes of the inhabitants.

HUCHOWN, "of the Awle Ryale" (fl. 14th century), Scottish poet, is referred to by Wyntoun in his _Chronicle_ in these words:--

"Hucheon,
that cunnande was in littratur.
He made a gret Gest of Arthure,
And the Awntyr of Gawane,
The Pistil als of Suet Susane.
He was curyousse in his stille,
Fayr of facunde and subtile,
And ay to pleyssance hade delyte,
Mad in metyr meit his dyte
Litil or noucht neuir the lesse
Wauerande fra the suythfastnes."
(Cott. MS. bk. v. II, 4308-4318).

Much critical ingenuity has been spent in endeavouring to identify (a) the poet and (b) the works named in the foregoing passage. It has been assumed that "Huchown," or "Hucheon," represents the "gude Sir Hew of Eglyntoun" named by Dunbar (q.v.) in his _Lament for the Makaris_ (i. 53). The only known Sir Hugh of Eglintoun of the century is frequently mentioned in the public records from the middle of the century onwards, as an auditor of accounts and as witness to several charters. By 1360 he had married Dame Egidia, widow of Sir James Lindsay and half-sister of Robert the Steward. His public office and association with the Steward sorts well with the designation "of the Awle Ryale," if that be interpreted as "Aula Regalis" or "Royal Palace." He appears to have died late in 1376 or early in 1377.

The first of the poems named above, the _Gest of Arthure_ or _Gest Historyalle_ (_ib._ i. 4288), has been identified by Dr Trautmann, "Anglia," _Der Dichter Huchown_ (1877), with the alliterative _Morte Arthure_ in the Thornton MS. at Lincoln, printed by the E.E.T.S. (ed. Brock, 1865). The problem of the second (_The Awntyr of Gawane_) is still in dispute. There are difficulties in the way of accepting the conjecture that the poem is the "Awntyres of Arthure at the Tern Wathelyne" (see S.T.S., _Scottish Alliterative Poems_, 1897, and Introduction, pp. 11 et seq.), and little direct evidence in favour of the view that the reference is to the greatest of middle English romances, _Sir Gawain and the Grene Knight_. The third may be safely accepted as the well-known _Pistil_ [Epistle] _of Swete Susan_, printed by Laing (_Select Remains_, 1822) and by the S.T.S. (_Scottish Alliterative Poems, u.s._).

See, in addition to the works named, above, G. Neilson's _Sir Hew of
Eglintoun and Huchown of the Awle Ryale_ (Glasgow, 1901), which
contains a full record of references to the historical Sir Hew of
Eglintoun; _Huchown of the Awle Ryale, the Alliterative Poet_
(Glasgow, 1902) by the same; J. T. T. Brown's _Huchown of the Awle
Ryale and his Poems_ (Glasgow, 1902), in answer to the foregoing. See
also the correspondence in the _Athenaeum_, 1900-1901, and the review
of Mr Neilson's pamphlets, ib. (Nov. 22, 1902); and J. H. Millar's
_Literary History of Scotland_ (1903), pp. 8-14.

HUCHTENBURG, the name of two brothers who were Dutch painters in the second half of the 17th century. Both were natives of Haarlem. Jacob, the elder, of whom very little is known, studied under Berghem, and went early to Italy, where he died young about 1667. His pictures are probably confounded with those of his brother. In Copenhagen, where alone they are catalogued, they illustrate the style of a Dutchman who transfers Berghem's cattle and flocks to Italian landscapes and marketplaces.

John van Huchtenburg (1646-1733), born at Haarlem it is said in 1646, was first taught by Thomas Wyk, and afterwards induced to visit the chief cities of Italy, where, penetrating as far as Rome, he met and dwelt with his brother Jacob. After the death of the latter he wandered homewards, taking Paris on his way, and served under Van der Meulen, then employed in illustrating for Louis XIV. the campaign of 1667-1668 in the Low Countries. In 1670 he settled at Haarlem, where he married, practised and kept a dealer's shop. His style had now merged into an imitation of Philip Wouvermans and Van der Meulen, which could not fail to produce pretty pictures of hunts and robber camps, the faculty of painting horses and men in action and varied dress being the chief point of attraction. Later Huchtenburg ventured on cavalry skirmishes and engagements of regular troops generally, and these were admired by Prince Eugene and William III., who gave the painter sittings, and commissioned him to throw upon canvas the chief incidents of the battles they fought upon the continent of Europe. When he died at Amsterdam in 1733, Huchtenburg had done much by his pictures and prints to make Prince Eugene, King William and Marlborough popular. Though clever in depicting a _melee_ or a skirmish of dragoons, he remained second to Philip Wouvermans in accuracy of drawing, and inferior to Van der Meulen in the production of landscapes. But, nevertheless, he was a clever and spirited master, with great facility of hand and considerable natural powers of observation.

The earliest date on his pictures is 1674, when he executed the
"Stag-Hunt" in the Museum of Berlin, and the "Fight with Robbers" in
the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna. A "Skirmish at Fleurus" (1690)
in the Brussels gallery seems but the precursor of larger and more
powerful works, such as the "Siege of Namur" (1695) in the Belvedere
at Vienna, where William III. is seen in the foreground accompanied by
Max Emmanuel, the Bavarian elector. Three years before, Huchtenburg
had had sittings from Prince Eugene (Hague museum) and William III.
(Amsterdam Trippenhuis). After 1696 he regularly served as court
painter to Prince Eugene, and we have at Turin (gallery) a series of
eleven canvases all of the same size depicting the various battles of
the great hero, commencing with the fight of Zentha against the Turks
in 1697, and concluding with the capture of Belgrade in 1717. Had the
duke of Marlborough been fond of art he would doubtless have possessed
many works of our artist. All that remains at Blenheim, however, is a
couple of sketches of battles, which were probably sent to Churchill
by his great contemporary. The pictures of Huchtenburg are not very
numerous now in public galleries. There is one in the National
Gallery, London, another at the Louvre. But Copenhagen has four,
Dresden six, Gotha two, and Munich has the well-known composition of
"Tallart taken Prisoner at Blenheim in 1704."

HUCKABACK,[1] the name given to a type of cloth used for towels. For this purpose it has perhaps been more extensively used in the linen trade than any other weave. One of the chief merits of a towel is its capacity for absorbing moisture; plain and other flat-surfaced cloths do not perform this function satisfactorily, but cloths made with huckaback, as well as those made with the honeycomb and similar weaves, are particularly well adapted for this purpose. The body or foundation of the cloth is plain and therefore sound in structure (see designs A and B in figure), but at fixed intervals some of the warp threads float on the surface of the cloth, while at the same time a number of weft threads float on the back. Thus the cloth has a somewhat similar appearance on both sides. Weave A is the ordinary and most used huck or huckaback, while weave B, which is usually woven with double weft, is termed the Devon or medical huck. The cloths made by the use of these weaves were originally all linen, but are too often adulterated with inferior fibres.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Skeat, _Etym. Dict._ (1898), says, "The word bears so remarkable
resemblance to Low Ger. _hukkebak_, Ger. _huckeback_, pick-a-back,
that it seems reasonable to suppose that it at first meant 'peddler's
ware.'" The _New English Dictionary_ does not consider that the
connexion can at present be assumed.

HUCKLEBERRY, in botany, the popular name in the north-eastern United States of the genus _Gaylussacia_, small branching shrubs resembling in habit the English bilberry (_Vaccinium_), to which it is closely allied, and bearing a similar fruit. The common huckleberry of the northern states is _G. resinosa_; while _G. brachycera_ and _G. dumosa_ are known respectively as box and dwarf huckleberry. The name _Gaylussacia_ commemorates the famous French chemist Gay-Lussac.

HUCKNALL TORKARD, a town in the Rushcliffe parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England; 132 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central railway, served also by the Great Northern and Midland railways. Pop. (1901) 15,250. The church of St Mary Magdalene contains the tomb of Lord Byron. There are extensive collieries in the vicinity, and the town has tobacco and hosiery works. Small traces are found of Beauvale Abbey, a Carthusian foundation of the 14th century, in the hilly, wooded district W. of Hucknall; and 3 m. N. is Newstead Abbey, in a beautiful situation on the border of Sherwood Forest. This Augustinian foundation owed its origin to Henry II. It came into the hands of the Byron family in 1540, and the poet Byron resided in it at various times until 1818. There remain the Early English west front of the church, a Perpendicular cloister and the chapter-house; while in the mansion, wholly restored since Byron's time, and in the demesne, many relics of the poet are preserved. To the S. of Hucknall are traces of Gresley Castle, of the 14th century.

HUCKSTER, a dealer or retailer of goods in a small way. The word, in various forms, is common to many Teutonic languages. In Early English it is found as _howkester_, _hokester_, _huxter_; in early modern Dutch as _heuker_, and Medieval Low German as _hoker_; but the ultimate origin is unknown. Huckster apparently belongs to that series of words formed from a verb,--as brew, brewer; but the noun "huckster" is found in use before the verb to huck. Hawker and pedlar are nearly synonymous in meaning, but "huckster" may include a person in a small way of trade in a settled habitation, while a hawker or pedlar invariably travels from place to place offering his wares. In a contemptuous sense, huckster is used of any one who barters, or makes gain or profit in underhand or mean ways, or who over-reaches another, to get advantage for himself.

HUDDERSFIELD, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 190 m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 95,047. It is served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & North Western railways, and has connexion with all the important railway systems of the West Riding, and with the extensive canal system of Lancashire and Yorkshire. It is well situated on a slope above the river Colne, a tributary of the Calder. It is built principally of stone, and contains several handsome streets with numerous great warehouses and business premises, many of which are of high architectural merit. Of the numerous churches and chapels all are modern, and some of considerable beauty. The parish church of St Peter, however, though rebuilt in 1837, occupies a site which is believed to have carried a church since the 11th century. The town hall (1880) and the corporation offices (1877) are handsome classic buildings; the Ramsden Estate buildings are a very fine block of the mixed Italian order. The market hall (1880) surmounted by a clock-tower is in geometrical Decorated style. The cloth-hall dates from 1784, when it was erected as a clothiers' emporium. It is no longer used for any such purpose, but serves as an exchange news-room. The Armoury, erected as a riding-school, was the headquarters of a volunteer corps, and is also used for concerts and public meetings. The chief educational establishments are the Huddersfield College (1838), a higher-grade school, the technical school and several grammar-schools, of which Longwood school was founded in 1731. The Literary and Scientific Society possesses a museum. Of the numerous charitable institutions, the Infirmary, erected in 1831, is housed in a building of the Doric order. The chief open spaces are Greenhead and Beaumont parks, the last named presented to the town by Mr H. F. Beaumont in 1880. There is a sulphurous spa in the district of Lockwood.

Huddersfield is the principal seat of the fancy woollen trade in England, and fancy goods in silk and cotton are also produced in great variety. Plain cloth and worsteds are also manufactured. There are silk and cotton spinning-mills, iron foundries and engineering works. Coal is abundant in the vicinity. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area, 11,859 acres.

Huddersfield (_Oderesfelte_) only rose to importance after the introduction of the woollen trade in the 17th century. After the Conquest William I. granted the manor to Ilbert de Laci, of whom the Saxon tenant Godwin was holding as underlord at the time of the Domesday Survey. In Saxon times it had been worth l00s., but after being laid waste by the Normans was still of no value in 1086. From the Lacys the manor passed to Thomas Plantagenet, duke of Lancaster, through his marriage with Alice de Lacy, and so came to the crown on the accession of Henry IV. In 1599 Queen Elizabeth sold it to William Ramsden, whose descendants still own it. Charles II. in 1670 granted to John Ramsden a market in Huddersfield every Wednesday with the toll and other profits belonging. By the beginning of the 18th century Huddersfield had become a "considerable town," chiefly owing to the manufacture of woollen kersies, and towards the end of the same century the trade was increased by two events--the opening of navigation on the Calder in 1780, and in 1784 that of the cloth-hall or piece-hall, built and given to the town by Sir John Ramsden, baronet. Since 1832 the burgesses have returned members to parliament. The town possesses no charter before 1868, when it was created a municipal borough.

HUDSON, GEORGE (1800-1871), English railway financier, known as the "railway king," was born in York in March 1800. Apprenticed to a firm of linendrapers in that city, he soon became a successful merchant, and in 1837 was elected lord mayor of York. Having inherited, in 1827, a sum of L30,000, he invested it in North Midland Railway shares, and was shortly afterwards appointed a director. In 1833 he had founded and for some time acted as manager of the York Banking Company. He had for long been impressed with the necessity of getting the railway to York, and he took an active part in securing the passing of the York and North Midland Bill, and was elected chairman of the new company--the line being opened in 1839. From this time he turned his undivided attention to the projection of railways. In 1841 he initiated the Newcastle and Darlington line. With George Stephenson he planned and carried out the extension of the Midland to Newcastle, and by 1844 had over a thousand miles of railway under his control. In this year the mania for railway speculation was at its height, and no man was more courted than the "railway king." All classes delighted to honour him, and, as if a colossal fortune were an insufficient reward for his public services, the richest men in England presented him with a tribute of L20,000. Deputy-lieutenant for Durham, and thrice lord mayor of York, he was returned in the Conservative interest for Sunderland in 1845, the event being judged of such public interest that the news was conveyed to London by a special train, which travelled part of the way at the rate of 75 m. an hour. Full of rewards and honours, he was suddenly ruined by the disclosure of the Eastern Railway frauds. Sunderland clung to her generous representative till 1859, but on the bursting of the bubble he had lost influence and fortune at a single stroke. His later life was chiefly spent on the continent, where he benefited little by a display of unabated energy and enterprise. Some friends gave him a small annuity a short time before his death, which took place in London, on the 14th of December 1871. His name has long been used to point the moral of vaulting ambition and unstable fortune. The "big swollen gambler," as Carlyle calls him in one of the _Latter-Day Pamphlets_, was savagely and excessively reprobated by the world which had blindly believed in his golden prophecies. He certainly ruined scrip-holders, and disturbed the great centres of industry; but he had an honest faith in his own schemes, and, while he beggared himself in their promotion, he succeeded in overcoming the powerful landed interest which delayed the adoption of railways in England long after the date of their regular introduction into America.

HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator and explorer. Nothing is known of his personal history excepting such as falls within the period of the four voyages on which his fame rests. The first of these voyages in quest of new trade and a short route to China by way of the North Pole, in accordance with the suggestion of Robert Thorne (d. 1527), was made for the Muscovy Company with ten men and a boy in 1607. Hudson first coasted the east side of Greenland, and being prevented from proceeding northwards by the great ice barrier which stretches thence to Spitzbergen sailed along it until he reached "Newland," as Spitzbergen was then called, and followed its northern coast to beyond 80 deg. N. lat. On the homeward voyage he accidentally discovered an island in lat. 71 deg. which he named Hudson's Touches, and which has since been identified with Jan Mayen Island. Molineux's chart, published by Hakluyt about 1600, was Hudson's blind guide in this voyage, and the polar map of 1611 by Pontanus illustrates well what he attempted, and the valuable results both negative and positive which he reached. He investigated the trade prospects at Bear Island, and recommended his patrons to seek higher game in Newland; hence he may be called the father of the English whale-fisheries at Spitzbergen.

Next year Hudson was again sent by the Muscovy Company to open a passage to China, this time by the north-east route between Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya, which had been attempted by his predecessors and especially by the Dutch navigator William Barents. This voyage lasted from the 22nd of April to the 26th of August 1608. He raked the Barents Sea in vain between 75 deg. 30' N.W. and 71 deg. 15' S.E. for an opening through the ice, and on the 6th of July, "voide of hope of a north-east passage (except by the Waygats, for which I was not fitted to trie or prove)," he resolved to sail to the north-west, and if time and means permitted to run a hundred leagues up Lumley's Inlet (Frobisher Strait) or Davis's "overfall" (Hudson Strait). But his voyage being delayed by contrary winds he was finally compelled to return without accomplishing his wish. The failure of this second attempt satisfied the Muscovy Company, which thenceforward directed all its energies to the profitable Spitzbergen trade.

Towards the end of 1608 Hudson "had a call" to Amsterdam, where he saw the celebrated cosmographer the Rev. Peter Plancius and the cartographer Hondius, and after some delay, due to the rivalry which was exhibited in the attempt to secure his services, he undertook for the Dutch East India Company his important third voyage to find a passage to China either by the north-east or north-west route. With a mixed crew of eighteen or twenty men he left the Texel in the "Half-Moon" on the 6th of April, and by the 5th of May was in the Barents Sea, and soon afterwards among the ice near Novaya Zemlya, where he had been the year before. Some of his men becoming disheartened and mutinous (it is now supposed that he had arrived two or three months too early), he lost hope of effecting anything by that route, and submitted to his men, as alternative proposals, either to go to Lumley's Inlet and follow up Waymouth's light, or to make for North Virginia and seek the passage in about 40 deg. lat., according to the letter and map sent him by his friend Captain John Smith. The latter plan was adopted, and on the 14th of May Hudson set his face towards the Chesapeake and China. He touched at Stromo in the Faroe Islands for water, and on the 15th of June off Newfoundland the "Half-Moon" "spent overboard her foremast." This accident compelled him to put into the Kennebec river, where a mast was procured, and some communication and an unnecessary encounter with the Indians took place. Sailing again on the 26th of July, he began on the 28th of August the survey where Smith left off, at 37 deg. 36' according to his map, and coasted northwards. On the 3rd of September, in 40 deg. 30', he entered the fine bay of New York, and after having gone 150 m. up the river which now bears his name to near the position of the present Albany, treating with the Indians, surveying the country, and trying the stream above tide-water, he became satisfied that this course did not lead to the South Sea or China, a conclusion in harmony with that of Champlain, who the same summer had been making his way south through Lake Champlain and Lake St Sacrement (now Lake George). The two explorers by opposite routes approached within 20 leagues of each other. On the 4th of October the "Half-Moon" weighed for the Texel, and on the 7th of November arrived at Dartmouth, where she was seized and detained by the English government, Hudson and the other Englishmen of the ship being commanded not to leave England, but rather to serve their own country. The voyage had fallen short of Hudson's expectations, but it served many purposes perhaps as important to the world. Among other results it exploded Hakluyt's myth, which from the publication of Lok's map in 1582 to the 2nd charter of Virginia in May 1609 he had lost no opportunity of promulgating, that near 40 deg. lat. there was a narrow isthmus, formed by the sea of Verrazano, like that of Tehuantepec or Panama.

Hudson's confidence in the existence of a North-West Passage had not been diminished by his three failures, and a new company was formed to support him in a fourth attempt, the principal promoters being Sir Thomas Smith (or Smythe), Sir Dudley Digges and John (afterwards Sir John) Wolstenholme. He determined this time to carry out his old plan of searching for a passage up Davis's "overfall"--so-called in allusion to the overfall of the tide which Davis had observed rushing through the strait. Hudson sailed from London in the little ship "Discovery" of 55 tons, on the 17th of April 1610, and entered the strait which now bears his name about the middle of June. Sailing steadily westward he entered Hudson Bay on the 3rd of August, and passing southward spent the next three months examining the eastern shore of the bay. On the 1st of November the "Discovery" went into winter quarters in the S.W. corner of James Bay, being frozen in a few days later, and during the long winter months which were passed there only a scanty supply of game was secured to eke out the ship's provisions. Discontent became rife, and on the ship breaking out of the ice in the spring Hudson had a violent quarrel with a dissolute young fellow named Henry Greene, whom he had befriended by taking him on board, and who now retaliated by inciting the discontented part of the crew to put Hudson and eight others (including the sick men) out of the ship. This happened on the 22nd of June 1611. Robert Bylot was elected master and brought the ship back to England. During the voyage home Greene and several others were killed in a fight with the Eskimo, while others again died of starvation, and the feeble remnant which reached England in September were thrown into prison. No more tidings were ever received of the deserted men.

Although it is certain that the four great geographical landmarks which to-day serve to keep Hudson's memory alive, namely the Hudson Bay, Strait, Territory and River, had repeatedly been visited and even drawn on maps and charts before he set out on his voyages, yet he deserves to take a very high rank among northern navigators for the mere extent of his discoveries and the success with which he pushed them beyond the limits of his predecessors. The rich fisheries of Spitzbergen and the fur industry of the Hudson Bay Territory were the immediate fruit of his labours.

See _Henry Hudson, the Navigator_ (Hakluyt Society, 1860); and T. A.
Janvier, _Henry Hudson_ (1909). In 1909 a great celebration of the
tercentenary was held in the United States.

HUDSON, JOHN (1662-1719), English classical scholar, was born at Wythop in Cumberland. He was educated at Oxford, where the remainder of his life was spent. In 1701 he was appointed Bodley's librarian, and in 1711 principal of St Mary's Hall. His political views stood in the way of his preferment in the church and university. He died on the 26th of November 1719. As an editor and commentator he enjoyed a high reputation both at home and abroad. His works, chiefly editions of classical authors, include the following: Velleius Paterculus (1693); Thucydides (1696); _Geographiae Veteris Scriptores Graeci minores_ (1698-1712) containing the works and fragments of 21 authors and the learned, though diffuse, dissertations of H. Dodwell--a rare and valuable work, which in spite of its faulty text was not superseded until the appearance of C. W. Muller's edition in the Didot series: the editio princeps of Moeris, _De Vocibus Atticis et Hellenicis_ (1712); Josephus (1720, published posthumously by his friend Anthony Hall, the antiquary), a correct and beautifully printed edition, with variorum notes and translation.

See Wood, _Athenae Oxonienses_, iv.; introduction to the edition of
Josephus; W. Hutchinson, _History of Cumberland_ (1794).

HUDSON, a city and the county-seat of Columbia county, New York, U.S.A., on the E. side of the Hudson river, about 114 m. N. of New York City and about 28 m. S. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 9970; (1900) 9528, of whom 1155 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,417. It is served by the Boston & Albany, the New York Central & Hudson River and the (electric) Albany & Hudson railways, by river steamboats, and by a steam ferry to Athens and Catskill across the river. The city is picturesquely situated on the slope of Prospect Hill; and Promenade Park, on a bluff above the steamboat landing, commands a fine view of the river and of the Catskill Mountains. Among the public buildings and institutions are a fine city hall, the Columbia County Court House, a public library, a Federal building, a State Training School for Girls, a State Firemen's Home, an Orphan Asylum, a Home for the Aged and a hospital. The city's manufactures include hosiery and knit goods, Portland cement (one of the largest manufactories of that product in the United States being here), foundry and machine shop products, car wheels, ice tools and machinery, ale, beer, bricks and tiles and furniture. The value of the factory products in 1905 was $4,115,525, an increase of 58.1% over that in 1900. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Hudson, which was originally known as Claverack Landing, was for many years merely a landing with two rude wharfs and two small storehouses, to which farmers in the neighbourhood brought their produce for shipment on the river. Late in 1783 the place was settled by an association of merchants and fishermen from Rhode Island, Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. The present name was adopted in 1784, and the city was chartered in 1785. For many years Hudson had a considerable foreign commerce and whaling interests, but these were practically destroyed by the war of 1812.

HUDSON BAY (less often, but more correctly, Hudson's Bay), an inland sea in the N.E. of Canada, extending from 78 deg. to 95 deg. W. and from 51 deg. to 70 deg. N. On the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, and on the north with the Arctic Ocean by Fox Channel and Fury and Hecla Strait. Its southern extremity between 55 deg. and 51 deg. N. is known as James Bay. It is 590 m. in width, and 1300 from S. to N., including James Bay (350 m.) and Fox Channel (350 m.). The customary use of the term includes James Bay, but not Fox Channel. The average depth of water is about 70 fathoms, deepening at the entrance of Hudson Strait to 100 fathoms. James Bay is much shallower, and unfit for shipping save for a central channel leading to the mouth of the Moose river. The centre and west of the main bay are absolutely free from shoals, rocks or islands, but down its east coast extend two lines of small islands, one close to shore, the other at 70 to 100 m. distance, and comprising a number of scattered groups (the Ottawa Islands, the Sleepers, the Belchers, &c.).

Into Hudson and James Bays flow numerous important rivers, so much so that the water of the latter is rather brackish than salt. Beginning at the north-west, the chief of these are Churchill, Nelson (draining Lake Winnipeg, and the numerous inland rivers of which it is the basin), Hayes (the old boat route of the _voyageurs_ to Winnipeg), Severn, Albany, Moose, Rupert river (draining Lake Mistassini), Nottaway, East Main, Great Whale and Little Whale.

Save for some high bluffs on the east and north-east, the shores of the bay are low. Around much of James Bay extend marshes and swampy ground. Geologically the greater part of the Hudson Bay district belongs to the Laurentian system, though there are numerous outcrops of later formation; Cambro-Silurian on the south and west, and to the north of Cape Jones (the north-eastern extremity of James Bay) a narrow belt of Cambrian rocks, of which the islands are composed. Coal, plumbago, iron and other minerals have been found in various districts near the coast. The climate is harsh, though vegetables and certain root crops ripen in the open air as far north as Fort Churchill; cattle flourish, and are fed chiefly on the native grasses; spruce, balsam and poplar grow to a fair size as far as the northern limit of James Bay. Caribou, musk ox and other animals are still found in large numbers, and there is an abundance of feathered game--ducks, geese, loons and ptarmigan; hunting and fishing form the chief occupations of the Indians and Eskimo who live in scattered bands near the shore. The bay abounds with fish, of which the chief are cod, salmon, porpoise and whales. The last have long been pursued by American whalers, whose destructive methods have so greatly depleted the supply that the government of Canada is anxious to declare the bay a _mare clausum_.

Hudson Strait is about 450 m. long with an average breadth of 100 m., narrowing at one point to 45. Its shores are high and bold, rarely less in height than 1000 ft., save on the coast of Ungava Bay, a deep indentation on the south-east. No islands or rocks impede navigation. Its depth is from 100 to 200 fathoms. Owing to the violence of the tides, which rise to a height of 35 ft., it never absolutely freezes over.

After three centuries of exploration, the navigability of Hudson Bay
and Strait remains a vexed question. To Canada it is one of great
commercial interest, and numerous expeditions have been made and
reports issued by the Geological Survey. From Winnipeg to Liverpool
via Churchill is over 500 m. less than via Montreal, and from Edmonton
to Liverpool almost 1000 m. less. Were navigation open for a
sufficient time, such a route for the grain of the Canadian and
American west would be of enormous advantage. But the inlet from the
Arctic sends down masses of heavy ice, which drift about in the bay
and the strait. Past the mouth of the strait flows a stream often over
100 m. wide, of berg and floe ice, carried by the Arctic current.
Owing to the proximity of the Magnetic Pole (in Boothia) the compass
often refuses to work. For sailing ships, such as the Hudson's Bay
Company has long employed, the season for safe navigation is from the
15th of July to the 1st of October. In over 200 years very few serious
accidents have occurred to the company's ships within these limits. It
is claimed that specially built and protected steamers would be safe
from the 15th of June till the 1st of November, and the problem may be
solved by ice-breaking vessels of great power. The only good harbour
available is Fort Churchill, at the mouth of the Churchill river,
which is large and easy of access. Moose Factory (at the foot of James
Bay) and York Factory (at the mouth of the Nelson) are mere
roadsteads. Marble Island, south of Chesterfield Inlet, where the
whalers winter, is too far north for regular shipping.

The Cabots entered the strait in 1498, and during the next century a
series of Elizabethan mariners; but the bay was not explored until
1610, when Henry Hudson pushed through the ice and explored to the
southern limit of James Bay.

See Lieutenant Gordon, R.N., _Reports on the Hudson's Bay Expeditions_
(1884, 5, 6); William Ogilvie, _Exploratory Survey to Hudson's Bay in
1890_ (Ottawa, 1891); R. F. Stupart, _The Navigation of Hudson's Bay
and Straits_ (Toronto, 1904).