Chapter XIX: Part II: The Practice of Horticulture (17)

HOWITT WILLIAM, (1792-1879), English author, was born on the 18th of December 1792 at Heanor, Derbyshire. His parents were Quakers, and he was educated at the Friends' public school at Ackworth, Yorkshire. In 1814 he published a poem on the "Influence of Nature and Poetry on National Spirit." He married, in 1821, Mary Botham (1799-1888), like himself a Quaker and a poet. William and Mary Howitt collaborated throughout a long literary career, the first of their joint productions being _The Forest Minstrels and other Poems_ (1821). In 1831 William Howitt produced a work for which his habits of observation and his genuine love of nature peculiarly fitted him. It was a history of the changes in the face of the outside world in the different months of the year, and was entitled _The Book of the Seasons, or the Calendar of Nature_ (1831). His _Popular History of Priestcraft_ (1833) won for him the favour of active Liberals and the office of alderman in Nottingham, where the Howitts had made their home. They removed in 1837 to Esher, and in 1840 they went to Heidelberg, primarily for the education of their children, remaining in Germany for two years. In 1841 William Howitt produced, under the pseudonym of "Dr Cornelius," _The Student Life of Germany_, the first of a series of works on German social life and institutions. Mary Howitt devoted herself to Scandinavian literature, and between 1842 and 1863 she translated the novels of Frederika Bremer and many of the stories of Hans Andersen. With her husband she wrote in 1852 _The Literature and Romance of Northern Europe_. In June of that year William Howitt, with two of his sons, set sail for Australia, where he spent two years in the goldfields. The results of his travels appeared in _A Boy's Adventures in the Wilds of Australia_ (1854), _Land, Labour and Gold; or, Two Years in Victoria_ (1855) and _Tallangetta, the Squatter's Home_ (1857). On his return to England Howitt had settled at Highgate and resumed his indefatigable book-making. From 1856 to 1862 he was engaged on Cassell's _Illustrated History of England_, and from 1861 to 1864 he and his wife worked at the _Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain_. The Howitts had left the Society of Friends in 1847, and became interested in spiritualism. In 1863 appeared _The History of the Supernatural in all Ages and Nations, and in all Churches, Christian and Pagan, demonstrating a Universal Faith_, by William Howitt. He added "his own conclusions from a practical examination of the higher phenomena through a course of seven years." From 1870 onwards Howitt spent the summers in Tirol and the winters in Rome, where he died on the 3rd of March 1879. Mary Howitt was much affected by his death, and in 1882 she joined the Roman Catholic Church, towards which she had been gradually moving during her connexion with spiritualism. She died at Rome on the 30th of January 1888. The Howitts are remembered for their untiring efforts to provide wholesome and instructive literature. Their son, Alfred William Howitt, made himself a name by his explorations in Australia. Anna Mary Howitt married Alaric Alfred Watts, and was the author of _Pioneers of the Spiritual Reformation_ (1883).

Mary Howitt's autobiography was edited by her daughter, Margaret
Howitt, in 1889. William Howitt wrote some fifty books, and his wife's
publications, inclusive of translations, number over a hundred.

HOWITZER (derived, through an earlier form _howitz_, and the Ger. _Haubitz_, from the Bohemian _houfnice_ = catapult, from which come also, through the Ital. _obiza_ or _obice_, the French forms _obus_ = shell and _obusier_ = howitzer), a form of mobile ordnance in use from the 16th century up to the present day. It is a short and therefore comparatively light gun, which fires a heavy projectile at low velocity. A high angle of elevation is always given and the angle of descent of the projectile is consequently steep (up to 70 deg.). On this fact is based the tactical use of the modern howitzer. The field howitzer is of the greatest value for "searching" trenches, folds of ground, localities, &c., which are invulnerable to direct fire, while the more powerful siege howitzer has, since the introduction of modern artillery and, above all, of modern projectiles, taken the foremost place amongst the weapons used in siege warfare.

See ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE and FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.

HOWLER, a name applied to the members of a group of tropical American monkeys, now known scientifically as _Alouata_, although formerly designated _Mycetes_. These monkeys, which are of large size, with thick fur, sometimes red and sometimes black in colour, are characterized by the inflation of the hyoid-bone (which supports the roof of the tongue) into a large shell-like organ communicating with the wind-pipe, and giving the peculiar resonance to the voice from which they take their title. To allow space for the hyoid, the sides of the lower jaw are very deep and expanded. The muzzle is projecting, and the profile of the face slopes regularly backwards from the muzzle to the crown. The long tail is highly prehensile, thickly furred, with the under surface of the extremity naked. Howlers dwell in large companies, and in the early morning, and again in the evening, make the woods resound with their cries, which are often continued throughout the night. They feed on leaves, and are in the habit of sitting on the topmost branches of trees. When active, they progress in regular order, led by an old male. (R. L.*)

HOWRAH, a city and district of British India, in the Burdwan division of Bengal. The city is situated opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by a floating bridge. The municipal area is about 11 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 157,594, showing an increase of 35% in the decade. Since 1872 the population has almost doubled, owing to the great industrial development that has taken place. Howrah is the terminus of the East Indian railway, and also of the Bengal-Nagpur and East Coast lines. It is also the centre of two light railways which run to Amta and Sheakhala. Further, it is the headquarters of the jute-manufacturing industry, with many steam mills, steam presses, also cotton mills, oil mills, rope-works, iron-works and engineering works. Sibpur Engineering College lies on the outskirts of the town. There is a hospital, with a department for Europeans, and Howrah forms a suburban residence for many people who have their place of business in Calcutta.

The DISTRICT OF HOWRAH extends southwards down the right bank of the Hugli to the confluence of the river Damodar. For revenue purposes it is included within the district of Hugli Its area is 510 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 850,514, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. In addition to the two steam tramways and the East Indian railway, the district is crossed by the high-level canal to Midnapore, which communicates with the Hugli at Ulubaria. The manufacturing industries of Howrah extend beyond the city into the district. One or two systems of draining low-lying lands are maintained by the government.

HOWSON, JOHN SAUL (1816-1885), English divine, was born at Giggleswick-in-Craven, Yorkshire, on the 5th of May 1816. After receiving his early education at Giggleswick school, of which his father was head-master, he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, and there became tutor successively to the marquis of Sligo and the marquis of Lorne. In 1845 Howson, having taken orders, accepted the post of senior classical master at the Liverpool College under his friend W. J. Conybeare, whom he succeeded as principal in 1849. This post he held until 1865, and it was largely due to his influence that a similar college for girls was established at Liverpool. In 1866 he left Liverpool for the vicarage of Wisbech, and in 1867 he was appointed dean of Chester Cathedral, where he gave himself vigorously to the work of restoring the crumbling fabric, collecting nearly L100,000 in five years for this purpose. His sympathies were with the evangelical party, and he stoutly opposed the "Eastward position," but he was by no means narrow. He did much to reintroduce the ministry of women as deaconesses. The building of the King's School for boys, and the Queen's School for girls (both in Chester), was due in a great measure to the active interest which he took in educational matters. He died at Bournemouth on the 15th of December 1885, and was buried in the cloister garth of Chester. Howson's chief literary production was _The Life and Epistles of St Paul_ (1852) in which he collaborated with Conybeare.

The book is still of interest, especially for its descriptive
passages, which were mostly done by Howson; but later researches (such
as those of Sir W. M. Ramsay) have made the geographical and
historical sections obsolete, and the same may be said of the
treatment of the Pauline theology.

HOWTH [pronounced _Hoth_], a seaside town of Co. Dublin, Ireland, on the rocky hill of Howth, which forms the northern horn of Dublin Bay, 9 m. N.E. by N. of Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 1166. It is frequented by the residents of the capital as a watering-place. The artificial harbour was formed (1807-1832) between the mainland and the picturesque island of Ireland's Eye, and preceded Kingstown as the station for the mail-packets from Great Britain, but was found after its construction to be liable to silt, and is now chiefly used by fishing-boats and yachts. The collegiate church, standing picturesquely on a cliff above the sea, was founded about 1235, and has a monastic building attached to it. The embattled castle contains the two-handed sword of Sir Almeric Tristram, the Anglo-Norman conqueror of the hill of Howth, and a portrait of Dean Swift holding one of the Drapier letters, with Wood, the coiner against whom he directed these attacks, prostrate before him. The view of Dublin Bay from the hill of Howth is of great beauty. Howth is connected with the capital by electric tramway, besides the railway, and another tramway encircles the hill.

HOXTER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, prettily situated on the left bank of the Weser, and on the Prussian state railways Borssum-Soest and Scherfede-Holzminden, 32 m. N. of Cassel. Pop. (1905) 7699. It has a medieval town hall, and interesting houses with high gables and wood-carved facades of the 15th and 16th centuries. The most interesting of the churches is the Protestant church of St Kilian, with a pulpit dating from 1595 and a font dating from 1631. There are a gymnasium, a school of architecture and a monument to Hoffmann von Fallersleben in the town. The Weser is crossed here by a stone bridge about 500 ft. in length, erected in 1833. On the Brunsberg adjoining the town there is an old watch-tower, said to be the remains of a fortress built by Bruno, brother of Widukind. Near Hoxter is the castle, formerly the Benedictine monastery, of Corvey. The principal manufactures of the town are linen, cotton, cement and gutta-percha, and there is also a considerable shipping trade. Hoxter (Lat. _Huxaria_) in the time of Charlemagne was a _villa regia_, and was the scene of a battle between him and the Saxons. Under the protection of the monastery of Corvey it gradually increased in prosperity, and became the chief town of the principality of Corvey. Later it asserted its independence and joined the Hanseatic League. It suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War. After the peace of Westphalia in 1648 it was united to Brunswick; in 1802 it was transferred to Nassau; and in 1807 to the kingdom of Westphalia, after the dismemberment of which, in 1814, it came into the possession of Prussia.

See Kampschulte, _Chronik der Stadt Hoxter_ (Hoxter, 1872).

HOY (Norse _Haey_, "high island"), the second largest island of the Orkneys, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1216. It has an extreme length from N.W. to S.E. of 13(1/3) m., its greatest breadth from E. to W. is 8 m., and its area occupies 53 sq. m. It is situated 2 m. S.W. of Pomona, from which it is separated by Hoy Sound. As seen from the west it rises abruptly from the sea, presenting in this respect a marked contrast to the rest of the isles of the Orcadian group, which as a whole are low-lying. Its eastern and southern shores are indented by numerous bays, one of which, Long Hope, forms a natural harbour 4 m. long, with a breadth varying from 1/4 m. to more than 1 m., affording to any number of vessels a haven of refuge from the roughest weather of the Pentland Firth. Off the eastern coast lie the islands of Graemsay, Cava, Risa, Fara, Flotta and Switha, while the peninsula of South Walls, forming the southern side of the harbour of Long Hope, is an island in all but name. Red and yellow sandstone cliffs, sometimes over 1000 ft. in height, stretch for 10 to 12 m. on the Atlantic front. The detached pillar or stack called the Old Man of Hoy (450 ft.) is a well-known landmark to sailors. The only break in this remarkable run of rocky coast is at Rackwick in the bight below the head of Rora. In the interior, Ward Hill (1564 ft.) is the loftiest summit in either the Orkneys or Shetlands. In the valley between Ward Hill and the ridge of the Hamars to the south-east is situated the famous Dwarfie Stone, an enormous block of sandstone measuring 28 ft. long, from 11 ft. to 14(1/2) ft. broad, and 6(1/2) ft. high at one end and 2 ft. high at the other, in which two rooms have been artificially hollowed out, traditionally believed to be the bed-chambers of Trolld, the dwarf of the sagas, and his wife. A boulder lying at the narrow end was supposed to be used to close the entrance. The generally accepted theory is that it was a pagan altar which some hermit afterwards converted into a cell. Other hills in the island are the Cuilags (1420 ft.) and the Knap of Trewieglen (1308 ft.), besides several peaks exceeding 1000 ft. in height. Hoy is commonly approached from Stromness, there being piers at Linksness, the nearest point to Graemsay, and at Hackness, South Ness and North Bay, the last three all on the harbour of Long Hope.

HOYLAKE, a watering-place in the Wirral parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead, on the Wirral railway. With West Kirby to the south, at the mouth of the estuary of the Dee, it forms the urban district of Hoylake and West Kirby. Pop. (1901) 10,911. The well-known links of the Royal Liverpool Golf Club are at Hoylake. The town has a considerable population of fishermen.

HOYLAND NETHER, an urban district in the Hallamshire parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5(1/2) m. S.S.E. of Barnsley, on the Midland railway. Collieries and brickworks employ the large industrial population. Pop. (1901) 12,464.

HOYLE, EDMUND, or EDMOND (1672-1769), the first systematizer of the laws of whist, and author of a book on games, was born in 1672. His parentage and place of birth are unknown, and few details of his life are recorded. For some time he was resident in London, and partially supported himself by giving instruction in the game of whist. For the use of his pupils he drew up a _Short Treatise_ on the game, which after circulating for some time in manuscript was printed by him and entered at Stationers' Hall in November 1742. The laws of Hoyle continued to be regarded as authoritative until 1864, since which time they have been gradually superseded by the new rules adopted by the Arlington and Portland clubs in that year (see Whist). He also published rules for various other games, and his book on games, which includes the _Short Treatise_, has passed into many editions. The weight of his authority is indicated by the phrase "according to Hoyle," which, doubtless first applied with reference to whist, has gained currency as a general proverb. Hoyle died in London on the 29th of August 1769.

HOZIER, PIERRE D', SEIGNEUR DE LA GARDE (1592-1660), French genealogist, was born at Marseilles on the 10th of July 1592. In 1616 he entered upon some very extensive researches into the genealogy of the noble families of the kingdom, in which work he was aided by his prodigious memory for dates, names and family relationships, as well as by his profound knowledge of heraldry. In 1634 he was appointed historiographer and genealogist of France, and in 1641 _juge d'armes_ of France, an officer corresponding nearly to the Garter king-of-arms in England. In 1643 he was employed to verify the claims to nobility of the pages and equerries of the king's household. He accumulated a large number of documents, but published comparatively little, his principal works being _Recueil armorial des anciennes maisons de Bretagne_ (1638); _Les noms, surnoms, qualitez, armes et blasons des chevaliers et officiers de l'ordre du Saint-Esprit_ (1634); and the genealogies of the houses of La Rochefoucauld (1654), Bournonville (1657) and Amanze (1659). He was renowned as much for his uprightness as for his knowledge, no slight praise in a profession exposed to so many temptations to fraud. He died in Paris on the 1st of December 1660. At his death his collections comprised more than 150 volumes or portfolios of documents and papers relating to the genealogy of the principal families in France. Of his six sons, only two survived him. His eldest son, Louis Roger d'Hozier (1634-1708), succeeded him as _juge d'armes_, but became blind in 1675, and was obliged to surrender his office to his brother.

CHARLES RENE D'HOZIER (1640-1732), younger son of Pierre, was the true continuator of his father. In addition to his commentary appended to Antoine Varillas's history of King Charles IX. (1686 ed.), he published _Recherches sur la noblesse de Champagne_ (1673). On the promulgation in 1696 of an edict directing all who had armorial bearings to register them on payment of 20 livres, he was employed to collect the declarations returned in the various _generalites_, and established the _Armorial general de France_. This work, which contained not only the armorial bearings of noble families, but also of those commoners who were entitled to bear arms, is not complete, inasmuch as many refused to register their arms, either from vanity or from a desire to evade the fee.

The collection (now in the Bibliotheque Nationale) consists of 34
volumes of text and 35 of coloured armorial bearings, and in spite of
its deficiencies is a useful store of information for the history of
the old French families. It contains 60,000 names, grouped according
to provinces and provincial subdivisions. The sections relating to
Burgundy and Franche-Comte were published by Henri Bouchot
(1875-1876): those relating to the _generalite_ of Limoges, by Moreau
de Pravieux (1895); and those for the _election_ of Reims, by P.
Gosset (1903).

In 1717, in consequence of a quarrel with his nephew Louis Pierre, son of Louis Roger, Charles sold his collection to the king. It then comprised 160 portfolios of genealogical papers arranged alphabetically, 175 volumes of documents, and numerous printed books profusely annotated. In 1720 it was inventoried by P. de Clairambault, who added a certain number of genealogies taken from the papers of F. R. de Gaignieres, increasing the total to 217 boxes and portfolios. Thus originated the _Cabinet des titres_ of the Bibliotheque Nationale. Charles subsequently became reconciled to his nephew, to whom he left all the papers he had accumulated from the date of the quarrel until his death, which occurred in Paris on the 13th of February 1732.

LOUIS PIERRE D'HOZIER (1685-1767), son of Louis Roger, succeeded his uncle Charles as _juge d'armes_. He published the _Armorial general, ou registre de la noblesse de France_ (10 vols., 1738-1768), which must not be confounded with the publication mentioned above, inasmuch as it related solely to noble families and was not an official collection. Complete copies of this work, which should contain six _registres_, are comparatively rare. A seventh _registre_, forming vol. xi., prepared by Ambroise Louis Marie, nephew of Louis Pierre, was published in 1847 by comte Charles d'Hozier. Louis Pierre died on the 25th of September 1767. His eldest son, Antoine Marie d'Hozier de Serigny (1721-c. 1810), was his father's collaborator and continuator; and his fourth son, Jean Francois Louis, wrote an account of the knights of St Michael in the province of Poitou, which was published in 1896 by the vicomte P. de Chabot.

His nephew, AMBROISE LOUIS MARIE D'HOZIER (1764-1846), was the last of the _juges d'armes_ of France. He held the position of president of the _cour des comptes, aides et finances_ of Normandy, and was therefore generally known as President d'Hozier, to distinguish him from the other members of the family. After the Restoration he was employed to verify French armorial bearings for the _conseil du sceau des titres_. He died in obscurity. His collection, which was purchased in 1851 by the Bibliotheque Nationale, comprised 136 volumes, 165 portfolios of documents and 200 packets of extracts from title-deeds, known as the _Carres d'Hozier_.

ABRAHAM CHARLES AUGUSTE D'HOZIER (1775-1846), who also belonged to his family, was implicated in the conspiracy of Georges Cadoudal, and was condemned to death, but Bonaparte spared his life. He did not, however, recover his liberty until after the fall of the emperor, and died at Versailles on the 24th of August 1846. (C. B.*)

HRABANUS MAURUS MAGNENTIUS (c. 776-856), archbishop of Mainz, and one of the most prominent teachers and writers of the Carolingian age, was born of noble parents at Mainz. Less correct forms of his name are Rabanus and Rhabanus. The date of his birth is uncertain, but in 801 he received deacon's orders at Fulda, where he had been sent to school; in the following year, at the instance of Ratgar, his abbot, he went together with Haimon (afterwards of Halberstadt) to complete his studies at Tours under Alcuin, who in recognition of his diligence and purity gave him the surname of Maurus, after St Maur the favourite disciple of Benedict. Returning after the lapse of two years to Fulda, he was entrusted with the principal charge of the school, which under his direction rose into a state of great efficiency for that age, and sent forth such pupils as Walafrid Strabo, Servatus Lupus of Ferieres and Otfrid of Weissenburg. At this period it is most probable that his _Excerptio_ from the grammar of Priscian, long so popular as a text-book during the middle ages, was compiled. In 814 he was ordained a priest; but shortly afterwards, apparently on account of disagreement with Ratgar, he was compelled to withdraw for a time from Fulda. This "banishment" is understood to have occasioned the pilgrimage to Palestine to which he alludes in his commentary on Joshua. He returned to Fulda on the election of a new abbot (Eigil) in 817, upon whose death in 822 he himself became abbot. The duties of this office he discharged with efficiency and success until 842, when, in order to secure greater leisure for literature and for devotion, he resigned and retired to the neighbouring cloister of St Peter's. In 847 he was again constrained to enter public life by his election to succeed Otgar in the archbishopric of Mainz, which see he occupied for upwards of eight years. The principal incidents of historical interest belonging to this period of his life were those which arose out of his relations to Gottschalk (q.v.): they may be regarded as thoroughly typical of that cruel intolerance which he shared with all his contemporaries, and also of that ardent zeal which was peculiar to himself; but they hardly do justice to the spirit of kindly benevolence which in less trying circumstances he was ever ready to display. He died at Winkel on the Rhine, on the 4th of February 856. He is frequently referred to as St Rabanus, but incorrectly.

His voluminous works, many of which remain unpublished, comprise
commentaries on a considerable number of the books both of canonical
and of apocryphal Scripture (Genesis to Judges, Ruth, Kings,
Chronicles, Judith, Esther, Canticles, Proverbs, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Maccabees, Matthew,
the Epistles of St Paul, including Hebrews); and various treatises
relating to doctrinal and practical subjects, including more than one
series of Homilies. Perhaps the most important is that _De
institutione clericorum_, in three books, by which he did much to
bring into prominence the views of Augustine and Gregory the Great as
to the training which was requisite for a right discharge of the
clerical function; the most popular has been a comparatively worthless
tract _De laudibus sanctae crucis_. Among the others may be mentioned
the _De universo libri xxii., sive etymologiarum opus_, a kind of
dictionary or encyclopaedia, designed as a help towards the historical
and mystical interpretation of Scripture, the _De sacris ordinibus_,
the _De disciplina ecclesiastica_ and the _Martyrologium_. All of them
are characterized by erudition (he knew even some Greek and Hebrew)
rather than by originality of thought. The poems are of singularly
little interest or value, except as including one form of the "Veni
Creator." In the annals of German philology a special interest
attaches to the _Glossaria Latino-Theodisca_. A commentary, _Super
Porphyrium_, printed by Cousin in 1836 among the _Ouvrages inedits
d'Abelard_, and assigned both by that editor and by Haureau to
Hrabanus Maurus, is now generally believed to have been the work of a
disciple.

The first nominally complete edition of the works of Hrabanus Maurus
was that of Colvener (Cologne, 6 vols. fol., 1627). The _Opera omnia_
form vols. cvii.-cxii. of Migne's _Patrologiae cursus completus_. The
_De universo_ is the subject of _Compendium der Naturwissenschaften an
der Schule zu Fulda im IX. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1880). Maurus is the
subject of monographs by Schwarz (_De Rhabano Mauro primo Germaniae
praeceptore_, 1811), Kunstmann (_Historische Monographie uber Hrabanus
Magnentius Maurus_, 1841), Spengler (_Leben des heil. Rhabanus
Maurus_, 1856) and Kohler (_Rhabanus Maurus u. die Schule zu Fulda_,
1870). _Lives_ by his disciple Rudolphus and by Joannes Trithemius are
printed in the Cologne edition of the _Opera_. See also Pertz, _Monum.
Germ. Hist._ (i. and ii.); Bahr, _Gesch. d. romischen Literatur im
Karoling. Zeitalter_ (1840), and Hauck's article in the Herzog-Hauck
_Realencyklopadie_, ed. 3.

HROLFR KRAKI, perhaps the most famous of the Danish kings of the heroic age. In _Beowulf_, where he is called Hrothwulf, he is represented as reigning over Denmark in conjunction with his uncle Hrothgar, one of the three sons of an earlier king called Healfdene. In the Old Norse sagas Hrolfe is the son of Helgi (Halga), the son of Halfdan (Healfdene). He is represented as a wealthy and peace-loving monarch similar to Hrothgar in _Beowulf_, but the latter (Hroarr, or Roe) is quite overshadowed by his nephew in the Northern authorities. The chief incidents in Hrolfr's career are the visit which he paid to the Swedish king Aethils (Beowulf's Eadgils), of which several different explanations are given, and the war, in which he eventually lost his life, against his brother-in-law Hiorvarethr. The name Kraki (pole-ladder) is said to have been given to him on account of his great height by a young knight named Voggr, whom he handsomely rewarded and who eventually avenged his death on Hiorvarethr. There is no reason to doubt that Hrolfr was an historical person and that he reigned in Denmark during the early years of the 6th century, but the statement found in all the sagas that he was the stepson of Aethils seems hardly compatible with the evidence of _Beowulf_, which is a much earlier authority.

See Saxo Grammaticus, _Gesta Danorum_, pp. 52-68, ed. A. Holder
(Strassburg, 1886); and A. Olrik, _Danmarks Hettedigtning_
(Copenhagen, 1903).

HROSVITHA (frequently ROSWITHA, and properly HROTSUIT), early medieval dramatist and chronicler, occupies a very notable position in the history of modern European literature. Her endeavours formed part of the literary activity by which the age of the emperor Otto the Great sought to emulate that of Charles the Great. The famous nun of Gandersheim has occasionally been confounded with her namesake, a learned abbess of the same convent, who must have died at least half a century earlier. The younger Hrosvitha was born in all probability about the year 935; and, if the statement be correct that she sang the praises of the three Ottos, she must have lived to near the close of the century. Some time before the year 959 she entered the Benedictine nunnery of Gandersheim, a foundation which was confined to ladies of German birth, and was highly favoured by the Saxon dynasty. In 959 Gerberga, daughter of Duke Henry of Bavaria and niece of the emperor Otto I., was consecrated abbess of Gandersheim; and the earlier literary efforts of the youthful Hrosvitha (whose own connexion with the royal family appears to be an unauthenticated tradition) were encouraged by the still more youthful abbess, and by a nun of the name of Richarda.

The literary works of Hrosvitha, all of which were as a matter of course in Latin, divide themselves into three groups. Of these the first and least important comprises eight narrative religious poems, in leonine hexameters or distichs. Their subjects are the Nativity of the Virgin (from the apocryphal gospel of St James, the brother of our Lord), the Ascension and a series of legends of saints (Gandolph, Pelagius, Theophilus, Basil, Denis, Agnes). Like these narrative poems, the dramas to which above all Hrosvitha owes her fame seem to have been designed for reading aloud or recitation by sisters of the convent. For though there are indications that the idea of their representation was at least present to the mind of the authoress, the fact of such a representation appears to be an unwarrantable assumption. The comedies of Hrosvitha are six in number, being doubtless in this respect also intended to recall their nominal model, the comedies of Terence. They were devised on the simple principle that the world, the flesh and the devil should not have all the good plays to themselves. The experiment upon which the young Christian dramatist ventured was accordingly, although not absolutely novel, audacious enough. In form the dramas of "the strong voice of Gandersheim," as Hrosvitha (possibly alluding to a supposed etymology of her name) calls herself, are by no means Terentian. They are written in prose, with an element of something like rhythm, and an occasional admixture of rhyme. In their themes, and in the treatment of these, they are what they were intended to be, the direct opposites of the lightsome adapter of Menander. They are founded upon legends of the saints, selected with a view to a glorification of religion in its supremest efforts and most transcendental aspects. The emperor Constantine's daughter, for example, Constantia, gives her hand in marriage to _Gallicanus_, just before he starts on a Scythian campaign, though she has already taken a vow of perpetual maidenhood. In the hour of battle he is himself converted, and, having on his return like his virgin bride chosen the more blessed unmarried state, dies as a Christian martyr in exile. The three holy maidens, Agape, Chionia and Irene, are preserved by a humorous miracle from the evil designs of _Dulcitius_, to offer up their pure lives as a sacrifice under Diocletian's persecutions. _Callimachus_, who has Romeo-like carried his earthly passion for the saintly Drusiana into her tomb, and among its horrors has met with his own death, is by the mediation of St John raised with her from the dead to a Christian life. All these themes are treated with both spirit and skill, often with instinctive knowledge of dramatic effect--often with genuine touches of pathos and undeniable felicities of expression. In _Dulcitius_ there is also an element of comedy, or rather of farce. How far Hrosvitha's comedies were an isolated phenomenon of their age in Germany must remain undecided; in the general history of the drama they form the visible bridge between the few earlier attempts at utilizing the forms of the classical drama for Christian purposes and the miracle plays. They are in any case the productions of genius; nor has Hrosvitha missed the usual tribute of the supposition that Shakespeare has borrowed from her writings.

The third and last group of the writings of Hrosvitha is that of her versified historical chronicles. At the request of the abbess Gerberga, she composed her _Carmen de gestis Oddonis_, an epic attempting in some degree to follow the great Roman model. It was completed by the year 968, and presented by the authoress to both the old emperor and his son (then already crowned as) Otto II. This poem so closely adheres to the materials supplied to the authoress by members of the imperial family that, notwithstanding its courtly omissions, it is regarded as an historical authority. Unfortunately only half of it remains; the part treating of the period from 953 to 962 is lost with the exception of a few fragments, and the period from 962 to 967 is summarized only. Subsequently, in a poem (of 837 hexameters) _De primordiis et fundatoribus coenobii Gandersheimensis_, Hrosvitha narrated the beginnings of her own convent, and its history up to the year 919.

The Munich MS., which contains all the works enumerated above except
the _Chronicle of Gandersheim_, was edited by the great Vienna
humanist, Conrad Celtes, in 1501. The edition of Celtes was published
at Nuremberg, with eight wood-cuts by Albrecht Durer. It was re-edited
by H. L. Schurzfleisch and published at Wittenberg in 1707. The
comedies have been edited and translated into German by J. Bendixen
(Lubeck, 1857), and into French by C. Magnin (Paris, 1845), whose
introduction gives a full account of the authoress and her works. See
also her _Poesies latines_, with a translation into French verse by V.
Retif de la Bretonne (Paris, 1854). A copious analysis of her plays
will be found in Klein, _Geschichte des Dramas_, iii. 665-754. See
also W. Creizenach, _Geschichte des neueren Dramas_, i. 17 sqq.
(Halle, 1893), and A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic
Literature_, i. 6 sqq. (Cambridge, 1899). Gustav Freytag wrote a
dissertation, _De Rosuitha poetria_ (Breslau, 1839), to qualify
himself as an academical teacher, which, as he records (_Erinnerungen
aus meinem Leben_, Leipzig, 1887, p. 1839), showed "how impossible it
was to the German, a thousand years since, to compose dramatically";
and at the beginning of Albert Cohn's _Shakespeare in Germany_
(Berlin, 1865) Shakespearean parallels are suggested to certain
passages in Hrosvitha's dramas. Her two chronicles in verse were
edited by Z. H. Pertz in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, iv. 306-335
(Hanover, 1841). See also J. P. Migne, _Patrologiae curs. compl._
(Paris, 1853, vol. 137). The _Carmen_ was included by Leibnitz in his
_Scriptores rer. Brunsvic._ (Hanover, 1707-1711). For other early
editions of these see A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_
(supplement, Berlin, 1862-1868); and for an appreciation of them see
Wattenbach, _Geschichtsquellen_, pp. 214-216, and Giesebrecht,
_Deutsche Kaiserzeit_, i. 780, who mentions a German translation by
Pfund (1860). There is a complete edition of the works of Hrosvitha by
K. A. Barack (Nurnberg, 1858). J. Aschbach (1867) attempted to prove
that Celtes had forged the productions which he published under the
name of Hrosvitha, but he was refuted by R. Kopke (Berlin, 1869).
Anatole France, _La Vie litteraire_ (3^eme serie, Paris, 1891), cited
by Creienach, mentions a curious recent experiment, the performance of
Hrosvitha's comedies in the Theatre des Marionettes at Paris.
(A. W. W.)

HSUAN TSANG (HIOUEN THSANG, HIWEN T'SANG, YUAN TSANG, YUAN-CHWANG), the most eminent representative of a remarkable and valuable branch of Chinese literature, consisting of the narratives of Chinese Buddhists who travelled to India, whilst their religion flourished there, with the view of visiting the sites consecrated by the history of Sakya Muni, of studying at the great convents which then existed in India, and of collecting books, relics and other sacred objects.

The importance of these writings as throwing light on the geography
and history of India and adjoining countries, during a very dark
period, is great, and they have been the subject of elaborate
commentaries by modern students. Several Chinese memoirs of this kind
appear to have perished; and especially to be regretted is a great
collection of the works of travellers to India, religious and secular,
in sixty books, with forty more of maps and illustrations, published
at the expense of the emperor Kao-Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, A.D.
666, with a preface from the imperial hand. We will mention the
clerical travellers of this description who are known to us by name.

1. _Shi-tao-'an_ (d. 385) wrote a work on his travels to the "western
lands" (an expression applying often to India), which is supposed to
be lost. 2. _Fa-hien_ travelled to India in 399, and returned by sea
in 414. His work, called _Fo-Kwo-Ki, or Memoirs on the Buddha Realms_,
has been translated by Abel-Remusat and Landresse, and again into
English by the Rev. S. Beale; Mr Laidlay of Calcutta also published a
translation from the French, with interesting notes. 3. _Hwai Seng_
and _Sung-Yun_, monks, travelled to India to collect books and
reliques, 518-521. Their short narrative has been translated by Karl
Fried. Neumann, and also by Mr Beale (along with Fa-hien). 4. _Hsuan
Tsang_, the subject of this notice. In relation to his travels there
are two Chinese works, both of which have been translated with an
immense appliance of labour and learning by M. Stanislas Julien, viz.
(a) the _Ta-T'ang-Si-Yu-Ki, or Memoirs on Western Countries issued by
the T'ang Dynasty_, which was compiled under the traveller's own
supervision, by order of the great emperor Tai-Tsung; and (b) a
_Biography of Hsuan Tsang_ by two of his contemporaries. 5. _The
Itinerary of Fifty-six Religious Travellers_, compiled and published
under imperial authority, 730. 6. _The Itinerary of Khi-Nie_, who
travelled (964-976) at the head of a large body of monks to collect
books, &c. Neither of the last two has been translated.

Hsuan Tsang was born in the district of Keu-Shi, near Honan-Fu, about 605, a period at which Buddhism appears to have had a powerful influence upon a large body of educated Chinese. From childhood grave and studious, he was taken in charge by an elder brother who had adopted the monastic life, in a convent at the royal city of Loyang in Honan. Hsuan Tsang soon followed his brother's example. For some years he travelled over China, teaching and learning, and eventually settled for a time at the capital Chang-gan (now Si-gan-fu in Shensi), where his fame for learning became great. The desire which he entertained to visit India, in order to penetrate all the doctrines of the Buddhist philosophy, and to perfect the collections of Indian books which existed in China, grew irresistible, and in August 629 he started upon his solitary journey, eluding with difficulty the strict prohibition which was in force against crossing the frontier.

The "master of the law," as his biographers call him, plunged alone into the terrible desert of the Gobi, then known as the Sha-mo or "Sand River," between Kwa-chow and Igu (now Hami or Kamil). At long intervals he found help from the small garrisons of the towers that dotted the desert track. Very striking is the description, like that given six centuries later by Marco Polo, of the quasi-supernatural horrors that beset the lonely traveller in the wilderness--the visions of armies and banners; and the manner in which they are dissipated singularly recalls passages in Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_. After great suffering Hsuan Tsang reached Igu, the seat of a Turkish principality, and pursued his way along the southern foot of the T'ian-shan, which he crossed by a glacier pass (vividly described) in the longitude of Lake Issyk-kul. In the valley of the Talas river he encounters the great khan of the Turks on a hunting party,--a rencontre which it is interesting to compare with the visit of Zemarchus to the great khan Dizabul, sixty years before, in the same region. Passing by the present Tashkend, and by Samarkand, then inhabited by fire worshippers, he reached the basin of the Upper Oxus, which had recently been the seat of the powerful dominion of the Haiathelah, Ephthalites or White Huns, known in earlier days to the Greeks as _Tochari_, and to Hsuan Tsang (by the same name) as _Tuholo_ or Tukhara. His account of the many small states into which the Tukhara empire had broken up is of great interest, as many of them are identical in name and topography with the high valley states and districts on the Upper Oxus, which are at this day the object of so much geographical and political interest.

Passing by Bamian, where he speaks of the great idols still so famous, he crosses Hindu-Kush, and descends the valley of the Kabul river to Nagarahara, the site of which, still known as Nagara, adjoining Jalalabad, has been explored by Mr W. Simpson. Travelling thence to Peshawar (_Purushapura_), the capital of Gandhara, he made a digression, through the now inaccessible valley of Swat and the Dard states, to the Upper Indus, returning to Peshawar, and then crossing the Indus (_Sintu_) into the decayed kingdom of _Taxila_ (Ta-cha-si-lo, Takshasila), then subject to Kashmir. In the latter valley he spent two whole years (631-633) studying in the convents, and visiting the many monuments of his faith. In his further travels he visited Mathura (_Mot'ulo_, Muttra), whence he turned north to Thanesar and the upper Jumna and Ganges, returning south down the valley of the latter to Kanyakubja or Kanauj, then one of the great capitals of India. The pilgrim next entered on a circuit of the most famous sites of Buddhist and of ancient Indian history, such as Ajodhya, Prayaga (Allahabad), Kausambhi, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, the birth-place of Sakya, Kusinagara, his death-place, Pataliputra (Patna, the _Palibothra_ of the Greeks), Gaya, Rajagriha and Nalanda, the most famous and learned monastery and college in India, adorned by the gifts of successive kings, of the splendour of which he gives a vivid description, and of which traces have recently been recovered. There he again spent nearly two years in mastering Sanskrit and the depths of Buddhist philosophy. Again, proceeding down the banks of the Ganges, he diverged eastward to Kamarupa (Assam), and then passed by the great ports of Tamralipti (Tamluk, the misplaced _Tamalitis_ of Ptolemy), and through Orissa to Kanchipara (Conjeeveram), about 640. Thence he went northward across the Carnatic and Maharashtra to Barakacheva (Broach of our day, _Barygaza_ of the Greeks). After this he visited Malwa, Cutch, Surashtra (peninsular Gujarat, _Syrastrene_ of the Greeks), Sind, Multan and Ghazni, whence he rejoined his former course in the basin of the Kabul river.

This time, however, he crosses Pamir, of which he gives a remarkable account, and passes by Kashgar, Khotan (_Kustana_), and the vicinity of Lop-nor across the desert to Kwa-chow, whence he had made his venturous and lonely plunge into the waste fifteen years before. He carried with him great collections of books, precious images and reliques, and was received (April 645) with public and imperial enthusiasm. The emperor T'ai-Tsung desired him to commit his journey to writing, and also that he should abandon the eremitic rule and serve the state. This last he declined, and devoted himself to the compilation of his narrative and the translation of the books he had brought with him from India. The former was completed A.D. 648. In 664 Hsuan Tsang died in a convent at Chang-gan. Some things in the history of his last days, and in the indications of beatitude recorded, strongly recall the parallel history of the saints of the Roman calendar. But on the other hand we find the Chinese saint, on the approach of death, causing one of his disciples to frame a catalogue of his good works, of the books that he had translated or caused to be transcribed, of the sacred pictures executed at his cost, of the alms that he had given, of the living creatures that he had ransomed from death. "When Kia-shang had ended writing this list, the master ordered him to read it aloud. After hearing it the devotees clasped their hands, and showered their felicitations on him." Thus the "well-done, good and faithful" comes from the servant himself in self-applause.

The book of the biography, by the disciples Hwai-li and Yen-t'sung, as rendered with judicious omissions by Stan. Julien, is exceedingly interesting; its Chinese style receives high praise from the translator, who says he has often had to regret his inability to reproduce its grace, elegance and vivacity.

AUTHORITIES.--_Fo-Koue-Ki_, trad. du Chinois, par Abel-Remusat, revu
et complete par Klaproth et Landresse (Paris, 1836); _H. de la vie de
Hiouen-Thsang, &c._, trad. du Chinois par Stanislas Julien (Paris,
1853); _Memoires sur les contrees occidentales ..._ trad. du Chinois
en Francais (par le meme) (2 vols., Paris, 1857-1858); _Memoire
analytique_, &c., attached to the last work, by L. Vivien de St
Martin; "Attempt to identify some of the Places mentioned in the
Itinerary of Hiuan Thsang," by Major Wm. Anderson, C.B., in _Journ.
As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. xvi. pt. 2, p. 1183 (the enunciation of a
singularly perverse theory); "Verification of the Itinerary of Hwan
Thsang, &c.," by Captain Alex. Cunningham, Bengal Engineers, ibid.
vol. xvii. pt. 1, p. 476; _Travels of Fah-hian and Sung-Yan, Buddhist
Pilgrims, &c._, by Sam. Beal (1869); _The Ancient Geography of India_,
by Major-General Alex. Cunningham, R.E. (1871); "Notes on Hwen
Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokharistan," by Colonel H.
Yule, C.B., in _Journ. Roy. As. Soc._, new ser., vol. vi. p. 82; "On
Hiouen Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi," by James Fergusson,
D.C.L., ibid. p. 213. (H. Y.; R. K. D.)

HUAMBISAS, a tribe of South American Indians on the upper Maranon and Santiago rivers, Peru. In 1841 they drove all the civilized Indians from the neighbouring missions. In 1843 they killed all the inhabitants of the village of Santa Teresa, between the mouths of the Santiago and Morona. They are fair-skinned and bearded, sharing with the Jeveros a descent from the Spanish women captured by their Indian ancestors at the sack of Sevilla del Oro in 1599.

HUANCAVELICA, a city of central Peru and capital of a department, 160 m. S.E. of Lima. The city stands in a deep ravine of the Andes at an elevation of about 12,400 ft. above the sea, the ravine having an average width of 1 m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 6000. The city is solidly and regularly built, the houses being of stone and the stream that flows through the town being spanned by several stone bridges. Near Huancavelica is the famous quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, with its subterranean church of San Rosario, hewn from the native cinnabar-bearing rock. Huancavelica was founded by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572 as a mining town, and mining continues to be the principal occupation of its inhabitants. The department is traversed by the Cordillera Occidental, and is bounded N., E. and S. by Junin and Ayacucho. Pop. (1906 official estimate) 167,840; area, 9254 sq. m. The principal industry is mining for silver and quicksilver. The best-known silver mines are the Castrovirreyna.

HUANUCO, a city of central Peru, capital of a department, 170 m. N.N.E. of Lima in a beautiful valley on the left bank of the Huallaga river, nearly 6000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate) about 6000. The town was founded in 1539 by Gomez Alvarado. Huanuco is celebrated for its fruits and sweetmeats, the "chirimoya" (_Anona chirimolia_) of this region being the largest and most delicious of its kind. Mining is one of the city's industries. Huanuco was the scene of one of the bloodthirsty massacres of which the Chileans were guilty during their occupation of Peruvian territory in 1881-1883. The department of Huanuco lies immediately N. of Junin, with Ancachs on the W. and San Martin and Loreto on the N. and E. Pop. (1906 estimate) 108,980; area, 14,028 sq. m. It lies wholly in the Cordillera region, and is traversed from S. to N. by the Maranon and Huallaga rivers.

HUARAZ, a city of northern Peru and capital oL the department of Ancachs, on the left bank of the Huaraz, or Santa river, about 190 m. N.N.W. of Lima and 58 m. from the coast. Pop. (1876) 4851, (1906 estimate) 6000. Huaraz is situated in a narrow fertile valley of the Western Cordillera, at a considerable elevation above sea-level, and has a mild climate. A railway projected to connect Huaraz with the port of Chimbote, on the Bay of Chimbote, a few miles S. of the mouth of the Santa river, was completed from Chimbote to Suchiman (33 m.) in 1872, when work was suspended for want of money. In the valley of the Huaraz cattle are raised, and wheat, sugar and fruit, gold, silver, copper and coal are produced. Alfalfa is grown by stock-raisers, and the cattle raised here are among the best in the Peruvian market. In the vicinity of Huaraz are megalithic ruins similar to those of Tiahunaco and Cuzco, showing that the aboriginal empire preceding the Incas extended into northern Peru.

HUARTE DE SAN JUAN, or HUARTE Y NAVARRO, JUAN (c. 1530-1592), Spanish physician and psychologist, was born at Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (Lower Navarre) about 1530, was educated at the university of Huesca, where he graduated in medicine, and, though it appears doubtful whether he practised as a physician at Huesca, distinguished himself by his professional skill and heroic zeal during the plague which devastated Baeza in 1566. He died in 1592. His _Examen de ingenios para las ciencias_ (1575) won him a European reputation, and was translated by Lessing. Though now superseded, Huarte's treatise is historically interesting as the first attempt to show the connexion between psychology and physiology, and its acute ingenuity is as remarkable as the boldness of its views.

HUASTECS, a tribe of North American Indians of Mayan stock, living to the north of Vera Cruz. They are of interest to the ethnologist as being so entirely detached from the other Mayan tribes of Central America. The theory is that the Mayas came from the north and that the Huastecs were left behind in the migration southward.

HUBER, FRANCOIS (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 2nd of July 1750. He belonged to a family which had already made its mark in the literary and scientific world: his great-aunt, Marie Huber (1695-1753), was known as a voluminous writer on religious and theological subjects, and as the translator and epitomizer of the _Spectator_ (Amsterdam, 3 vols., 1753); and his father Jean Huber (1721-1786), who had served for many years as a soldier, was a prominent member of the coterie at Ferney, distinguishing himself by his _Observations sur le vol des oiseaux_ (Geneva, 1784). Francois Huber was only fifteen years old when he began to suffer from an affection of the eyes which gradually resulted in total blindness; but, with the aid of his wife, Marie Aimee Lullin, and of his servant, Francois Burnens, he was able to carry out investigations that laid the foundations of our scientific knowledge of the life history of the honey-bee. His _Nouvelles Observations sur les abeilles_ was published at Geneva in 1792 (Eng. trans., 1806). He assisted Jean Senebier in his _Mem. sur l'influence de l'air, &c., dans la germination_ (Geneva, 1800); and he also wrote "Mem. sur l'origine de la cire" (_Bibliotheque britannique_, tome xxv.), a "Lettre a M. Pictet sur certains dangers que courent les abeilles" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii), and "Nouvelles Observ. rel. au sphinx Atropos" (_Bib. brit_. xxvii). He died at Lausanne on the 22nd of December 1831. De Candolle gave his name to a genus of Brazilian trees--_Huberia laurina_.

PIERRE HUBER (1777-1840) followed in his father's footsteps. His best-known work is _Recherches sur les moeurs des fourmis indigenes_ (Geneva and Paris, 1810; new ed., Geneva, 1861), and he also wrote various papers on entomological subjects.

See the account of Francois Huber, by De Candolle, in _Bibl.
universelle_ (1832); and the notice of Pierre in _Bibl. univ._ (1886);
also Haag, _La France protestante_.

HUBER, JOHANN NEPOMUK (1830-1879), German philosophical and theological writer, a leader of the Old Catholics, was born at Munich on the 18th of August 1830. Originally destined for the priesthood, he early began the study of theology. By the writings of Spinoza and Oken, however, he was strongly drawn to philosophical pursuits, and it was in philosophy that he "habilitated" (1854) in the university of his native place, where he ultimately became professor (extraordinarius, 1859; ordinarius, 1864). With Dollinger and others he attracted a large amount of public attention in 1869 by the challenge to the Ultramontane promoters of the Vatican council in the treatise _Der Papst und das Koncil_, which appeared under the pseudonym of "Janus," and also in 1870 by a series of letters (_Romische Briefe_, a redaction of secret reports sent from Rome during the sitting of the council), which were published over the pseudonym Quirinus in the _Allgemeine Zeitung_. He died suddenly of heart disease at Munich on the 20th of March 1879.