Chapter IV: Literature (2)

Dramatic literature, liberally supported by the king and the
government, and aided by magnificent theatres in the capital and also
in the provinces (the finest provincial theatre is in Kolozsvar, in
Transylvania), has developed remarkably. The Hungarians have the
genuine dramatic gift in abundance; they have, moreover, actors and
actresses of the first rank. In the modern drama three great and
clearly differentiated groups may be distinguished. First the
neo-romantic group, whose chief representatives are Eugen Rakosi,
Louis Doczi (b. 1845), who, in addition to _Csok_ ("The Kiss"), has
written _Utolso szerelem_ ("Last Love"), _Szechy Maria_ ("Maria
Szechy"), _Vegyes Parok_ ("Mixed Couples"). In these and other
dramatic writings, more remarkable perhaps for poetic than for stage
effects, Doczi still maintains his brilliancy of diction and the
delicacy of his poetic touch. To the same school belong Louis Bartok,
Anton Varadi and Alexander Somlo. The next group of Hungarian
dramatists is dominated by the master spirit of Gregor Csiky (q.v.).
Among Csiky's most promising disciples is Francis Herczeg (already
mentioned as a novelist), author of the successful society comedy, _A
Gyurkovics leanyok_ ("The Misses Gyurkovics"), _Harom testor_ ("Three
Guardsmen"), _Honty haza_ ("The House of Honty"). Arpad Berczik's
_Nezd meg az anyjat_ ("Look at her Mother"), _A protekczio_
("Patronizing"), also followed on the lines of Csiky. The third group
of dramatic writers take their subjects, surroundings and diction from
the folk-life of the villages (_nepszinmu_, "folk-drama"). The
greatest of these dramatists has so far been Edward Toth (_Toloncz_,
"The Ousted Pauper"). Amongst his numerous followers, who have,
however, sometimes vulgarized their figures and plots, may be
mentioned Tihamer Almasi (_Milimari, A Miniszterelnok balja_, "The
Ball of the Premier") and Alexander Somlo.

In philosophy there has been a remarkable increase of activity, partly
assimilative or eclectic and partly original. Peter Bihari and Maurice
Karman have in various writings spread the ideas of Herbart. After the
school of Comte, yet to a large extent original, is the _Az ember es
vilaga_ ("Man and his World") of Charles Bohm, who in 1881 started a
philosophical review (_Magyar Filozofiai Szemle_), subsequently edited
by Joseph Bokor, a vigorous thinker. Realism, more particularly of the
Wundt type, is represented by Emericus Pauer, _Az ethikai
determinismus_ ("Ethical Determinism"), and Eugen Posch (_Az idorol_,
"On Time"). On a Thomistic basis John Kiss edits a philosophical
review (_Bolcseleti Folyoirat_); on similar lines have been working
Akos Mihalyfi, Repassy, Augustin Lubrich and others. Neo-Hegelianism
is cultivated by Eugen Schmitt, efficiently assisted by Joseph
Alexander Simon (_Az egyseges es realis termeszet filozofia
alapvonalai_, "Outlines of a Uniform and Realistic Philosophy of
Nature"). F. Medveczky (formerly a German author under the name of Fr.
von Barenbach) espouses Neo-Kantism (_Tarsadalmi elmeletek es
eszmenyek_, 1887, "Social Theories and Ideals"). The Hungarian scholar
Samuel Brassai published, in 1896, _Az igazi pozitiv filozofia_ ("The
True Positive Philosophy"). Amongst the ablest and most zealous
students of the history of philosophy are Bernhard Alexander, under
whose editorship, aided by Joseph Banoczi, a series of the works of
the world's great thinkers has appeared; Andrew Domanovszky, author of
an elaborate History of Philosophy; Julius Gyomlai, translator of
Plato; Eugen Peterfy, likewise translator of philosophical works, &c.

Juristic literature has been stimulated by the activity in positive
legislation. On 1st January 1900 a new criminal code, thoroughly
modern in spirit, was put in force; and in 1901 a Civil Code Bill, to
replace the old Hungarian customary system, was introduced. Among the
newer writers on common and commercial law may be mentioned Wenczal,
Zlinsky, Zogod, Gustave Schwarz, Alexander Plosz, Francis Nagy and
Neumann; on constitutional law, Korbuly, Boncz, Stephen Kiss, Ernest
Nagy, Kmety, Arthur Balogh, Ferdinandy, Bela Grunwald, Julius Andrassy
and Emeric Hajnik; on administration, George Fesus, Kmety and Csiky;
on finance, Mariska, Exner and Laszlo. Among the later writers on
statistics, moreover, have been Konek, Keleti, Lang, Foldes,
Jekelfalussy, Vorgha, Korosy, Rath and Vizaknai.

On subjects of politics, amongst the more important works are the
various monographs of Gustavus Beksics on the Dualism of
Austria-Hungary, on the "New Foundations of Magyar Politics" (_A
magyar politika uj alapjai_, 1899), on the Rumanian question, &c.; the
writings of Emericus Balint, Akos Beothy, Victor Concha (systematic
politics), L. Ecsery, Geza Ferdinandy (historical and systematic
politics), Arpad Zigany, Bela Foldes (political economy), Julius
Mandello (political economy), Alexander Matlekovics (Hungary's
administrative service; _Allamhaztartas_, 3 vols.), J. Polya (agrarian
politics), M. Somogyi (sociology), and the late Augustus Pulszky.

In history there has been great activity. The millennial festivities
in 1896 gave rise to the publication of what was then the most
extensive history of the Hungarian nation (_A magyar nemzet
tortenete_, 1895-1901), ten large and splendidly illustrated volumes,
edited by Alexander Szilagyi, with the collaboration of the best
specialists of modern Hungary, Robert Frohlich, B. Kuzsinszky, Geza
Nagy, H. Marczali, Anton Por, Schonherr, V. Fraknoi, Arpad Karolyi,
David Angyal, Coloman Thaly, Geza Ballagi.

Literary criticism is actively pursued. Among the more authoritative
writers Paul Gyulai and Zsolt Beothy represent the conservative
school; younger critics, like Bela Lazar, Alexander Hevesi, H. Lenkei,
Zoltan Ferenczy, Aladar Ballagi, Ladislas Negyessy, have shown
themselves somewhat too ready to follow the latest Norwegian or
Parisian sensation.

AUTHORITIES.--The best authorities on Magyar literature are: F. Toldy,
_A Magyar nemzeti irodalom tortenete a legregibb idoktol a jelenkorig_
(Pest, 1864-1865; 3rd ed., 1872); S. Imre, _A Magyar irodalom es nyelv
rovid tortenete_ (Debreczen, 1865; 4th ed., 1878); J. Szvorenyi,
_Magyar irodalmi szemelvenyek_ (Pest, 1867), and _A Magyar irodalmi
tanulmanyok kezikonyve_ (Pest, 1868); P. Jambor, _A Magyar irodalom
tortenete_ (Pest, 1864); J. Kornyei, _A Magyar nemzeti
irodalomtortenet vazlata_ (Pest, 1861; 3rd ed., 1874); A. Lonkay, _A
Magyar irodalom ismertetese_ (Budan, 1855; 3rd ed., Pest, 1864); J.
Ferencz, _Magyar irodalom es tudomanyossag tortenete_ (Pest, 1854); J.
Ferencz es J. Danielik, _Magyar Irok. Eletrajz-Gyutemeny_ (2 vols.,
Pest, 1856-1858); and the literary histories of L. Nevy, Z. Beothy and
B. Erodi. One of the most useful monographs on "Magyar Literary
History Writing" is that of J. Szinnyei, junior, _A Magyar
Irodalomtortenet-Iras ismertetese_ (Budapest, 1878). For information
as to the most recent literature see A. Dux, _Aus. Ungarn._ (Leipzig,
1880); Zsolt Beothy, _A Magy. nemz. irod. tort._; S. Bodnar, _A magy.
irod. tort._; Bela Lazar, _A tegnap, a ma, es a holnap_ (Budapest,
1896-1900); Joseph Szinnyel, _Magy. irok elete es munkai_ (an
extensive biographical dictionary of Hungarian authors); _Irodalom
torteneti Kozlemenyek_ (a periodical edited by Aron Szilady, for the
history of literature); Emil Reich, _Hungarian Literature_ (London,
1898). (E. Re.*)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See the table in Seton-Watson's _Racial Problems in Hungary_,
Appendix xiii. p. 470, and Drage, _Austria-Hungary_, p. 289. Of the
emigrants in 1906, 52,121 were Magyars, 32,904 Slovaks, 30,551
Germans, 20,859 Rumanians and 16,016 Croats.

[2] _Racial Problems_, p. 202.

[3] The colouring of ordinary ethnographical maps is necessarily
somewhat misleading. When an attempt is made to represent in colour
the actual distribution of the races (as in Dr Chavanne's
_Geographischer und statistischer Handatlas)_ the effect is that of
occasional blotches of solid colour on a piece of shot silk.

[4] The distribution of the races is analysed in greater detail in Mr
Seton-Watson's _Racial Problems_, p. 3 seq.

[5] Seton-Watson, _op. cit._ pp. 173, 188, 252; Drage,
Austria-Hungary, pp. 280, 588; Gonnard, La Hongrie, p. 72.

[6] An admirable account of this "little world, which produces almost
everything and is almost self-sufficient" is given by M. Gonnard in
his _Hongrie au XX^me siecle_, p. 159 seq.

[7] _Ib._ p. 349 seq.

[8] Merchandise passing the boundaries is subject to declaration; the
respective values are stated by a special commission of experts
residing in Budapest.

[9] The acquisition of the Austrian Staatsbahn in 1891 practically
gave to the state the control of the whole railway net of Hungary. By
1900 all the main lines, except the Sudbahn and the
Kaschan-Oberbergar Bahn, were in its hands.

[10] The franchise is "probably the most illiberal in Europe."
Servants, in the widest sense of the word, apprenticed workmen and
agricultural labourers are carefully excluded. The result is that the
working classes are wholly unrepresented in the parliament, only 6%
of them, and 13% of the small trading class, possessing the
franchise, which is only enjoyed by 6% of the entire population (see
Seton-Watson, _Racial Problems_, 250, 251). For the question of
franchise reform which played so great a part in the Austro-Hungarian
crisis of 1909-1910 see _History_, below.--[ED.]

[11] i.e. Catholics of the Oriental rite in communion with Rome.

[12] The methods pursued to this end are exposed in pitiless detail
by Mr Seton-Watson in his chapter on the Education Laws of Hungary,
in _Racial Problems_, 205.

[13] Ger. Ottrik, in religion Anastasius.

[14] At its worst, c. 1030-1033, cannibalism was common.

[15] The English title of lord-lieutenant is generally used as the
best translation of _Foispan_ or _comes_ (in this connexion). The
title of count (_grof_) was assumed later (15th century) by those
nobles who had succeeded, in spite of the Golden Bull, in making
their authority over whole counties independent and
hereditary.--[ED.]

[16] The ban is equivalent to the margrave, or count of the marches.

[17] Andrassy, _Development of Hung. Const. Liberty_ (Eng. trans., p.
93); _Knatchbull-Hugessen_, i. 26 seq., where its provisions are
given in some detail.

[18] The full title of the palatine (Mag. _nador_ or _nador-ispan_,
Lat. _palatinus_) was _comes palatii regni_, the first palatine being
Abu Samuel (c. 1041). By the Golden Bull the palatine acquired
something of the quality of a responsible minister, as "intermediary
between the crown and people, guardian of the nation's rights, and
keeper of the king's conscience" (_Knatchbull-Hugessen_, i. 30).

[19] _Knatchbull-Hugessen_, i. 41.

[20] That is to say the western portion of Walachia, which lies
between the Aluta and the Danube.

[21] Though elected king of the Romans in 1411, he cannot be regarded
as the legal emperor till his coronation at Rome in 1423, and if he
was titular king of Bohemia as early as 1419, he was not acknowledged
as king by the Czechs themselves till 1436.

[22] In 1412 he pawned the twenty-four Zips towns to Poland, and, in
1411 he pledged his margraviate of Brandenburg to the Hohenzollerns.

[23] Some of these were of gigantic size, e.g. the Varga Mozsar, or
great mortar, which sixty horses could scarce move from its place,
and a ballistic machine invented by Matthias which could hurl stones
of 3 cwt.

[24] We know actually of fifteen, but there may have been many more.

[25] It should be remembered that at this time one-third of the land
belonged to the church, and the remainder was in the hands of less
than a dozen great families who had also appropriated the royal
domains.

[26] The _Opus tripartitum juris consuetudinarii regni Hungariae_ was
drawn up by Verboczy at the instance of the diet in 1507. It was
approved by a committee of the diet and received the royal
_imprimatur_ in 1514, but was never published. In the constitutional
history of Hungary the _Tripartitum_ is of great importance as
reasserting the fundamental equality of all the members of the
populus (i.e. the whole body of the nobles) and, more especially, as
defining the co-ordinate power of the king and "people" in
legislation: i.e. the king may propose laws, but they had no force
without the consent of the people, and vice versa. See
Knatchbull-Hugessen, i. 64.

[27] He was just twenty.

[28] It was kept secret for some years for fear of Turkish
intervention.

[29] In contradistinction to Turkish Hungary and Transylvanian
Hungary.

[30] At first the Habsburgs held their court at Prague instead of at
Vienna.

[31] According to contemporary records the number of prelates and
priests in the three parts of Hungary at the beginning of the 17th
century was but 103, all told, and of the great families not above
half a dozen still clung to Catholicism.

[32] The counties of Szatmar, Ugocsa and Bereg and the fortress of
Tokaj were formally ceded to him.

[33] He was the first Protestant palatine.

[34] The jobbagyok, or under-tenants, had to follow the example of
their lords; they were, by this time, mere serfs with no privileges
either political or religious.

[35] E.g. in Esztergom, the primatial city, there were only two
buildings still standing.

[36] Charles VI. as emperor.

[37] _Litterae credentiales_, nearly equivalent to a coronation oath.

[38] Up to 1848 the Hungarian diet was usually held at Pressburg.

[39] Franz Phillip, Count von Lamberg (1791-1848), a field-marshal in
the Austrian army, who had seen service in the campaigns of 1814-1815
in France, belonged to the Stockerau branch of the ancient countly
family of Orteneck-Ottenstein. He was chosen for this particular
mission as being himself a Hungarian magnate conversant with
Hungarian affairs, but at the same time of the party devoted to the
court.

[40] The crowning atrocities, which the Magyars have never wholly
forgiven, were the shooting and hanging of the "Arad Martyrs" and the
execution of Batthyany. On October 6, 1849, thirteen generals who had
taken part in the war, including Damjanics and Counts Vecsey and
Leiningen, were hanged or shot at Arad. On the same day Count Louis
Batthyany, who had taken no part in the war and had done his utmost
to restrain his countrymen within the bounds of legality, was shot at
Pest.

[41] Transylvania, Croatio-Slavonia with Fiume and the Temes Banat
were separated from the kingdom and provided with local governments.

[42] This _Reichsrath_ was a purely consultative body, the ultimate
control of all important affairs being reserved to the emperor. Its
representative element consisted of 100 members elected by the
provinces.

[43] Beust was the only "imperial chancellor" in Austro-Hungarian
history: even Metternich bore only the title of "chancellor"; and
Andrassy, who succeeded Beust, styled himself "minister of the
imperial and royal household and for foreign affairs."

[44] See for this Mr Seton-Watson's _Racial Problems of Hungary,
passim_.

[45] _Ibid._ p. 168.

[46] Especially the Electoral Law of 1874, which established a very
unequal distribution of electoral areas, a highly complicated
franchise, and voting by public declaration, thus making it easy for
the government to intimidate the electors and generally to
gerrymander the elections.

[47] The Austrian court resented especially the decree proclaiming
national mourning for Louis Kossuth, though no minister was present
at the funeral.

[48] Subsequently extended till 1907.

[49] The question involves rather complex issues. Apart from the
question of constitutional right, the Magyars objected to German as
the medium of military education as increasing the difficulty of
magyarizing the subordinate races of Hungary (see
_Knatchbull-Hugessen_, ii. 296). On the other hand the Austrians
pointed out that not only would failure to understand each other's
language cause fatal confusion on a battlefield, but also tend to
disintegrate the forces even in peace time. They also laid stress on
the fact that Magyar was not, any more than German, the language of
many Hungarian regiments, consisting as these did mainly of Slovaks,
Vlachs, Serbs and Croats. In resisting the Magyar word of command,
then, the king-emperor was able to appeal to the anti-Magyar feeling
of the other Hungarian races. (W. A. P.)

[50] Of the 16,000,000 inhabitants of Hungary barely a half were
Magyar; and the franchise was possessed by only 800,000, of whom the
Magyars formed the overwhelming majority.

[51] The cabinet consisted of Dr Wekerle (premier and finance),
Ferencz Kossuth (commerce), Count Gyula Andrassy (interior), Count
Albert Apponyi (education), Davanyi (agriculture), Polonyi (justice)
and Count Aladar Zichy (court).

[52] Seton-Watson, _Racial Problems_, p. 194.

[53] _The Times_, March 14, 1907.

[54] _Ibid._ October 11, 1907.

[55] _Ibid._ October 15, 1907.

[56] _The Times_, September 27, 1908.

[57] The People's party first emerged during the elections of 1896,
when it contested 98 seats. Its object was to resist the
anti-clerical tendencies of the Liberals, and for this purpose it
appealed to the "nationalities" against the dominant Magyar parties,
the due enforcement of the Law of Equal Rights of Nationalities
(1868) forming a main item of its programme. Its leader, Count Zichy,
in a speech of Jan. 1, 1897, declared it to be neither national, nor
Liberal, nor Christian to oppress the nationalities. See
Seton-Watson, p. 185.

[58] See Hunfalvy's "Die ungarische Sprachwissenschaft,"
_Literarische Berichte aus Ungarn_, pp. 80-87 (Budapest, 1877).

[59] _Specimen usus linguae Gothicae in eruendis atque illustrandis
obscurissimis quibusdam Sacrae Scripturae locis; addita analogia
linguae Gothicae cum Sinica, necnon Finnicae cum Ungarica_ (Upsala,
1717).

[60] Hunfalvy, p. 81.

[61] Id. pp. 82-86.

[62] _Demonstratio Idioma Ungarorum et Lapponum idem esse_
(Copenhagen und Tyrnau, 1770).

[63] See Count Geza Kuun's "Lettere Ungheresi," _La Rivista Europea_,
anno vi., vol. ii. fasc. 3, pp. 561-562 (Florence, 1875).

[64] So also Jambor (_A Magyar Irod. Tort._, Pest, 1864, p. 104).
Kornyei, Imre and others incline to the belief that it was Bela I.
and that consequently the "anonymous notary" belongs rather to the
11th than to the 12th century.

[65] An example of this work, printed on vellum in Gothic letter
(Augsburg, 1488), and formerly belonging to the library of Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, may be seen in the British Museum. Of the
three first-mentioned chronicles Hungarian translations by Charles
Szabo appeared at Budapest in 1860, 1861 and 1862.

[66] Both this and the later editions of Frankfort (1581), Cologne
(1690) and Pressburg (1744) are represented in the British Museum.

[67] The only copy existing at the present time appears to have been
transcribed at the beginning of the 16th century. Both this and the
_Halotti Beszed_ (Pray Codex) are preserved in the National Museum at
Budapest.

[68] This codex contains Ruth, the lesser prophets, and part of the
Apocrypha. According to Toldy, it is copied from an earlier one of
the 14th century.

[69] First made known by Coloman Thaly (1871) from a discovery by MM.
E. Nagy and D. Veghelyi in the archives of the Csicsery family, in
the county of Ung.

[70] One of the only seven perfect copies extant of the Vienna (1574)
edition is in the British Museum library.

[71] A copy, with the autograph of the editor, is in the British
Museum.

[72] A copy is in the British Museum library.

[73] There are two copies of this edition in the British Museum
library.

[74] The earliest, styled "Song on the Discovery of the right hand of
the Holy King Stephen," and printed at Nuremberg by Anton Koburger in
1484, is lost.

[75] See Chas. Szabo's _Regi Magyar Konyvtar_ (Budapest, 1879). Cf.
also _Lit. Ber. aus Ungarn for 1879_, Bd. iii. Heft 2, pp. 433-434.

[76] The subject is similar to that of Grillparzer's tragedy, _Ein
treuer Diener seines Herrn_.

[77] It was founded in 1825 through the generosity of Count
Szechenyi, who devoted his whole income for one year (60,000 florins)
to the purpose. It was soon supported by contributions from all
quarters except from the government.

[78] Among the earlier publications of the academy were the
_Tudomanytar_ (Treasury of Sciences, 1834-1844), with its supplement
_Literatura_; the _Kulfoldi jatekszin_ (Foreign Theatres); the
_Magyar nyelv rendszere_ (System of the Hungarian language, 1846; 2nd
ed., 1847); various dictionaries of scientific, mathematical,
philosophical and legal terms; a Hungarian-German dictionary
(1835-1838), and a Glossary of Provincialisms (1838). The
_Nagy-Szotar_ (Great Dictionary), begun by Czuczor and Fogarasi in
1845, was not issued till 1862-1874. Among the regular organs of the
academy are the _Transactions_ (from 1840), in some 60 vols., and the
_Annuals_.

[79] Among its earlier productions were the _Nemzeti konyvtar_
(National Library), published 1843-1847, and continued in 1852 under
the title _Ujabb Nemzeti konyvtar_, a repository of works by
celebrated authors; the _Kulfoldi Regenytar_ (Treasury of Foreign
Romances), consisting of translations; and some valuable collections
of proverbs, folk-songs, traditions and fables. Of the many later
publications of the Kisfaludy society the most important as regards
English literature is the _Shakspere Minden Munkai_ (Complete Works
of Shakespeare), in 19 vols. (1864-1878), to which a supplementary
vol., _Shakspere Palyaja_ (1880), containing a critical account of
the life and writings of Shakespeare, has been added by Professor A.
Greguss. Translations from Moliere, Racine, Corneille, Calderon and
Moreto have also been issued by the Kisfaludy society. The _Evlapok
uj folyama_, or "New Series of Annuals," from 1860 (Budapest, 1868,
&c.), is a chrestomathy of prize orations, and translations and
original pieces, both in poetry and prose.

[80] Unitarian bishop of Transylvania, author of _Vadrozsak_, or
"Wild Roses" (1863), a collection of Szekler folk-songs, ballads and
sayings.

[81] Besides the various translators from the English, as for
instance William Gyori, Augustus Greguss, Ladislaus Arany, Sigismond
Acs, Stephen Fejes and Eugene Rakosy, who, like those already
incidentally mentioned, assisted in the Kisfaludy society's version
of Shakespeare's complete works, metrical translations from foreign
languages were successfully made by Emil Abranyi, Dr Ignatius Barna,
Anthony Varady, Andrew Szabo, Charles Berczy, Julius Greguss, Lewis
Doczi, Bela Erodi, Emeric Gaspar and many others. A Magyar version,
by Ferdinand Barna, of the _Kalewala_ was published at Pest in 1871.
Faithful renderings by Lewis Szeberenyi, Theodore Lehoczky and
Michael Fincicky of the popular poetry of the Slavic nationalities
appeared in vols. i. and ii. of the _Hazai nep kolteszet tara_
(Treasury of the Country's Popular Song), commenced in 1866, under
the auspices of the Kisfaludy society. In vol. iii. Rumanian
folk-songs were Magyarized by George Ember, Julian Grozescu and
Joseph Vulcanu, under the title _Roman nepdalok_ (Budapest, 1877).
The Rozsak (Zombor, 1875) is a translation by Eugene Pavlovits from
the Servian of Jovan Jovanovits. Both the last-mentioned works are
interesting from an ethnographical point of view. We may here note
that for foreigners unacquainted with Hungarian there are, besides
several special versions of Petofi and of Arany, numerous anthologies
of Magyar poetry in German, by Count Majlath (1825), J. Fenyery and
F. Toldy (1828), G. Steinacker (1840, 1875), G. Stier (1850), K. M.
Kertbeny (1854, 1860), A. Dux (1854), Count Pongracz (1859-1861), A.
M. Riedl (1860), J. Nordheim (1872), G. M. Henning (1874), A. von der
Heide (1879) and others. Selections have also been published in
English by Sir John Bowring (1830), S. Wekey in his grammar (1852)
and E. D. Butler (1877), and in French by H. Desbordes-Valmore and C.
E. de Ujfalvy (1873).

[82] The translator of Macaulay.

[83] See, however, J. Szinnyei & Son's _Bibliotheca Hungarica
historiae naturalis et matheseos_, 1472-1875 (Budapest, 1878), where
the number of Magyar works bearing on the natural sciences and
mathematics printed from the earliest date to the end of 1875 is
stated to be 3811, of which 106 are referred to periodicals.

[84] This will appear even more striking by a consideration of the
number of periodical publications published in Hungary in languages
other than Magyar. Thus, while of German periodicals appearing in
Hungary there were in 1871 only 85, they increased in 1880 to 114, in
1885 to 141; and they were, at the beginning of 1895, still 128, in
spite of the constant spread of that process of Magyarization which
has, since 1880, considerably changed the linguistic habits of the
people of Hungary.

HUNGER and THIRST. These terms are used to express peculiar sensations which are produced by and give expression to general wants of the system, satisfied respectively by the ingestion of organic solids containing substances capable of acting as food, and by water or liquids and solids containing water.

_Hunger_ (a word common to Teutonic languages) is a peculiarly indefinite sensation of craving or want which is referred to the stomach, but with which is often combined, always indeed in its most pronounced stages, a general feeling of weakness or faintness. The earliest stages are unattended with suffering, and are characterized as "appetite for food." Hunger is normally appeased by the introduction of solid or semi-solid nutriment into the stomach, and it is probable that the almost immediate alleviation of the sensation in these circumstances is in part due to a local influence, perhaps connected with a free secretion of gastric juice. Essentially, however, the sensation of hunger is a mere local expression of a general want, and this local expression ceases when the want is satisfied, even though no food be introduced into the stomach, the needs of the economy being satisfied by the introduction of food through other channels, as, for example, when food which admits of being readily absorbed is injected into the large intestine.

_Thirst_ (a word of Teutonic origin, Ger. _Durst_, Swed. and Dan. _torst_, akin to the Lat. _torrere_, to parch) is a peculiar sensation of dryness and heat localized in the tongue and throat. Although thirst may be artificially produced by drying, as by the passage of a current of air over the mucous membrane of the above parts, normally it depends upon an impoverishment of the system in water. And, when this impoverishment ceases, in whichever way this be effected, the sensation likewise ceases. The injection of water into the blood, the stomach, or the large intestine appeases thirst, though no fluid is brought in contact with the part to which the sensation is referred.

The sensations of hunger and thirst lead us, or when urgent compel us, to take food and drink into the mouth. Once in the mouth, the entrance to the alimentary canal, the food begins to undergo a series of processes, the object of which is to extract from it as much as possible of its nutritive constituents. Food in the alimentary canal is, strictly speaking, outside the confines of the body; as much so as the fly grasped in the leaves of the insectivorous _Dionea_ is outside of the plant itself. The mechanical and chemical processes to which the food is subjected have their seat and conditions outside the body which it is destined to nourish, though unquestionably the body is no passive agent, and innumerable glands come into action to supply the chemical agents which dissolve and render assimilable those constituents of the food capable of being absorbed into the organism, and of forming part and parcel of its substance (see further under NUTRITION).

HUNGERFORD, WALTER HUNGERFORD, BARON (d. 1449), English soldier, belonged to a Wiltshire family. His father, Sir Thomas Hungerford (d. 1398), was speaker of the House of Commons in 1377, a position which he owed to his friend John of Gaunt, and is the first person formally mentioned in the rolls of parliament as holding the office. Walter Hungerford also served as speaker, but he is more celebrated as a warrior and diplomatist, serving in the former capacity at Agincourt and in the latter at the council of Constance and the congress of Arras. An executor of Henry V.'s will and a member of the council under Henry VI., Hungerford became a baron in 1426, and he was lord treasurer from 1426 to 1431. Remains of his benefactions still exist at Heytesbury, long the principal residence of the family.

Hungerford's son Robert (c. 1400-1459) was also called to parliament as a baron; he was very wealthy, both his mother and his wife being heiresses. Like several other members of the family, Robert was buried in the cathedral at Salisbury.

Robert's son and heir, Robert, Lord Moleyns and Hungerford (c. 1420-1464), married Eleanor, daughter of Sir William de Moleyns, and was called to parliament as Lord de Moleyns in 1445. He is chiefly remembered through his dispute with John Paston over the possession of the Norfolk manor of Gresham. After losing this case he was taken prisoner in France in 1452, not securing his release until 1459, During the Wars of the Roses he fought for Henry VI., with whom he fled to Scotland; then he was attainted, was taken prisoner at the battle of Hexham, and was executed at Newcastle in May 1464.

His eldest son, Sir Thomas Hungerford (d. 1469), was attainted and executed for attempting the restoration of Henry VI.; a younger son, Sir Walter Hungerford (d. 1516), who fought for Henry VII. at Bosworth, received some of the estates forfeited by his ancestors. Sir Thomas, who had no sons, left an only daughter Mary (d. c. 1534). When the attainders of her father and grandfather were reversed in 1485 this lady became Baroness Hungerford and Baroness de Moleyns; she married into the Hastings family and was the mother of George Hastings, 1st earl of Huntingdon.

Sir Walter Hungerford's son Edward (d. 1522) was the father of Walter, Lord Hungerford of Heytesbury (1503-1540), who was created a baron in 1536, but was attainted for his alleged sympathy with the Pilgrimage of Grace; he was beheaded on the 28th of July 1540, the same day as his patron Thomas Cromwell. As his sons Sir Walter (1532-1596) and Sir Edward (d. 1607) both died without sons the estates passed to another branch of the family.

Sir Edward Hungerford (1596-1648), who inherited the estates of his kinsman Sir Edward in 1607, was the son of Sir Anthony (1564-1627) and a descendant of Walter, Lord Hungerford. He was a member of both the Short and Long Parliaments in 1640; during the Civil War he attached himself to the parliamentary party, fighting at Lansdowne and at Roundway Down. His half-brother Anthony (d. 1657) was also a member of both the Short and the Long Parliaments, but was on the royalist side during the war. This Anthony's son and heir was Sir Edward Hungerford (1632-1711), the founder of Hungerford market at Charing Cross, London. He was a member of parliament for over forty years, but was very extravagant and was obliged to sell much of his property; and little is known of the family after his death.

See Sir R. C. Hoare, _History of Modern Wiltshire_ (1822-1844).

HUNGERFORD, a market town in the Newbury parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, extending into Wiltshire, 61 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2906. It is beautifully situated in the narrow valley of the Kennet at the junction of tributary valleys from the south and south-west, the second of which is followed by the Bath road, an important highway from London to the west. The town, which lies on the Kennet and Avon canal, has agricultural trade. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, presented to the citizens manorial rights, including common pasture and fishing. The fishing is valuable, for the trout of the Kennet and other streams in the locality are numerous and carefully preserved. Hungerford is also a favourite hunting centre. A horn given to the town by John of Gaunt is preserved in the town hall, another horn dating from 1634 being used to summon the manorial court of twelve citizens called feoffees (the president being called the constable), at Hocktide, the Tuesday following Easter week. In 1774, when a number of towns had taken action against the imposition of a fee for the delivery of letters from their local post-offices, Hungerford was selected as a typical case, and was first relieved of the imposition.

HUNINGEN, a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, on a branch of the Rhine-Rhone canal, and 3 m. N. of Basel by rail. Pop. (1905) 3304. The Rhine is here crossed by an iron railway bridge. The town boasts a handsome Roman Catholic church, and has manufactures of silk, watches, chemicals and cigars. Huningen is an ancient place and grew up round a stronghold placed to guard the passage of the Rhine. It was wrested from the Imperialists by the duke of Lauenburg in 1634, and subsequently passed by purchase to Louis XIV. of France. It was fortified by Vauban (1679-1681) and a bridge was built across the Rhine. The fortress capitulated to the Austrians on the 26th of August 1815 and the works were shortly afterwards dismantled. In 1871, the town passed, with Alsace-Lorraine, to the German empire.

See Tschamber, _Geschichte der Stadt und ehemaligen Festung Huningen_
(St Ludwig, 1894); and Latruffe, _Huningue et Bale devant les traites
de 1815_ (Paris, 1863).

HUNNERIC (d. 484), king of the Vandals, was a son of King Gaiseric, and was sent to Italy as a hostage in 435 when his father made a treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. After his return to the Vandal court at Carthage, he married a daughter of Theodoric I., king of the Visigoths; but when this princess was suspected of attempting to poison her father-in-law, she was mutilated and was sent back to Europe. Hunneric became king of the Vandals on his father's death in 477. Like Gaiseric he was an Arian, and his reign is chiefly memorable for his cruel persecution of members of the orthodox Christian Church in his dominions. Hunneric's second wife was Eudocia, a daughter of Valentinian III. and his wife Eudocia. (See VANDALS.)

HUNNIS, WILLIAM (d. 1597), English musician and poet, was as early as 1549 in the service of William Herbert, afterwards earl of Pembroke. His friend Thomas Newton, in a poem prefixed to _The Hive of Hunnye_ (1578), says: "In prime of youth thy pleasant Penne depaincted Sonets sweete," and mentions his interludes, gallant lays, rondelets and songs, explaining that it was in the winter of his age that he turned to sacred lore and high philosophy. In 1550 he published _Certayne Psalms ... in Englishe metre_, and shortly afterwards was made a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. At Mary's accession he retained his appointment, but in 1555 he is said to have been one of a party of twelve conspirators who had determined to take Mary's life. Nothing came of this plot, but shortly afterwards he was party to a conspiracy to dethrone Mary in favour of Elizabeth. Hunnis, having some knowledge of alchemy, was to go abroad to coin the necessary gold, but this doubtful mission was exchanged for the task of making false keys to the treasury in London, which he was able to do because of his friendship with Nicholas Brigham, the receiver of the exchequer. The conspirators were, however, betrayed by one of their number, Thomas Whyte. Some of them were executed, but Hunnis escaped with imprisonment. The death of Mary made him a free man, and in 1559 he married Margaret, Brigham's widow, but she died within the year, and Hunnis married in 1560 the widow of a grocer. He himself became a grocer and freeman of the City of London, and supervisor of the Queen's Gardens at Greenwich. In 1566 he was made Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal. No complete piece of his is extant, perhaps because of the rule that the plays acted by the Children should not have been previously printed. In his later years he purchased land at Barking, Essex. If the lines above his signature on a 1557 edition of Sir Thomas More's works are genuine, he remained a poor man, for he refuses to make a will on the ground that "the good that I shall leave, will not pay all I owe." In Harleian MS. 6403 is a story that one of his sons, in the capacity of page, drank the remainder of the poisoned cup supposed to have been provided by Leicester for Walter Devereux, 1st earl of Essex, but escaped with no injury beyond the loss of his hair.

Hunnis's extant works include _Certayne Psalms_ (1549), _A Hive full
of Hunnye_ (1578), _Seven Sobbes of a sorrowful Soule for Sinne_
(1583), _Hunnies Recreations_ (1588), sixteen poems in the _Paradise
of Dainty Devices_ (1576), and two in _England's Helicon_ (1600). See
Mrs C. Carmichael Stopes's tract on William Hunnis, reprinted (1892)
from the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakespeare Gesellschaft_.

HUNS. This or some similar name is given to at least four peoples, whose identity cannot be regarded as certain. (1) The Huns, who invaded the East Roman empire from about A.D. 372 to 453 and were most formidable under the leadership of Attila. (2) The Hungarians or Magyars. The Magyars crossed the Carpathians into Hungary in A.D. 898 and mingled with the races they found there. The modern Hungarians (excluding Slavonic elements) are probably a mixture of these Magyars with the remnants of older invaders such as Huns, Petchenegs and Kumans. (3) The White Huns ([Greek: Leukoi Ounnoi] or Ephthalites), who troubled the Persian empire from about 420 to 557 and were known to the Byzantines. (4) The Hunas, who invaded India during the same period. There is not much doubt that the third and fourth of these tribes are the same, and it is quite likely that the Magyars are descended from the horde which sent forth the Huns in the 4th century, but it is not demonstrable. Neither can it be proved that the Huns and Magyars belonged either physically or linguistically to the same section as the Hunas and Ephthalites. But the occurrence of the name in both India and Europe is prima facie evidence in favour of a connexion between those who bore it, for, though civilized races often lumped all their barbarian neighbours together under one general name, it would seem that, when the same name is applied independently to similar invaders in both India and eastern Europe, the only explanation can be that they gave themselves that name, and this fact probably indicates that they were members of the same tribe or group. What we know of the history and distribution of the Huns does not conflict with this idea. They appear in Europe towards the end of the 4th century and the Ephthalites and Hunas in western Asia about fifty years later. It may be supposed that some defeat in China (and the Chinese were successful in driving back the Hiung-nu in the 1st century A.D.) had sent them westwards some time earlier. One body remained in Transoxiana and, after resting for a time, pushed their way through the mountains into Afghanistan and India, exactly as the Yue-Chi had done before them. Another division pressed farther westwards and probably made its headquarters near the northern end of the Caspian Sea and the southern part of the Ural Mountains. It was from here that the Huns invaded Europe, and when their power collapsed, after the death of Attila, many of them may have returned to their original haunts. Possibly the Bulgarians and Khazars were offshoots of the same horde. The Magyars may very well have gradually spread first to the Don and then beyond it, until in the 9th century they entered Hungary. But this sketch of possible migrations is largely conjectural, and authorities are not even agreed as to the branch of the Turanians to which the Huns should be referred. The physical characteristics of these nomadic armies were very variable, since they continually increased their numbers by slaves, women and soldiers of fortune drawn from all the surrounding races. The language of the Magyars is Finno-Ugric and most nearly allied to the speech of the Ostiaks now found on the east of the Ural, but we have no warrant for assuming that the Huns, and still less that the Ephthalites and Hunas, spoke the same language. Neither can we assume that the Huns and Hunas are the same as the Hiung-nu Of the Chinese. The names may be identical, but it is not certain, for in Hun may lurk some such designation as the ten (Turkish _on_ or _un_) tribes. Also Hiung-nu seems to be the name of warlike nomads in general, not of a particular section. Again the Finnish languages spoken in various parts of Russia and more or less allied to Magyar must have spread gradually westwards from the Urals, and their development and diffusion seem to postulate a long period (for the history of the Finns shows that they were not mobile like the Turks and Mongols), so that the ancestral language from which spring Finnish and Magyar can hardly have been brought across Asia after the Christian era. The warlike and vigorous temper of the Huns has led many writers to regard them as Turks. The Turks were perhaps not distinguished by name or institutions from other tribes before the 5th century, but the Huns may have been an earlier offshoot of the same stock. Apart from this the Hungarians may have received an infusion of Turkish blood not only from the Osmanlis but from the Kumans and other tribes who settled in the country.

_History._--The authentic history of the Huns in Europe practically begins about the year A.D. 372, when under a leader named Balamir (or, according to some MSS., Balamber) they began a westward movement from their settlements in the steppes lying to the north of the Caspian. After crushing, or compelling the alliance of, various nations unknown to fame (Alpilzuri, Alcidzuri, Himari, Tuncarsi, Boisci), they at length reached the Alani, a powerful nation which had its seat between the Volga and the Don; these also, after a struggle, they defeated and finally enlisted in their service. They then proceeded, in 374, to invade the empire of the Ostrogoths (Greutungi), ruled over by the aged Ermanaric, or Hermanric, who died (perhaps by his own hand) while the critical attack was still impending. Under his son Hunimund a section of his subjects promptly made a humiliating peace; under Withemir (Winithar), however, who succeeded him in the larger part of his dominions, an armed resistance was organized; but it resulted only in repeated defeat, and finally in the death of the king. The representatives of his son Witheric put an end to the conflict by accepting the condition of vassalage. Balamir now directed his victorious arms still farther westward against that portion of the Visigothic nation (or Tervingi) which acknowledged the authority of Athanaric. The latter entrenched himself on the frontier which had separated him from the Ostrogoths, behind the "Greutungrampart" and the Dniester; but he was surprised by the enemy, who forded the river in the night, fell suddenly upon his camp, and compelled him to abandon his position. Athanaric next attempted to establish himself in the territory between the Pruth and the Danube, and with this object set about heightening the old Roman wall which Trajan had erected in north-eastern Dacia; before his fortifications, however, were complete, the Huns were again upon him, and without a battle he was forced to retreat to the Danube. The remainder of the Visigoths, under Alavivus and Fritigern, now began to seek, and ultimately were successful in obtaining (376), the permission of the emperor Valens to settle in Thrace; Athanaric meanwhile took refuge in Transylvania, thus abandoning the field without any serious struggle to the irresistible Huns. For more than fifty years the Roman world was undisturbed by any aggressive act on the part of the new invaders, who contented themselves with over-powering various tribes which lived to the north of the Danube. In some instances, in fact, the Huns lent their aid to the Romans against third parties; thus in 404-405 certain Hunnic tribes, under a chief or king named Uldin, assisted Honorius in the struggle with Radagaisus (Ratigar) and his Ostrogoths, and took a prominent part in the decisive battle fought in the neighbourhood of Florence. Once indeed, in 409, they are said to have crossed the Danube and invaded Bulgaria under perhaps the same chief (Uldin), but extensive desertions soon compelled a retreat.

About the year 432 a Hunnic king, Ruas or Rugulas, made himself of such importance that he received from Theodosius II. an annual stipend or tribute of 350 pounds of gold (L14,000), along with the rank of Roman general. Quarrels soon arose, partly out of the circumstance that the Romans had sought to make alliances with certain Danubian tribes which Ruas chose to regard as properly subject to himself, partly also because some of the undoubted subjects of the Hun had found refuge on Roman territory; and Theodosius, in reply to an indignant and insulting message which he had received about this cause of dispute, was preparing to send off a special embassy when tidings arrived that Ruas was dead and that he had been succeeded in his kingdom by Attila and Bleda, the two sons of his brother Mundzuk (433). Shortly afterwards the treaty of Margus (not far from the modern Belgrade), where both sides negotiated on horseback, was ratified. By its stipulations the yearly stipendium or tribute payable to Attila by the Romans was doubled; the fugitives were to be surrendered, or a fine of L8 to be paid for each of those who should be missing; free markets, open to Hun and Roman alike, were to be instituted; and any tribe with which Attila might be at any time at war was thereby to be held as excluded from alliance with Rome. For eight years afterwards there was peace so far as the Romans were concerned; and it was probably during this period that the Huns proceeded to the extensive conquests to which the contemporary historian Priscus so vaguely alludes in the words: "He (Attila) has made the whole of Scythia his own, he has laid the Roman empire under tribute, and he thinks of renewing his attacks upon Persia. The road to that eastern kingdom is not untrodden by the Huns; already they have marched fifteen days from a certain lake, and have ravaged Media." They also appear before the end of this interval to have pushed westward as far as to the Rhone, and to have come into conflict with the Burgundians. Overt acts of hostility, however, occurred against the Eastern empire when the town of Margus (by the treachery of its bishop) was seized and sacked (441), and against the Western when Sirmium was invested and taken.

In 445 Bleda died, and two years afterwards Attila, now sole ruler, undertook one of his most important expeditions against the Eastern empire; on this occasion he pushed southwards as far as Thermopylae, Gallipoli and the walls of Constantinople; peace was cheaply purchased by tripling the yearly tribute (which accordingly now stood at 2100 pounds of gold, or L84,000 sterling) and by the payment of a heavy indemnity. In 448 again occurred various diplomatic negotiations, and especially the embassy of Maximinus, of which many curious details have been recorded by Priscus his companion. Then followed, in 451, that westward movement across the Rhine which was only arrested at last, with terrible slaughter, on the Catalaunian plains (according to common belief, in the neighbourhood of the modern Chalons, but more probably at a point some 50 m. to the south-east, near Mery-sur-Seine). The following year (452), that of the Italian campaign, was marked by such events as the sack of Aquileia, the destruction of the cities of Venetia, and finally, on the banks of the Mincio, that historical interview with Pope Leo I. which resulted in the return of Attila to Pannonia, where in 453 he died (see ATTILA). Almost immediately afterwards the empire he had amassed rather than consolidated fell to pieces. His too numerous sons began to quarrel about their inheritance, while Ardaric, the king of the Gepidae, was placing himself at the head of a general revolt of the dependent nations. The inevitable struggle came to a crisis near the river Netad in Pannonia, in a battle in which 30,000 of the Huns and their confederates, including Ellak, Attila's eldest son, were slain. The nation, thus broken, rapidly dispersed, exactly as the White Huns did after a similar defeat about a hundred years later. One horde settled under Roman protection in Little Scythia (the Dobrudzha), others in Dacia Ripensis (on the confines of Servia and Bulgaria) or on the southern borders of Pannonia. Many, however, appear to have returned to what is now South Russia, and may perhaps have taken part in the ethnical combinations which produced the Bulgarians.

The chief original authorities are Ammianus Marcellinus, Priscus,
Jordanes, Procopius, Sidonius Apollinaris and Menander Protector. See
also Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_; J. B. Bury,
_History of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889); H. H. Howorth, _History of
the Mongols_ (1876-1888); J. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (1892);
and articles in the _Revue orientale pour les etudes Ouralaltaiques_.
For the Chinese sources see E. H. Parker, _A Thousand Years of the
Tartars_ (1905), and numerous articles by the same author in the
_Asiatic Quarterly_; also articles by Chavannes, O. Franke, Stein and
others in various learned periodicals. For the literature on the White
Huns see EPHTHALITES. (C. El.)

HUNSDON, HENRY CAREY, 1ST BARON (c. 1524-1596), English soldier and courtier, was a son of William Carey (d. 1529); his mother was Mary (d. 1543), a sister of Anne Boleyn, and he was consequently cousin to Queen Elizabeth. Member of parliament for Buckingham under Edward VI. and Mary, he was knighted in 1558, was created Baron Hunsdon in 1559, and in 1561 became a privy councillor and a knight of the Garter. In 1568 he became governor of Berwick and warden of the east Marches, and he was largely instrumental in quelling the rising in the north of England in 1569, gaining a decisive victory over Leonard Dacre near Carlisle in February 1570. Hunsdon received very little money to cover his expenses, but Elizabeth lavished honours upon him, although he did not always carry out her wishes. In 1583 he became lord chamberlain, but he did not relinquish his post at Berwick. Hunsdon was one of the commissioners appointed to try Mary queen of Scots; after Mary's execution he went on a mission to James VI. of Scotland, and when the Spanish Armada was expected he commanded the queen's bodyguard. He died in London, at Somerset House, on the 23rd of July 1596.

His eldest son, GEORGE (1547-1603), 2nd Baron Hunsdon, was a member of parliament, a diplomatist, a soldier and lord chamberlain. He was also captain-general of the Isle of Wight during the time of the Spanish Armada. He was succeeded by his brother John (d. 1617). In 1628 John's son Henry, 4th Baron Hunsdon, was created earl of Dover. This title became extinct on the death of the 2nd earl, John, in 1677, and a like fate befell the barony of Hunsdon on the death of the 8th baron, William Ferdinand, in June 1765. Elizabeth, daughter of Sir John Spencer of Althorp, and wife of the 2nd Lord Hunsdon, is celebrated as the patroness of her kinsman, the poet Spenser; and either this lady or her daughter Elizabeth was the author of the _Tragedie of Marian_ (1613).

The 1st lord's youngest son, ROBERT CAREY (c. 1560-1639), was for a long time a member of the English parliament. He was frequently employed on the Scottish borders; he announced the death of Elizabeth to James VI. of Scotland; and he was created earl of Monmouth in 1626. He wrote some interesting _Memoirs_, first published in 1759. His son and successor, Henry (1596-1661), is known as a translator of various French and Italian books. The title of earl of Monmouth became extinct on his death in June 1661.

HUNSTANTON [commonly pronounced Hunston], a seaside resort in the north-western parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, on the east shore of the Wash, 112 m. N. by E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district of New Hunstanton (1901) 1893. The new watering-place is about 1 m. from the old village. It has a good beach, a golf course and a pier. The parish church of St Mary is a fine Decorated building, containing monuments of the L'Estrange family, whose mansion, Hunstanton Hall, is a picturesque Tudor building of brick in a well-wooded park. A convalescent home (1872) commemorates the recovery from illness of King Edward VII. when Prince of Wales. At Brancaster, 6 m. E., there is a Roman fort which formed part of the defences of the _Litus Saxonicum_ (4th century A.D.)

HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (1830-1896), English painter, son of Andrew Hunt, a landscape painter, was born at Liverpool in 1830. He began to paint while at the Liverpool Collegiate School; but as the idea of adopting the artist's profession was not favoured by his father, he went in 1848 to Corpus Christi College, Oxford. His career there was distinguished; he won the Newdigate Prize in 1851, and became a Fellow of Corpus in 1858. He did not, however, abandon his artistic practice, for, encouraged by Ruskin, he exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1854, and thenceforward regularly contributed landscapes in oil and water-colour to the London and provincial exhibitions. In 1861 he married, gave up his Fellowship, and was elected an Associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours, receiving full membership three years later. His work is distinguished mainly by its exquisite quality and a poetic rendering of atmosphere. Hunt died on 3rd May 1896. Mrs A. W. Hunt (_nee_ Margaret Raine) wrote several works of fiction; and one of her daughters, Violet Hunt, is well known as a novelist.

See Frederick Wedmore, "Alfred Hunt," _Magazine of Art_ (1891);
_Exhibition of Drawings in Water Colour by Alfred William Hunt_,
Burlington Fine Arts Club (1897).