Chapter I: Geography and Statistics

The kingdom of Hungary (_Magyarbiradolom_) is one of the two states which constitute the monarchy of Austria-Hungary (q.v.), and occupies 51.8% of the total area of the monarchy. Hungary, unlike Austria, presents a remarkable geographical unity. It is almost exclusively continental, having only a short extent of seaboard on the Adriatic (a little less than 100 m.). Its land-frontiers are for the most part well defined by natural boundaries: on the N.W., N., E. and S.E. the Carpathian mountains; on the S. the Danube, Save and Unna. On the W. they are not so clearly marked, being formed partly by low ranges of mountains and partly by the rivers March and Leitha. From the last-mentioned river are derived the terms Cisleithania and Transleithania, applied to Austria and Hungary respectively.

_General Division._--The kingdom of Hungary in its widest extent, or the "Realm of the Crown of St Stephen," comprises Hungary proper (_Magyarorszag_), with which is included the former grand principality of Transylvania, and the province of Croatia-Slavonia. This province enjoys to a large extent autonomy, granted by the so-called compromise of 1868. The town and district of Fiume, though united with Hungary proper in respect of administration, possess a larger measure of autonomy than the other cities endowed with municipal rights. Of the total area of the kingdom Hungary proper has 108,982 sq. m. and Croatia-Slavonia 16,420 sq. m. In the present article the kingdom is treated mainly as a whole, especially as regards statistics. In some respects Hungary proper has been particularly dealt with, while special information regarding the other regions will be found under CROATIA-SLAVONIA, TRANSYLVANIA and FIUME.

_Mountains._--Orographically Hungary is composed of an extensive
central plain surrounded by high mountains. These mountains belong to
the Carpathians and the Alps, which are separated by the valley of the
Danube. But by far the greater portion of the Hungarian highlands
belongs to the Carpathian mountains, which begin, to the north, on the
left bank of the Danube at Deveny near Pressburg (Pozsony), run in a
north-easterly and easterly direction, sway round south-eastward and
then westward in a vast irregular semicircle, and end near Orsova at
the Iron Gates of the Danube, where they meet the Balkan mountains.
The greatest elevations are in the Tatra mountains of the north of
Hungary proper, in the east and south of Transylvania (the
Transylvanian Alps) and in the eastern portion of the Banat. The
highest peak, the Gerlsdorf or Spitze or Gerlachfalva, situated in the
Tatra group, has an altitude of 8700 ft. The portion of Hungary
situated on the right bank of the Danube is filled by the Alpine
system, namely, the eastern outlying groups of the Alps. These groups
are the Leitha mountains, the Styrian highlands, the Lower Hungarian
highlands, which are a continuation of the former, and the Bakony
Forest. The Bakony Forest, which lies entirely within Hungarian
territory, extends to the Danube in the neighbourhood of Budapest, the
highest peak being Koroshegy (2320 ft.). The south-western portion of
this range is specially called Bakony Forest, while the ramifications
to the north-east are known as the Vertes group (1575 ft.), and the
Pilis group (2476 ft.). The Lower Hungarian highlands extend between
the Danube, the Mur, and Lake Balaton, and attain in the Mesek hills
near Mohacs and Pecs an altitude of 2200 ft. The province of
Croatia-Slavonia belongs mostly to the Karst region, and is traversed
by the Dinaric Alps.

_Plains._--The mountain systems enclose two extensive plains, the
smaller of which, called the "Little Hungarian Alfold" or "Pressburg
Basin," covers an area of about 6000 sq. m., and lies to the west of
the Bakony and Matra ranges, which separate it from the "Pest Basin"
or "Great Hungarian Alfold." This is the largest plain in Europe, and
covers about 37,000 sq. m., with an average elevation above sea-level
of from 300 to 350 ft. The Pest Basin extends over the greater portion
of central and southern Hungary, and is traversed by the Theiss
(Tisza) and its numerous tributaries. This immense tract of low land,
though in some parts covered with barren wastes of sand, alternating
with marshes, presents in general a very rich and productive soil. The
monotonous aspect of the Alfold is in summer time varied by the
_deli-bab_, or _Fata Morgana_.

_Caverns._--The numerous caverns deserve a passing notice. The
Aggtelek (q.v.) or Baradla cave, in the county of Gomor, is one of the
largest in the world. In it various fossil mammalian remains have been
found. The Fonacza cave, in the county of Bihar, has also yielded
fossils. No less remarkable are the Okno, Vodi and Demenyfalva caverns
in the county of Lipto, the Veterani in the Banat and the ice cave at
Dobsina (q.v.) in Gomor county. Of the many interesting caverns in
Transylvania the most remarkable are the sulphurous Budos in the
county of Haromszek, the Almas to the south of Udvarhely and the
brook-traversed rocky caverns of Csetate-Boli, Pestere and Ponor in
the southern mountains of Hunyad county.

_Rivers._--The greater part of Hungary is well provided with both
rivers and springs, but some trachytic and limestone mountainous
districts show a marked deficiency in this respect. The Matra group,
e.g., is poorly supplied, while the outliers of the Vertes mountains
towards the Danube are almost entirely wanting in streams, and have
but few water sources. A relative scarcity in running waters prevails
in the whole region between the Danube and the Drave. The greatest
proportionate deficiency, however, is observable in the arenaceous
region between the Danube and Theiss, where for the most part only
periodical floods occur. But in the north and east of the kingdom
rivers are numerous. Owing to its orographical configuration the river
system of Hungary presents several characteristic features. The first
consists in the parallelism in the course of its rivers, as the Danube
and the Theiss, the Drave and the Save, the Waag with the Neutra and
the Gran, &c. The second is the direction of the rivers, which
converge towards the middle of the country, and are collected either
mediately or immediately by the Danube. Only the Zsil, the Aluta and
the Bodza or Buzeu pierce the Transylvanian Alps, and flow into the
Danube outside Hungary. Another characteristic feature is the uneven
distribution of the navigable rivers, of which Upper Hungary and
Transylvania are almost completely devoid. But even the navigable
rivers, owing to the direction of their course, are not available as a
means of external communication. The only river communication with
foreign countries is furnished by the Danube, on the one hand towards
Austria and Germany, and on the other towards the Black Sea. All the
rivers belong to the watershed of the Danube, with the exception of
the Poprad in the north, which as an affluent of the Dunajec flows
into the Vistula, and of a few small streams near the Adriatic. The
Danube enters Hungary through the narrow defile called the _Porta
Hungarica_ at Deveny near Pressburg, and after a course of 585 m.
leaves it at Orsova by another narrow defile, the Iron Gate. Where it
enters Hungary the Danube is 400 ft. above sea-level, and where it
leaves it is 127 ft.; it has thus a fall within the country of 273 ft.
It forms several large islands, as the Great Schutt, called in
Hungarian Czallokoz or the deceiving island, with at area of nearly
1000 sq. m.; the St Andrew's or Szent-Endre island; the Csepel island;
and the Margitta island. The principal tributaries of the Danube in
Hungary, of which some are amongst the largest rivers in Europe, are,
on the right, the Raab, Drave and Save, and, on the left, the Waag,
Neutra, Gran, Eipel, Theiss (the principal affluent, which receives
numerous tributaries), Temes and Cserna. The total length of the river
system of Hungary is about 8800 m., of which only about one-third is
navigable, while of the navigable part only one-half is available for
steamers. The Danube is navigable for steamers throughout the whole of
its course in Hungary. Regulating works have been undertaken to ward
off the dangers of periodical inundations, which occur in the valley
of the Danube and of the other great rivers, as the Theiss, the Drave
and the Save. The beds of these rivers, as well as that of the Danube,
are continually changing, forming morasses and pools, and rendering
the country near their banks marshy. Notwithstanding the work already
done, such as canalizing and regulating the rivers, the erection of
dams, &c., the problems of preventing inundations, and of reclaiming
the marshes, have not yet been satisfactorily solved.

_Canals._--Hungary is poorly supplied with canals. They are
constructed not only as navigable waterways, but also to relieve the
rivers from periodical overflow, and to drain the marshy districts.
The most important canal is the Franz Josef canal between Becse and
Bezdan, above Zombor. It is about 70 m. in length, and considerably
shortens the passage between the Theiss and the Danube. A branch of
this canal called Uj Csatorna or New Channel, extends from
Kis-Sztapar, a few miles below Zombor, to Ujvidek, opposite
Petervarad. The Bega canal runs from Temesvar to Nagy-Becskerek, and
thence to Titel, where it flows into the Theiss. The Versecz and the
Berzava canal, which are connected with one another, drain the
numerous marshes of the Banat, including the Alibunar marsh. The
Berzava canal ends in the river Temes. The Sio and the Kapos or Zichy
canal between Lake Balaton and the Danube is joined by the Sarviz
canal, which drains the marshes south of Sopron. The Berettyo canal
between the Koros and the Berettyo rivers, and the Koros canal along
the White Koros were constructed in conjunction with the regulation of
the Theiss, and for the drainage of the marshy region.

_Lakes and Marshes._--Hungary has two large lakes, Balaton (q.v.) or
Platten-See, the largest lake of southern Europe, and Ferto or
Neusiedler See. The Ferto lake lies in the counties of Moson and
Sopron, not far from the town of Sopron, and is about 23 m. in length
by 6 to 8 m. in breadth. It is so shallow that it completely
evaporated in 1865, but has filled again since 1870, at the same time
changing its configuration. It lies in the marshy district known as
the Hansag, through which it is in communication with the Danube. In
the neighbourhood of this lake are very good vineyards. Several other
small lakes are found in the Hansag. The other lowland lakes, as, for
instance, the Palics near Szabadka, and the Velencze in the county of
Feher, are much smaller. In the deep hollows between the peaks of the
Carpathians are many small lakes, popularly called "eyes of the sea."
In the _puszta_ are numerous small lakes, named generally _Feher To_
or White Lakes, because they evaporate in the summer leaving a white
crust of soda on their bed. The vegetation around them contains plants
characteristic of the sea shores. The largest of these lakes is the
Feher To situated to the north of Szeged.

As already mentioned large tracts of land on the banks of the
principal rivers are occupied by marshes. Besides the Hansag, the
other principal marshes are the Sarret, which covers a considerable
portion of the counties of Jasz-Kun-Szolnok, Bekes and Bihar; the
Escedi Lap in the county of Szatmar; the Szernye near Munkacs, and the
Alibunar in the county of Torontal. Since the last half of the 19th
century many thousands of acres have been reclaimed for agricultural
purposes.

_Geology._--The hilly regions of Transylvania and of the northern part
of Hungary consist of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks and are closely
connected, both in structure and origin, with the Carpathian chain.
The great Hungarian plain is covered by Tertiary and Quaternary
deposits, through which rise the Bakony-wald and the Mecsek ridge near
Pecs (Funfkirchen). These are composed chiefly of Triassic beds, but
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds take some share in their formation.
Amongst the most interesting features of the Bakony-wald are the
volcanic and the igneous rocks.

The great plain itself is covered for the most part by loess and
alluvium, but near its borders the Tertiary deposits rise to the
surface. Eocene nummulitic beds occur, but the deposits are mostly of
Miocene age. Five subdivisions may be recognised in the Miocene
deposits, corresponding with five different stages in the evolution of
southern Europe. The first is the _First Mediterranean stage_ of E.
Suess, during which the Hungarian plain was covered by the sea, and
the deposits were purely marine. The next is the _Schlier_, a peculiar
blue-grey clay, widely spread over southern Europe, and contains
extensive deposits of salt and gypsum. During the formation of the
Schlier the plain was covered by an inland sea or series of salt
lakes, in which evaporation led to the concentration and finally to
the deposition of the salts contained in the water. Towards the close
of this period great earth movements took place and the gap between
the Alps and the Carpathians was formed. The third period is
represented by the _Second Mediterranean stage_ of Suess, during which
the sea again entered the Hungarian plain and formed true marine
deposits. This was followed by the _Sarmatian_ period, when Hungary
was covered by extensive lagoons, the fauna being partly marine and
partly brackish water. Finally, in the _Pontian_ period, the lagoons
became gradually less and less salt, and the deposits are
characterized especially by the abundance of shells which live in
brackish water, especially Congeria.

_Climate._--Hungary has a continental climate--cold in winter, hot in
summer--but owing to the physical configuration of the country it
varies considerably. If Transylvania be excepted, three separate zones
are roughly distinguishable: the "highland," comprising the counties
in the vicinity of the Northern and Eastern Carpathians, where the
winters are very severe and continue for half the year; the
"intermediate" zone, embracing the country stretching northwards from
the Drave and Mur, with the Little Hungarian Plain, and the region of
the Upper Alfold, extending from Budapest to Nyiregyhaza and
Sarospatak; and the "great lowland" zone, including the main portion
of the Great Hungarian Plain, and the region of the lower Danube,
where the heat during the summer months is almost tropical. In
Transylvania the climate bears the extreme characteristics peculiar to
mountainous countries interspersed with valleys; whilst the climate of
the districts bordering on the Adriatic is modified by the
neighbourhood of the sea. The minimum of the temperature is attained
in January and the maximum in July. The rainfall in Hungary, except
in the mountainous regions, is small in comparison with that of
Austria. In these regions the greatest fall is during the summer,
though in some years the autumn showers are heavier. Hail storms are
of frequent occurrence in the Carpathians. On the plains rain rarely
falls during the heats of summer; and the showers though violent are
generally of short duration, whilst the moisture is quickly evaporated
owing to the aridity of the atmosphere. The vast sandy wastes mainly
contribute to the dryness of the winds on the Great Hungarian Alfold.
Occasionally, the whole country suffers much from drought; but
disastrous floods not unfrequently occur, particularly in the spring,
when the beds of the rivers are inadequate to contain the increased
volume of water caused by the rapid melting of the snows on the
Carpathians. On the whole Hungary is a healthy country, excepting in
the marshy tracts, where intermittent fever and diphtheria sometimes
occur with great virulence.

The following table gives the mean temperature, relative humidity, and
rainfall (including snow) at a series of meteorological stations
during the years 1896-1900:--

+-------------+------+-------+------+------+----------+--------+
| | Feet | Mean Temperature | |Rainfall|
| Stations. |above | (Fahrenheit). | Relative | in |
| | Sea. +-------+------+------+ Humidity.+ Inches.|
| | |Annual.| Jan. | July.| | |
+-------------+------+-------+------+------+----------+--------+
| Selmeczbanya| 2037 | 46.2 | 27.9 | 64.8 | 79 | 35.29 |
| Budapest | 502 | 50.9 | 30.9 | 68.8 | 76 | 24.02 |
| Keszthely | 436 | 52.5 | 30.0 | 71.4 | 78 | 26.67 |
| Zagrab | 534 | 52.3 | 34.3 | 70.5 | 72 | 34.32 |
| Fiume | 16 | 56.9 | 43.6 | 72.7 | 75 | 70.39 |
| Debreczen | 423 | 50.2 | 28.6 | 70 | 79 | 22.26 |
| Szeged | 312 | 51.6 | 31.1 | 71.1 | 80 | 25.58 |
| Nagyszeben | 1357 | 48.9 | 25.9 | 60.1 | 79 | 28.66 |
+-------------+------+-------+------+------+----------+--------+

_Fauna._--The horned cattle of Hungary are amongst the finest in
Europe, and large herds of swine are reared in the oak forests. The
wild animals are bears, wolves, foxes, lynxes, wild cats, badgers,
otters, martens, stoats and weasels. Among the rodents there are
hares, marmots, beavers, squirrels, rats and mice, the last in
enormous swarms. Of the larger game the chamois and deer are specially
noticeable. Among the birds are the vulture, eagle, falcon, buzzard,
kite, lark, nightingale, heron, stork and bustard. Domestic and wild
fowl are generally abundant. The rivers and lakes yield enormous
quantities of fish, and leeches also are plentiful. The Theiss, once
better supplied with fish than any other river in Europe, has for many
years fallen off in its productiveness. The culture of the silkworm is
chiefly carried on in the south, and in Croatia-Slavonia.

_Flora._--Almost every description of grain is found, especially wheat
and maize, besides Turkish pepper or paprika, rape-seed, hemp and
flax, beans, potatoes and root crops. Fruits of various descriptions,
and more particularly melons and stone fruits, are abundant. In the
southern districts almonds, figs, rice and olives are grown. Amongst
the forest and other trees are the oak, which yields large quantities
of galls, the beech, fir, pine, ash and alder, also the chestnut,
walnut and filbert. The vine is cultivated over the greater part of
Hungary, the chief grape-growing districts being those of the Hegyalja
(Tokaj), Sopron, and Ruszt, Menes, Somlyo (Schomlau), Bellye and
Villany, Balaton, Neszmely, Visonta, Eger (Erlau) and Buda. Hungary is
one of the greatest wine-producing countries in Europe, and the
quality of some of the vintages, especially that of Tokaj, is
unsurpassed. A great quantity of tobacco is also grown; it is wholly
monopolized by the crown. In Hungary proper and in Croatia and
Slavonia there are many species of indigenous plants, which are
unrepresented in Transylvania. Besides 12 species peculiar to the
former grand-principality, 14 occur only there and in Siberia.

_Population._--Hungary had in 1900 a population of 19,254,559, equivalent to 153.7 inhabitants per square mile. The great Alfold and the western districts are the most densely populated parts, whereas the northern and eastern mountainous counties are sparsely inhabited. As regards sex, for every 1000 men there were 1011 women in Hungary, and 998 women in Croatia-Slavonia. The excess of females over males is great in the western and northern counties, while in the eastern parts and in Croatia-Slavonia there is at slight preponderance of males.

The population of the country at the censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900 was:--

+-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. |
+-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Hungary proper | 13,749,603 | 15,261,864 | 16,838,255 |
| Croatia-Slavonia| 1,892,499 | 2,201,927 | 2,416,304 |
+-----------------+------------+------------+------------+
| Total | 15,642,102 | 17,463,791 | 19,254,559 |
+-----------------+------------+------------+------------+

From 1870 to 1880 there was little increase of population, owing to the great cholera epidemic of 1872-1873, and to many epidemic diseases among children towards the end of the period. More normal conditions having prevailed from 1880 to 1890, the yearly increase rose from 0.13% to 1.09%, declining in the decade 1890-1900 to 1.03.

If compared with the first general census of the country, decreed by
Joseph II. in 1785, the population of the kingdom shows an increase of
nearly 108% during these 116 years. Recent historical research has
ascertained that the country was densely peopled in the 15th century.
Estimates, based on a census of the tax-paying peasantry in the years
1494 and 1495, give five millions of inhabitants, a very respectable
number, which explains fully the predominant position of Hungary in
the east of Europe at that epoch. The disastrous invasion of the
Turks, incessant civil wars and devastation by foreign armies and
pestilence, caused a very heavy loss both of population and of
prosperity. In 1715 and 1720, when the land was again free from
Turkish hordes and peace was restored, the population did not exceed
three millions. Then immigration began to fill the deserted plains
once more, and by 1785 the population had trebled itself. But as the
immigrants were of very different foreign nationalities, the country
became a collection of heterogeneous ethnical elements, amid which the
ruling Magyar race formed only a minority.

The most serious drain on the population is caused by emigration, due
partly to the grinding poverty of the mass of the peasants, partly to
the resentment of the subject races against the process of
"Magyarization" to which they have long been subjected by the
government. This movement reached its height in 1900, when 178,170
people left the country; in 1906 the number had sunk to 169,202, of
whom 47,920 were women.[1] Altogether, since 1896 Hungary has lost
about a million of its inhabitants through this cause, a serious
source of weakness in a sparsely populated country; in 1907 an attempt
was made by the Hungarian parliament to restrict emigration by law.
The flow of emigration is mainly to the United States, and a certain
number of the emigrants return (27,612 in 1906) bringing with them
much wealth, and Americanized views which have a considerable effect
on the political situation.[2] Of political importance also is the
steady immigration of Magyar peasants and workmen into
Croatia-Slavonia, where they become rapidly absorbed into the Croat
population. From the Transylvanian counties there is an emigration to
Rumania and the Balkan territories of 4000 or 5000 persons yearly.

This great emigration movement is the more serious in view of the very
slow increase of the population through excess of births over deaths.
The birth-rate is indeed high (40.2 in 1897), but with the spread of
culture it is tending to decline (38.4 in 1902), and its effect is
counteracted largely by the appalling death-rate, which exceeds that
of any other European country except Russia.

In this respect, however, matters are improving, the death-rate
sinking from 33.1 per thousand in 1881-1885 to 28.1 per thousand in
1896-1900. The improvement, which is mainly due to better sanitation
and the draining of the pestilential marshes, is most conspicuous in
the case of Hungary proper, which shows the following figures: 33.3
per thousand in 1881-1885, and 27.8 per thousand in 1896-1900.

At the census of 1900 fifteen towns had more than 40,000 inhabitants,
namely: Budapest, 732,322; Szeged, 100,270; Szabadka
(Maria-Theresiopel), 81,464; Debreczen, 72,351; Pozsony (Pressburg),
61,537; Hodmezo-Vasarhely, 60,824; Zagrab (Agram), 61,002; Kecskemet,
56,786; Arad, 53,903; Temesvar, 53,033; Nagyvarad (Grosswardein),
47,018; Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), 46,670; Pecs (Funfkirchen), 42,252;
Miskolcz, 40,833; Kassa, 35,856.

The number and aggregate population of all towns and boroughs in
Hungary proper having in 1890 more than 10,000 inhabitants was at the
censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900:--

+-------+------+------------+-----------------+
|Census.|Towns.|Inhabitants.| Percentage of |
| | | |Total Population.|
+-------+------+------------+-----------------+
| 1880 | 93 | 2,191,878 | 15.94 |
| 1890 | 106 | 2,700,852 | 17.81 |
| 1900 | 122 | 3,525,377 | 21.58 |
+-------+------+------------+-----------------+

Thus the relative increase of the population living in urban districts
of more than 10,000 inhabitants amounted in 1900 to nearly 4% of the
total population. In Croatia-Slavonia only 5.62% of the population was
concentrated in such towns in 1900.

_Races._--One of the prominent features of Hungary being the great
complexity of the races residing in it (see map, "Distribution of
Races," in the article AUSTRIA), the census returns of 1880, 1890 and
1900, exhibiting the numerical strength of the different
nationalities, are of great interest. Classifying the population
according to the mother-tongue of each individual, there were, in the
civil population of Hungary proper, including Fiume:--

+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
|Census.| Hungarians| Germans | Slovaks | Rumanians | Ruthenians| Croatians |Servians | Others. |
| | (Magyars.)| (Nemet). | (Tot). | (Olah). | (Ruthen). | (Horvat). |(Szerb). | |
+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| 1880 | 6,404,070 | 1,870,772 | 1,855,451 | 2,403,041 | 353,229 | 639,986 | 223,054 |
| 1890 | 7,357,936 | 1,990,084 | 1,896,665 | 2,589,079 | 379,786 | 194,412 | 495,133 | 259,893 |
| 1900 | 8,588,834 | 1,980,423 | 1,991,402 | 2,784,726 | 423,159 | 188,552 | 434,641 | 329,837 |
+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| i.e. in percentages of the total population: |
+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
| 1880 | 46.58 | 13.61 | 13.49 | 17.48 | 2.57 | 4.65 | 1.62 |
| 1890 | 48.53 | 13.12 | 12.51 | 17.08 | 2.50 | 1.28 | 3.27 | 1.71 |
| 1900 | 51.38 | 11.88 | 11.88 | 16.62 | 2.52 | 1.17 | 2.60 | 1.95 |
+-------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+

The censuses show a decided tendency of change in favour of the
dominating nationality, the Magyar, which reached an absolute majority
in the decade 1890-1900. This is also shown by the data relating to
the percentage of members of other Hungarian races speaking this
language. Thus in 1900 out of a total civil population of 8,132,740,
whose mother-tongue is not Magyar, 1,365,764 could speak Magyar. This
represents a percentage of 16.8, while in 1890 the percentage was only
13.8. In Croatia-Slavonia the language of instruction and
administration being exclusively Croat, the other races tend to be
absorbed in this nationality. The Magyars formed but 3.8%, the Germans
5.6% of the population according to the census of 1900.

The various races of Hungary are distributed either in compact
ethnographical groups, in larger or smaller colonies surrounded by
other nationalities, or--e.g. in the Banat--so intermingled as to defy
exact definition.[3] The Magyars occupy almost exclusively the great
central plain intersected by the Danube and the Theiss, being in an
overwhelming majority in 19 counties (99.7% in Hajdu, east of the
Theiss). With these may be grouped the kindred population of the three
Szekel counties of Transylvania. In 14 other counties, on the
linguistic frontier, they are either in a small majority or a
considerable minority (61.6% in Szatmar, 18.9% in Torontal). The
Germans differ from the other Hungarian races in that, save in the
counties on the borders of Lower Austria and Styria, where they form a
compact population in touch with their kin across the frontier, they
are scattered in racial islets throughout the country. Excluding the
above counties these settlements form three groups: (1) central and
northern Hungary, where they form considerable minorities in seven
counties (25% in Szepes, 7% in Komarom); (2) the Swabians of southern
Hungary, also fairly numerous in seven counties (35.5% in Baranya,
32.9% in Temes, 10.5% in Arad); (3) the Saxons of Transylvania, in a
considerable minority in five counties (42.7% in Nagy Kukullo, 17.6%
in Kis Kukullo). The Germans are most numerous in the towns, and tend
to become absorbed in the Magyar population. The Slavs, the most
numerous race after the Magyars, are divided into several groups: the
Slovaks, mainly massed in the mountainous districts of northern
Hungary; the Ruthenians, established mainly on the slopes of the
Carpathians between Poprad and Maramaros Sziget; the Serbs, settled in
the south of Hungary from the bend of the Danube eastwards across the
Theiss into the Banat; the Croats, overwhelmingly preponderant in
Croatia-Slavonia, with outlying settlements in the counties of Zala,
Vas and Sopron along the Croatian and Styrian frontier. Of these the
Slovaks are the most important, having an overwhelming majority in
seven counties (94.7% in Arva, 66.1% in Saros), a bare majority in
three (Szepes, Bars and Poszody) and a considerable minority in five
(40.6% in Gomor, 22.9% in Abauj-Torna). The Ruthenians are not in a
majority in any county, but in four they form a minority of from 36 to
46% (Maramaros, Bereg, Ugocsa, Ung) and in three others (Saros,
Zemplen, Szepes) a minority of from 8.2 to 19.7%. The Serbs form
considerable minorities in the counties of Torontal (31.2%),
Bacs-Bodrog (19.0%) and Temes (21.4%). Next to the Slav races in
importance are the Rumanians (Vlachs), who are in an immense majority
in ten of the eastern and south-eastern counties (90.2% in Fogaras),
in eight others form from 30 to 60% of the population, and in two
(Maramaros and Torontal) a respectable minority.[4]

The Jews in 1900 numbered 851,378, not counting the very great number
who have become Christians, who are reckoned as Magyars. Their
importance is out of all proportion to their number, since they
monopolize a large portion of the trade, are with the Germans the
chief employers of labour, and control not only the finances but to a
great extent the government and press of the country. Owing to the
improvidence of the Hungarian landowners and the poverty of the
peasants the soil of the country is also gradually passing into their
hands.[5]

The Gipsies, according to the special census of 1893, numbered
274,940. Of these, however, only 82,000 gave Romany as their language,
while 104,000 described themselves as Magyars and 67,000 as Rumanians.
They are scattered in small colonies, especially in Gomor county and
in Transylvania. Only some 9000 are still nomads, while some 20,000
more are semi-nomads. Other races, which are not numerous, are
Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians and Italians.

The ethnographical map of Hungary does much to explain the political
problems of the country. The central plains, which have the most
fertile soil, and from the geographical conditions of the country form
its centre of gravity, are occupied almost exclusively by the Magyars,
the most numerous and the dominant race. But all round these, as far
as the frontiers, the country is inhabited by the other races, which,
as a rule, occupy it in large, compact and uniform ethnographical
groups. The only exception is formed by the Banat, where Magyars,
Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats and Germans live mixed together.
Another important fact is that these races are all in direct contact
with kindred peoples living outside Hungary: the Rumanians in
Transylvania and Banat with those in Rumania and Bukovina; the Serbs
and Croats with those on the other bank of the Danube, the Save and
the Unna; the Germans in western Hungary with those in Upper Austria
and Styria; the Slovaks in northern Hungary with those in Moravia; and
lastly the Ruthenians with the Ruthenians of Galicia, who occupy the
opposite slopes of the Carpathians. The centrifugal forces within the
Hungarian kingdom are thus increased by the attraction of kindred
nationalities established beyond its borders, a fact which is of
special importance in considering the vexed and difficult racial
problem in Hungary.

_Agriculture._--Hungary is pre-eminently an agricultural country and
one of the principal wheat-growing regions of Europe. At the census of
1900 nearly 69% of the total population of the country derived their
income from agriculture, forestry, horticulture and other agricultural
pursuits. The agricultural census taken in 1895 shows the great
progress made in agriculture by Hungary, manifested by the increase in
arable lands and the growth of the average production. The increase of
the arable land has been effected partly by the reclamation of the
marshes, but mostly by the transformation of large tracts of _puszta_
(waste prairie land) into arable land. This latter process is growing
every year, and is coupled with great improvements in agricultural
methods, such as more intensive cultivation, the use of the most
modern implements and the application of scientific discoveries.
According to the agricultural census of 1895, the main varieties of
land are distributed as follows:--

+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| | Hungary | Croatia- |
| | Proper. | Slavonia. |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
|By area in acres-- | | |
| Arable land |29,714,382 |13,370,540 |
| Gardens | 928,053 | 136,354 |
| Meadows | 7,075,888 | 1,099,451 |
| Vineyards | 482,801 | 65,475 |
| Pastures | 9,042,267 | 1,465,930 |
| Forests |18,464,396 | 3,734,094 |
| Marshes | 199,685 | 7,921 |
|By percentage of the total area--| | |
| Arable land | 42.81 | 32.26 |
| Gardens | 1.34 | 1.31 |
| Meadows | 10.19 | 10.52 |
| Vineyards | 0.69 | 0.63 |
| Pastures | 13.03 | 14.03 |
| Forests | 26.60 | 35.74 |
| Marshes | 0.28 | 0.08 |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

The remainder, such as barren territory, devastated vineyards, water
and area of buildings, amounts to 5.1% of the total.

The chief agricultural products of Hungary are wheat, rye, barley,
oats and maize, the acreage and produce of which are shown in the
following tables:--

_Area in Acres in Hungary Proper._

+--------+-----------------------------------+-----------+-----------+
| | Average per Annum. | | |
| Cereal.+-----------+-----------+-----------+ 1900. | 1907. |
| | 1881-85. | 1886-90. | 1891-95. | | |
+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Wheat | 6,483,876 | 7,014,891 | 7,551,584 | 8,142,303 | 8,773,440 |
| Rye | 2,475,301 | 2,727,078 | 2,510,093 | 2,546,738 | 2,529,350 |
| Barley | 2,420,393 | 2,491,422 | 2,407,469 | 2,485,117 | 2,885,160 |
| Oats | 2,460,080 | 2,546,582 | 2,339,297 | 2,324,992 | 2,898,780 |
| Maize | 4,567,186 | 4,681,376 | 5,222,538 | 5,469,050 | 7,017,270 |
+--------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Produce in Millions of Bushels._

+--------+-----------------------------+---------+---------+
| | Average per Annum. | | |
| Cereal.+---------+---------+---------+ 1900. | 1907. |
| | 1881-85.| 1886-90.| 1891-95.| | |
+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| Wheat | 99.8 | 121.3 | 144.9 | 137.3 | 128.5 |
| Rye | 41.8 | 42.1 | 46.5 | 39.2 | 38.0 |
| Barley | 46.2 | 43.7 | 53.6 | 49.7 | 51.0 |
| Oats | 53.9 | 52.3 | 64.9 | 63.6 | 43.7 |
| Maize | 92.4 | 86.4 | 118.0 | 121.7 | 158.7 |
+--------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

In Croatia-Slavonia no crop statistics were compiled before 1885.
Subsequent returns for maize and wheat show an increase both in the
area cultivated and quantity yielded. The former is the principal
product of this province. Certain districts are distinguished for
particular kinds of fruit, which form an important article of commerce
both for inland consumption and for export. The principal of these
fruits are: apricots round Kecskemet, cherries round Koros, melons in
the Alfold and plums in Croatia-Slavonia. The vineyards of Hungary,
which have suffered greatly by the phylloxera since 1881, show since
1900 a tendency to recover ground, and their area is again slowly
increasing.

_Forests._--Of the productive area of Hungary 26.60% is occupied by
forests, which for the most part cover the slopes of the Carpathians.
Nearly half of them belong to the state, and in them forestry has been
carried out on a scientific basis since 1879. The exploitation of this
great source of wealth is still hindered by want of proper means of
communication, but in many parts of Transylvania it is now carried on
successfully. The forests are chiefly composed of oak, fir, pine, ash
and alder.

_Live Stock._--The number of live stock in Hungary proper in two
different years is shown in the following table:--

+--------+-----------+-----------+
| Animal.| 1884. | 1895. |
+--------+-----------+-----------+
| Horses | 1,749,302 | 1,972,930 |
| Cattle | 4,879,334 | 5,829,483 |
| Sheep |10,594,867 | 7,526,783 |
| Pigs | 4,803,777 | 6,447,134 |
+--------+-----------+-----------+

In Croatia-Slavonia the live stock was numbered in 1895 at: horses,
309,098; cattle, 908,774; sheep, 595,898; pigs, 882,957. But the
improved quality of the live stock is more worthy of notice than the
growth in numbers.

The small Magyar horse, once famous for its swiftness and endurance,
was improved during the Turkish wars, so far as height and beauty were
concerned, by being crossed with Arabs; but it degenerated after the
17th century as the result of injudicious cross-breeding. The breed
has, however, been since improved by government action, the
establishment of state studs supported since 1867 by annual
parliamentary grants, and the importation especially of English stock.
The largest of the studs is that at Mezohegyes (founded 1785) in the
county of Csanad, the most extensive and remarkable of those
"economies," model farms on a gigantic scale, which the government has
established on its domains.[6] In 1905 it had 2224 horses, including
27 stallions and 422 blood mares. The next most important stud is at
Kisber (founded 1853), with 731 horses; others are at Babolna (founded
1798), with 802 horses, and Fogaras (founded 1874), with 400
horses.[7] Besides these there are several large depots of state
stallions, which are hired out or sold at moderate rates; but buyers
have to guarantee not to export them without permission of the
government. Large numbers of horses are exported annually, principally
to Austria, Germany, Italy, France and Rumania.

Owing to its wide stretches of pasture-land Hungary is admirably
suited for cattle-raising, and in the government "economies" the same
care has been bestowed on improving the breed of horned beasts as in
the case of horses. The principal breeds are either native or Swiss
(especially that of Simmenthal). The export trade in cattle is
considerable, amounting in 1905 to 238,296 head of oxen, 56,540 cows,
23,765 bulls and 19,643 breeding cattle, as well as a large number of
carcases.

Sheep are not stocked so extensively as cattle, and are tending
rapidly to decrease, a result due to the spread of intensive
cultivation and the rise in value of the soil. They are not exported,
but there is a considerable export trade in wool.

Pigs are reared in large quantities all over the country, but the
principal centres for distribution are Debreczen, Gyula, Barcs, Szeged
and Budapest. They are exported in large numbers (408,000 in 1905),
almost exclusively to Austria. There is also a considerable export
trade in geese and eggs.

_Minerals._--Hungary is one of the richest countries in Europe as
regards both the variety and the extent of its mineral wealth. Its
chief mineral products are coal, nitre, sulphur, alum, soda,
saltpetre, gypsum, porcelain-earth, pipe-clay, asphalt, petroleum,
marble and ores of gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc,
antimony, cobalt and arsenic. The principal mining regions are
Zsepes-Gomor in Upper Hungary, the Kremnitz-Schemnitz district, the
Nagybanya district, the Transylvanian deposits and the Banat. Gold and
silver are chiefly found in Transylvania, where their exploitation
dates back to the Roman period, and are mined at Zalatna and
Abrudbanya; rich deposits are also found in the Kremnitz-Schemnitz,
and the Nagybanya districts. The average yearly yield of gold is about
L100,000, and that of silver about the same amount. The sand of some
of the rivers, as for instance the Maros, Szamos, Koros and Aranyos,
is auriferous. Coal is extensively mined in the region of
Budapest-Oravicza, Nagybanya, Zalatna, at Brennberg near Sopron, at
Salgo-Tarjan, Pecs, in the counties of Krasso-Szoreny, and of
Esztergom, and in the valley of the river Zsil. Iron is extracted in
the counties of Zsepes, Gomor and Abauj-Torna. The production of coal
and iron trebled during the period 1880-1900, amounting in 1900 to
6,600,000 tons, and 463,000 tons respectively. The principal
salt-mines are in Transylvania at Torda, Parajd, Deesakna and
Maros-Ujvar; and in Hungary at Szlatina, Ronazsek and Sugatag. The
salt-mines are a state monopoly. Hungary is the only country in Europe
where the opal is found, namely at the famous mines of Vorosvagas in
the county of Saros, and at Nagy-Mihaly in that of Zemplin. Other
precious stones found are chalcedony, garnet, jacinth, amethyst,
carnelian, agate, rock-crystals, &c. Amber is found at Magura in
Zsepes, while fine marble quarries are found in the counties of
Esztergom, Komarom, Veszprem and Szepes. The value of the mining
(except salt) and smelting production in Hungary amounted in 1900 to
L4,500,000, while in 1877 the value was only L1,500,000. The number of
persons employed in mining and smelting works was (1900 census)
70,476.

_Mineral Springs._--Hungary possesses a great number of cold, and
several hot mineral springs, some of them being greatly frequented.
Among the principal in Hungary proper except Transylvania are those of
Budapest, Mehadia, Eger, Sztubnya (Turocz county), Szliacs (Zolyom
county), Harkany (Baranya county), Pistyan (Nyitra county) and
Trencsen-Teplitz, where there are hot springs. Cold mineral springs
are at Bartfa, with alkaline ferruginous waters; Czigelka, with iodate
waters; Parad, with ferruginous and sulphate springs; Koritnicza or
Korytnica, with strong iron springs; and the mineral springs of
Budapest. Among the principal health resorts of Hungary are Tatrafured
in the Tatra mountains, and Balatonfured on the shores of Lake
Balaton.

_Industrial Development._--Efforts to create a native industry date
only from 1867, and, considering the shortness of the time and other
adverse factors, such as scarcity of capital, lack of means of
communication, the development of industry in the neighbouring state
of Austria, &c., the industry of Hungary has made great strides. Much
of this progress is due to the state, one of the principal aims of the
Hungarian government being the creation of a large and independent
native industry. For this purpose legislation was promoted in 1867,
1881, 1890 and 1907. The principal facilities granted by the state
are, exemption of taxation for a determined period of years, reduced
railway fares for the goods manufactured, placing of government
contracts, the grant of subsidies and loans and the foundation of
industrial schools for the training of engineers and of skilled
workmen. The branches of industry which have received special
encouragement are those whose products are in universal request, such
as cotton and woollen goods, and those which are in the service of
natural production. In this category are the manufacture of
agricultural machines, of tools and implements for agriculture,
forestry and mining; such industries as depend for their raw material
on the exploitation of the natural resources of the country, viz.
those related to agriculture, forestry, mining, &c. Lastly,
encouragement is given to all branches of industry concerned with the
manufacture of articles used in the more important Hungarian
industries, i.e. machinery, or semi-manufactured goods which serve as
raw material for those industries. For the period 1890-1905, an
average of 40 to 50 industrial establishments with an invested capital
of L1,250,000 to L1,750,000 were founded yearly.

The principal industry of Hungary is flour-milling. The number of
steam-mills, which in 1867 was about 150, rose to 1723 in 1895 and to
1845 in 1905. Between 3,000,000 and 3,200,000 tons of wheat-flour are
produced annually. The principal steam-mills are at Budapest; large
steam-mills are also established in many towns, while there are a
great number of water-mills and some wind-mills. The products of
these mills form the principal article of export of Hungary. Brewing
and distilling, as other branches of industry connected with
agriculture, are also greatly developed. The sugar industry has made
great strides, the amount of beetroot used having increased tenfold
between 1880 and 1905. Other principal branches of industry are:
tobacco manufactories, belonging to the state, tobacco being a
government monopoly; iron foundries, mostly in the mining region;
agricultural machinery and implements, notably at Budapest; leather
manufactures; paper-mills, the largest at Fiume; glass (only the more
common sort) and earthenwares; chemicals; wooden products;
petroleum-refineries; woollen yarns and cloth manufactories, as well
as several establishments of knitting and weaving. The various
industrial establishments are located in the larger towns, but
principally at Budapest, the only real industrial town of Hungary.

In 1900 the various industries of Hungary (including Croatia-Slavonia)
employed 1,127,730 persons, or 12.8% of the earning population. In
1890 the number of persons employed was 913,010. Including families
and domestic servants, 2,605,000 persons or 13.5% of the total
population were dependent on industries for their livelihood in
Hungary in 1900.

_Commerce._--Hungary forms together with Austria one customs and
commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade is
given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The following table gives the foreign
trade of Hungary only for a period of years in millions sterling:--

+-----------+--------+--------+
| Year. |Imports.|Exports.|
+-----------+--------+--------+
| 1886-1890 | 37.3 | 37.5 |
| 1891-1895 | 43.7 | 44.1 |
| 1900 | 46.3 | 55.3 |
| 1907 | 66.0 | 64.7 |
+-----------+--------+--------+

Of the merchandise[8] entering the country, 75-80% comes from Austria,
and exports go to the same country to the extent of 75%. Next comes
Germany with about 10% of the value of the total exports and 5% of
that of imports. The neighbouring Balkan states--Rumania and
Servia--follow, and the United Kingdom receives somewhat more than 2%
of the exports, while supplying about 1.5% of the imports. The
principal imports are: cotton goods, woollen manufactures; apparel,
haberdashery and linen; silk manufactures; leather and leather goods.
The exports, which show plainly the prevailing agricultural character
of the country, are flour, wheat, cattle, beef, barley, pigs, wine in
barrels, horses and maize.

With but a short stretch of sea-coast, and possessing only one
important seaport, Fiume, the mercantile marine of Hungary is not very
developed. It consisted in 1905 of 434 vessels with a tonnage of
91,784 tons and with crews of 2359 persons. Of these 95 vessels with a
tonnage of 89,161 tons were steamers. Fifty-four vessels with 84,844
tons and crews numbering 1168 persons were sea-going; 134 with 6587
tons were coasting-vessels, and 246 with 353 tons were fishing
vessels.

At all the Hungarian ports in 1900 there entered 19,223 vessels of
2,223,302 tons; cleared 19,218 vessels of 2,226,733 tons. The tonnage
of British steamers amounted to somewhat more than 11% of the total
tonnage of steamers entered and cleared.

_Railways._--Hungary is covered by a fairly extensive network of
railways, although in the sparsely populated parts of the kingdom the
high road is still the only means of communication. The first railway
in Hungary was the line between Budapest and Vacz (Waitzen), 20 m.
long, opened in 1846 (15th of July). After the Compromise of 1867, the
policy of the Hungarian government was to construct its own railways,
and to take over the lines constructed and worked by private
companies.[9] In 1907 the total length of the Hungarian railways, in
which over L145,000,000 had been invested, was 12,100 m., of which
5000 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, 5100 m. belonged to
private companies but were worked by the state, and 2000 m. belonged
to and were worked by private companies. The passengers carried in
1907 numbered 107,171,000, the goods traffic was 61,483,000 tons; the
traffic receipts for the year were L16,420,000. The corresponding
figures for 1880 were as follows: passengers carried, 9,346,000; goods
carried, 11,225,000 tons; traffic receipts, L4,300,000. The so-called
zone tariff, adopted for the first time in Europe by the Hungarian
state railways, was inaugurated in 1889 for passengers and in 1891 for
goods. The principle of this system is to offer cheap fares and
relatively low tariffs for greater distances, and to promote,
therefore, long-distance travelling. The zone tariff has given a great
impetus both to passenger and goods traffic in Hungary, and has been
adopted on some of the Austrian railways.

In 1907 the length of the navigable waterways of Hungary was 3200 m.,
of which 2450 m. were navigable by steamers.

_Seaports._--On the Adriatic lies the port of Fiume (q.v.), the only
direct outlet by sea for the produce of Hungary. Its commanding
position at the head of the Gulf of Quarnero, and spacious new harbour
works, as also its immediate connexions with both the Austrian and
Hungarian railway systems, render it specially advantageous as a
commercial port. As shipping stations, Buccari, Portore, Selce, Novi,
Zengg, San Giorgio, Jablanac and Carlopago are of comparative
insignificance. The whole of the short Hungarian seaboard is
mountainous and subject to violent winds.

_Government._--Hungary is a constitutional monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of king. The succession to the throne is hereditary in the order of primogeniture in the male line of the house of Habsburg-Lorraine; and failing this, in the female line. The king must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church. The king of Hungary is also emperor of Austria, but beyond this personal union, and certain matters regulated by both governments jointly (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two states are independent of each other, having each its own constitution, legislature and administration. The king is the head of the executive, the supreme commander of the armed forces of the nation, and shares the legislative power with the parliament.

The constitution of Hungary is in many respects strikingly analogous to that of Great Britain, more especially in the fact that it is based on no written document but on immemorial prescription, confirmed or modified by a series of enactments, of which the earliest and most famous was the Golden Bull of Andrew III. (1222), the Magna Carta of Hungary. The ancient constitution, often suspended and modified, based upon this charter, was reformed under the influence of Western Liberalism in 1848, the supremacy of the Magyar race, however, being secured by a somewhat narrow franchise. Suspended after the collapse of the Hungarian revolt in 1849 for some eighteen years, the constitution was restored in 1867 under the terms of the Compromise (_Ausgleich_) with Austria, which established the actual organization of the country (see _History_, below).

The legislative power is vested in the parliament (_Orszaggyules_), which consists of two houses: an upper house or the House of Magnates (_Forendihaz_), and a lower house or House of Representatives (_Kepviselohaz_). The House of Magnates is composed as follows: princes of the royal house who have attained their majority (16 in 1904); hereditary peers who pay at least L250 a year land tax (237 in 1904); high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches (42 in 1904); representatives of the Protestant confessions (13 in 1904); life peers appointed by the crown, not exceeding 50 in number, and life peers elected by the house itself (73 altogether in 1904); members _ex officio_ consisting of state dignitaries and high judges (19 in 1904); and three delegates of Croatia-Slavonia. The House of Representatives consists of members elected, under the Electoral Law of 1874, by a complicated franchise based upon property, taxation, profession or official position, and ancestral privileges.[10] The house consists of 453 members, of which 413 are deputies elected in Hungary and 43 delegates of Croatia-Slavonia sent by the parliament of that province. The members are elected for five years and receive payment for their services. The parliament is summoned annually by the king at Budapest. The official language is Magyar, but the delegates of Croatia-Slavonia may use their own language. The Hungarian parliament has power to legislate on all matters concerning Hungary, but for Croatia-Slavonia only on matters which concern these provinces in common with Hungary. The executive power is vested in a responsible cabinet, consisting of ten ministers, namely, the president of the council, the minister of the interior, of national defence, of education and public worship, of finance, of agriculture, of industry and commerce, of justice, the minister for Croatia-Slavonia, and the minister _ad latus_ or near the king's person. As regards local government, the country is divided into municipalities or counties, which possess a certain amount of self-government. Hungary proper is divided into sixty-three rural, and--including Fiume--twenty-six urban municipalities (see section on _Administrative Divisions_). These urban municipalities are towns which for their local government are independent of the counties in which they are situated, and have, therefore, a larger amount of municipal autonomy than the communes or the other towns. The administration of the municipalities is carried on by an official appointed by the king, aided by a representative body. The representative body is composed half of elected members, and half of citizens who pay the highest taxes. Since 1876 each municipality has a council of twenty members to exercise control over its administration.

_Administrative Divisions._--Since 1867 the administrative and
political divisions of the lands belonging to the Hungarian crown have
been in great measure remodelled. In 1868 Transylvania was definitely
reunited to Hungary proper, and the town and district of Fiume
declared autonomous. In 1873 part of the "Military Frontier" was
united with Hungary proper and part with Croatia-Slavonia. Hungary
proper, according to ancient usage, was generally divided into four
great divisions or circles, and Transylvania up to 1876 was regarded
as the fifth. In 1876 a general system of counties was introduced.
According to this division Hungary proper is divided into seven
circles, of which Transylvania forms one. The whole country is divided
into the following counties:--

(a) The circle, on the left bank of the Danube contains eleven
counties: (1) Arva, (2) Bars, (3) Esztergom, (4) Hont, (5) Lipto, (6)
Nograd, (7) Nyitra, (8) Pozsony (Pressburg), (9) Trencsen, (10) Turocz
and (11) Zolyom.

(b) The circle on the right bank of the Danube contains eleven
counties: Baranya, Fejer, Gyor, Komarom, Moson, Somogy, Sopron, Tolna,
Vas, Veszprem and Zala.

(c) The circle between the Danube and Theiss contains five counties:
Bacs-Bodrog, Csongrad, Heves, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok and
Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun.

(d) The circle on the right bank of the Theiss contains eight
counties: Abauj-Torna, Bereg, Borsod, Gomor-es Kis-Hont, Saros,
Szepes, Ung, Zemplen.

(e) The circle on the left bank of the Theiss contains eight counties:
Bekes, Bihar, Hajdu, Maramaros, Szabolcs, Szatmar, Szilagy and Ugocsa.

(f) The circle between the Theiss and the Maros contains five
counties: Arad, Csanad, Krasso-Szoreny, Temes and Torontal.

(g) Transylvania contains fifteen counties: Also-Feher,
Besztercze-Naszod, Brasso, Csik, Fogaras, Haromszek, Hunyad,
Kis-Kukullo, Kolozs, Maros-Torda, Nagy-Kukullo, Szeben,
Szolnok-Doboka, Torda-Aranyos and Udvarhely.

Fiume town and district forms a separate division.

Croatia-Slavonia is divided into eight counties: Belovar-Koros,
Lika-Krbava, Modrus-Fiume, Pozsega, Szerem, Varasd, Verocze and
Zagrab.

Besides these sixty-three rural counties for Hungary, and eight for
Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary has twenty-six urban counties or towns with
municipal rights. These are: Arad, Baja, Debreczen, Gyor,
Hodmezo-Vasarhely, Kassa, Kecskemet, Kolozsvar, Komarom,
Maros-Vasarhely, Nagyvarad, Pancsova, Pecs, Pozsony, Selmecz-es
Belabanya, Sopron, Szabadka, Szatmar-Nemeti, Szeged, Szekesfehervar,
Temesvar, Ujvidek, Versecz, Zombor, the town of Fiume, and Budapest,
the capital of the county.

In Croatia-Slavonia there are four urban counties or towns with
municipal rights namely: Eszek, Varasd, Zagrab and Zimony.

_Justice._--The judicial power is independent of the administrative
power. The judicial authorities in Hungary are: (1) the district
courts with single judges (458 in 1905); (2) the county courts with
collegiate judgeships (76 in number); to these are attached 15 jury
courts for press offences. These are courts of first instance. (3)
Royal Tables (12 in number), which are courts of second instance,
established at Budapest, Debreczen, Gyor, Kassa, Kolozsvar,
Maros-Vasarhely, Nagyvarad, Pecs, Pressburg, Szeged, Temesvar and
Zagrab. (4) The Royal Supreme Court at Budapest, and the Supreme Court
of Justice, or Table of Septemvirs, at Zagrab, which are the highest
judicial authorities. There are also a special commercial court at
Budapest, a naval court at Fiume, and special army courts.

_Finance._--After the revolution of 1848-1849 the Hungarian budget was
amalgamated with the Austrian, and it was only after the Compromise of
1867 that Hungary received a separate budget. The development of the
Hungarian kingdom can be better appreciated by a comparison of the
estimates for the year 1849 prepared by the Hungarian minister of
finance, which shows a revenue of L1,335,000 and an expenditure of
L5,166,000 (including L3,500,000 for warlike purposes), with the
budget of 1905, which shows a revenue of L51,583,000, and an
expenditure of about the same sum. Owing to the amount spent on
railways, the Fiume harbour works and other causes, the Hungarian
budgets after 1867 showed big annual deficits, until in 1888 great
reforms were introduced and the finances of the country were
established on a more solid basis. During the years 1891-1895 the
annual revenue was L42,100,000 and the expenditure L39,000,000; in
1900 the revenue and expenditure balanced themselves at L45,400,000.
The following figures in later years are typical:--

Revenue. Expenditure.

1904 L49,611,200 L49,592,400
1908 57,896,845 57,894,923

The ordinary revenue of the state is derived from direct and indirect
taxation, monopolies, stamp dues, &c. In 1904 direct taxes amounted to
L9,048,000, and the chief heads of direct taxes yielded as follows:
ground tax, L2,317,000; trade tax, L1,879,000; income tax, L1,400,000;
house tax, L1,000,000. Indirect taxes amounted in 1904 to L7,363,000,
and the chief heads of indirect taxation yielded as follows: taxes on
alcoholic drinks, L4,375,000; sugar tax, L1,292,000; petroleum tax,
L418,000; meat tax, L375,000. The principal monopolies yielded as
follows: salt monopoly, L1,210,000; tobacco monopoly, L2,850,000;
lottery monopoly, L105,000. Other revenues yielded as follows: stamp
taxes and dues, L3,632,000; state railways, L3,545,000; post and
telegraphs, L710,000; state landed property and forests, L250,000.

The national debt of Hungary alone, excluding the debt incurred
jointly by both members of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, was
L192,175,000 at the end of 1903. The following table shows the growth
of the total debt, due chiefly to expenditure on public works, in
millions sterling:--

1880. 1890. 1900. 1905.
L83.6 L171.9 L192.8 L198.02

_Religion._--There is in Hungary just as great a variety of religious
confessions as there is of nationalities and of languages. None of
them possesses an overwhelming majority, but perfect equality is
granted to all religious creeds legally recognized. According to the
census returns of 1900 in Hungary proper there were:--

Per Cent. of Population.

Roman Catholics 8,198,497 or 48.69
Uniat Greeks[11] 1,841,272 or 10.93
Greek Orthodox 2,199,195 or 13.06
Evangelicals--
Augsburg confession, or Lutherans 1,258,860 or 7.48
Helvetian confession, or Calvinists 2,427,232 or 14.41
Unitarians 68,551 or 0.41
Jews 831,162 or 4.94
Others 13,486 or 0.08

In many instances nationality and religious faith are conterminous.
Thus the Servians are mostly Greek Orthodox; the Ruthenians are Uniat
Greeks; the Rumanians are either Greek Orthodox or Greek Uniats; the
Slovaks are Lutherans; the only other Lutherans are the Germans in
Transylvania and in the Zsepes county. The Calvinists are composed
mostly of Magyars, so that in the country the Lutherans are designated
as the "German Church," and the Calvinists as the "Hungarian Church."
The Unitarians are all Magyars. Only to the Roman Catholic Church
belong several nationalities. The Roman Catholic Church has 4
archbishops; Esztergom (Gran), Kalocsa, Eger (Erlau) and Zagrab
(Agram), and 17 diocesan bishops; to the latter must be added the
chief abbot of Pannonhalma, who likewise enjoys episcopal rights. The
primate is the archbishop of Esztergom, who also bears the title of
prince, and whose special privilege it is to crown the sovereigns of
Hungary. The Greek Uniat Church owns besides the archbishop of
Esztergom the archbishop of Gyulafehervar (Carlsburg), or rather
Balasfalva (i.e. "the city of Blasius"), and 6 bishops. The Armenian
Uniat Church is partly under the jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic
bishop of Transylvania, and partly under that of the Roman Catholic
archbishop of Kalocsa. The Orthodox Eastern Church in Hungary is
subject to the authority of the metropolitan of Carlowitz and the
archbishop of Nagyszeben (Hermannstadt); under the former are the
bishops of Bacs, Buda, Temesvar, Versecz and Pakracz, and under the
latter the bishops of Arad and Karansebes. The two great Protestant
communities are divided into ecclesiastical districts, five for each;
the heads of these districts bear the title of superintendents. The
Unitarians, chiefly resident in Transylvania, are under the authority
of a bishop, whose see is Kolozsvar (Klausenburg). The Jewish
communities are comprised in ecclesiastical districts, the head
direction being at Budapest.

_Education._--Although great improvements have been effected in the
educational system of the country since 1867, Hungary is still
backward in the matter of general education, as in 1900 only a little
over 50% of the population could read and write. Before 1867 public
instruction was entirely in the hands of the clergy of the various
confessions, as is still the case with the majority of the primary
and secondary schools. One of the first measures of newly established
Hungarian government was to provide supplementary schools of a
non-denominational character. By a law passed in 1868 attendance at
school is obligatory on all children between the ages of 6 and 12
years. The communes or parishes are bound to maintain elementary
schools, and they are entitled to levy an additional tax of 5% on the
state taxes for their maintenance. But the number of state-aided
elementary schools is continually increasing, as the spread of the
Magyar language to the other races through the medium of the
elementary schools is one of the principal concerns of the Hungarian
government, and is vigorously pursued.[12] In 1902 there were in
Hungary 18,729 elementary schools with 32,020 teachers, attended by
2,573,377 pupils, figures which compare favourably with those of 1877,
when there were 15,486 schools with 20,717 teachers, attended by
1,559,636 pupils. In about 61% of these schools the language used was
exclusively Magyar, in about 20% it was mixed, and in the remainder
some non-Magyar language was used. In 1902, 80.56% of the children of
school age actually attended school. Since 1891 infant schools, for
children between the ages of 3 and 6 years, have been maintained
either by the communes or by the state.

The public instruction of Hungary contains three other groups of
educational institutions: middle or secondary schools, "high schools"
and technical schools. The middle schools comprise classical schools
(gymnasia) which are preparatory for the universities and other "high
schools," and modern schools (_Realschulen_) preparatory for the
technical schools. Their course of study is generally eight years, and
they are maintained mostly by the state. The state-maintained gymnasia
are mostly of recent foundation, but some schools maintained by the
various churches have been in existence for three, or sometimes four,
centuries. The number of middle schools in 1902 was 243 with 4705
teachers, attended by 71,788 pupils; in 1880 their number was 185,
attended by 40,747 pupils.

The high schools include the universities, of which Hungary possesses
three, all maintained by the state: at Budapest (founded in 1635), at
Kolozsvar (founded in 1872), and at Zagrab (founded in 1874). They
have four faculties: of theology, law, philosophy and medicine. (The
university at Zagrab is without a faculty of medicine.) There are
besides ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were
attended by 1569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in
1844, which contains four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1772
pupils, is also considered a high school. There were in Hungary in
1900 forty-nine high theological colleges, twenty-nine Roman Catholic;
five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish.
Among special schools the principal mining schools are at
Selmeczbanya, Nagyag and Felsobanya; the principal agricultural
colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvar; and there are a school of
forestry at Selmeczbanya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Deva
and Zagrab, and a naval school at Fiume. There are besides an adequate
number of training institutes for teachers, a great number of schools
of commerce, several art schools--for design, painting, sculpture,
music, &c. Most of these special schools are of recent origin, and are
almost entirely maintained by the state or the communes.

The richest libraries in Hungary are the National Library at Budapest;
the University Library, also at Budapest, and the library of the abbey
of Pannonhalma. Besides the museums mentioned in the article Budapest,
several provincial towns contain interesting museums, namely,
Pressburg, Temesvar, Deva, Kolozsvar, Nagyszeben: further, the
national museum at Zagram, the national (Szekler) museum at
Maros-Vasarhely, and the Carpathian museum at Poprad should be
mentioned.

At the head of the learned and scientific societies stands the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, founded in 1830; the Kisfaludy Society,
the Petofi Society, and numerous societies of specialists, as the
historical, geographical, &c., with their centre at Budapest. There
are besides a number of learned societies in the various provinces for
the fostering of special provincial or national aims. There are also a
number of societies for the propagation of culture, both amongst the
Hungarian and the non-Hungarian nationalities. Worth mentioning are
also the two Carpathian societies: the Hungarian and the
Transylvanian.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und
Bild_ (Vienna, 1879-1889, 15 vols., 12th volume, 1886, deals with
Hungary), _Die osterreichische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna
1888-1902, 24 vols., 7 vols. are devoted to Hungary), _Die Volker
Osterreich-Ungarns_ (Teschen, 1881-1885, 12 vols.); A. Supan,
"Osterreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Landerkunde von
Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalites en
Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Osterreich-ungarisches
Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896); _Hungary, Its People, Places and
Politics. The Journey of the Eighty Club to Hungary in 1906_ (London,
1907); R. W. Seton-Watson ("Scotus Viator"), _Racial Problems in
Hungary_ (London, 1908), a strong indictment of the racial policy of
the Magyars, supported by exact references and many documents, mainly
concerned with the Slovaks; Rene Gonnard, _La Hongrie au XX^e siecle_
(Paris, 1908), an admirable description of the country and its people,
mainly from the point of view of economic development and social
conditions; Geoffrey Drage, _Austria-Hungary_ (London, 1909), a very
useful book of reference; P. Alden (editor), _Hungary of To-day_, by
members of the Hungarian Government (London, 1909); see also "The
Problem of Hungary" in the _Edinburgh Review_ (No. 429) for July 1909.
The various reports of the Central Statistical Office at Budapest
contain all the necessary statistical data. A summary of them is
annually published under the title _Magyar statisztikai Evkonyo_
(_Statistical Year-Book of Hungary_). (O. Br.)