Chapter X: Part 10

_Communications._--During the early period, the settlement of the
northern and central portions of the state was greatly retarded by the
lack of highways or navigable waterways. The Wabash and Erie canal
(1843), which connected Lake Erie with the Ohio river, entering the
state in Allen county, east of Fort Wayne, and following the Wabash
river to Terre Haute and the western fork of the White river from
Worthington, Greene county, to Petersburg, Pike county, whence it ran
south-south-west to Evansville; and the White Water canal from
Hagerstown, Wayne county, mostly along the course of the White Water
river, to Lawrenceburg, on the Ohio river, in the south-eastern corner
of the state, although now abandoned, served an important purpose in
their day. The completion (about 1850) of the National Road, which
traversed the state, still further aided the internal development.
With the beginning of railway construction (about 1847), however, a
new era was opened. Indiana is unusually well served with railways,
which form a veritable network of track in every part of the state. It
is traversed by nearly all the great transcontinental trunk line
systems, and also by important north and south lines. The total
railway mileage in January 1909 was 7286.20 m. There has been a great
development also in interurban electric lines, which have been adapted
both to passenger and to light freight and express traffic; in 1908
there were 31 interurban electric lines within the state with a
mileage of 1500 m. Indianapolis is the centre of this interurban
network. The first trolley sleeping cars were those used on the Ohio
and Indiana interurban railways. The deepening of the channel of the
Wabash river was begun in 1872. Below Vincennes before 1885 boats of
3-ft. draft could navigate the river, but after work was concentrated
in 1885 on the lock at Grand Rapids, near Mt Carmel, Ill., the channel
was soon clogged again, and in 1909 it was impossible for boats with a
greater draft than 20 in. to go from Mt Carmel to Vincennes, although
up to June 1909 about $810,000 had been spent by the Federal
government on improving this river. In 1879 an appropriation was made
for the improvement of the channel of the White river, but no work was
done here between 1895 and 1909, and although the lower 13 m. of the
river was navigable for boats with a draft of 3 ft. or less, there was
practically no traffic up to 1909 on the White, because there was no
outlet for it by the Wabash river.

_Population._--The population of Indiana, according to the Federal Census of 1910, was 2,700,876, and the rank of the state in the Union as regards population was ninth. In 1810, the year following the erection of the western part of Indiana into Illinois Territory, the population was 24,520, in 1820 it had increased to 147,178, in 1850 to 988,416, in 1870 to 1,680,637, in 1890 to 2,192,404, and in 1900 to 2,516,462. In 1900 34.3% was urban, i.e. lived in places of 2500 inhabitants and over. The foreign-born population in the same year amounted to 142,121, or 5.6% of the whole, and the negro population to 57,505, or 2.3%. There were in 1900 five cities with a population of more than 35,000, viz. Indianapolis (169,164), Evansville (59,007), Fort Wayne (45,115), Terre Haute (36,673), and South Bend (35,999). In the same year there were 14 cities with a population of less than 35,000 (all less than 21,000) and more than 10,000; and there were 21 places with a population of less than 10,000 and more than 5000. In 1906 it was estimated that there were 938,405 members of different religious denominations; of this total 233,443 were Methodists (210,593 of the Northern Church), 174,849 were Roman Catholics, 108,188 were Disciples of Christ (and 10,259 members of the Churches of Christ), 92,705 were Baptists (60,203 of the Northern Convention, 13,526 of the National (Colored) Convention, 8132 Primitive Baptists, and 6671 General Baptists), 58,633 were Presbyterians (49,041 of the Northern Church, and 6376 of the Cumberland Church--since united with the Northern), 55,768 were Lutherans (34,028 of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference, 8310 of the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio and other states), 52,700 were United Brethren (48,059 of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ; the others of the "Old Constitution") and 21,624 of the German Evangelical Synod.

_Constitution._--Indiana is governed under a constitution adopted in 1851, which superseded the original state constitution of 1816. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed by either branch of the General Assembly; if a majority of both houses votes in favour of an amendment and it is favourably voted upon by the General Assembly chosen by the next general election, the amendment is submitted to popular vote and a majority vote is necessary for its ratification. The constitution of 1816 had conferred the suffrage upon all "white male citizens of the United States of the age of twenty-one and upward," had prohibited slavery, and had provided that no alteration of the constitution should ever introduce it. The new constitution contained similar suffrage restrictions, and further by Article XIII., which was voted upon separately, prohibited the entrance of negroes or mulattoes into the state and made the encouragement of their immigration or employment an indictable offence. This prohibition was held by the United States Supreme Court in 1866 to be in conflict with the Federal Constitution and therefore null and void. It was not until 1881 that the restriction of the suffrage to "white" males, which was in conflict with the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) to the Federal Constitution, was removed by constitutional amendment. Since that date those who may vote have been all male citizens twenty-one years old and upward who have lived in Indiana six months immediately preceding the election, and every foreign-born male of the requisite age who has lived in the United States one year and in Indiana six months immediately preceding the election, and who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen of the United States; but the General Assembly has the power to deprive of the suffrage any person convicted of an infamous crime. The Australian ballot was adopted in 1889. The general state election (up to 1881, held in October) takes place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of even-numbered years. The governor and lieutenant-governor (minimum age, 30 years) and the clerk of the Supreme Court are chosen in presidential years for a term of four years,[1] the other state officers--secretary of state, attorney-general, auditor, treasurer and superintendent of public instruction--every two years. The state legislature, known as the General Assembly, which meets biennially in odd-numbered years and in special session summoned by the governor, consists of a Senate of fifty members (minimum age, 25 years) elected for four years, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members (minimum age, 21 years) elected for two years. Two-thirds of each house constitute a quorum to do business. The governor has the veto power, but the provision that a bill may be passed over his veto by a majority of all elected members renders it little more than an expression of opinion.

_Law._--The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court of five members elected for districts by the state at large for a term of six years, an appellate court (first constituted in 1891), and a system of circuit and minor criminal and county courts. The system of local government has undergone radical changes in recent years. A law of 1899, aimed to separate the legislative and executive functions, provided for the election of legislative bodies in every township and county. These bodies have control of the local expenditures and tax levies, and without their consent the local administrative officers cannot contract debts. In 1905 a new municipal code, probably the most elaborate and complete local government act in the United States, providing for a uniform system of government in all cities and towns, went into effect. It was constructed on the lines of the Indianapolis city charter, adopted in 1891, and repealed all individual charters and special corporation acts. Its controlling principle is the more complete separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers. For this purpose all cities are divided into five classes according to population, the powers being concentrated and simplified by degrees in the case of the smaller cities, and reaching a maximum of separation and completeness in class 1, i.e. cities of 100,000 and over, which includes only Indianapolis. In all classes the executive officer is a mayor elected for four years and ineligible to succeed himself. There are six administrative departments (the number is often less in cities of the lower classes, where several departments may be combined under one head)--departments of public works, public safety, public health and charities, law, finance, and collection and assessment. There is a city court with elected judge or judges, and an elected common council, which may authorize the municipal ownership of public utilities by ordinance, and can pass legislation over the mayor's veto by a two-thirds vote. Communities under 2500 in population are regarded as towns, and have a separate form of government by a board of trustees.

Until 1908 the state had a prohibition law "by remonstrance," under which if a majority of the legal voters of a township or city ward remonstrated against the granting of licences for the sale of liquor, no licence could be granted by the county commissioners in that township or ward. Under this system 800 out of 1016 townships and more than 30 entire counties were in 1908 without saloons. In 1908, when the Republican party had declared in favour of county option and the Democratic party favoured township and ward option, a special session of the legislature, called by the Republican governor, passed the Cox Bill for county options.

_Education._--Indiana has a well-organized free public school system. Provision was made for such a system in the first state constitution, to utilize the school lands set aside in all the North-West Territory by the Ordinance of 1787, but the existing system is of late growth. The first step toward such a system was a law of 1824 which provided for the election of school trustees in every township and for the erection of school buildings, but made no provision for support. Therefore, before 1850 what schools there were were not free. The constitution of 1851 made further and more complete provisions for a uniform system, and on that basis the general school law of 1852 erected the framework of the existing system. It provided, for the organization of free schools, supported by a property tax, and for county and township control. The movement, however, was retarded in 1858 by a decision of the supreme court holding that under the law of 1852 the system was not "uniform" as provided for by the constitution. In 1865 a new and more satisfactory law was passed, which with supplemental legislation is still in force. Under the existing system supreme administrative control is vested in a state superintendent elected biennially. County superintendents, county boards, and township trustees are also chosen, the latter possessing the important power of issuing school bonds. Teachers' institutes are regularly held, and a state normal school, established in 1870, is maintained at Terre Haute. There are normal schools at Valparaiso, Angola, Marion and Danville, and a Teachers' College at Indianapolis, which are on the state's "accredited" list and belong to the normal school system. In 1897 a compulsory education law was enacted. In 1906-1907 the state school tax was increased from 11.6 cents per $100 to 13.6 cents per $100; an educational standard was provided, coming into effect in August 1908, for public school teachers, in addition to the previous requirement of a written test; a regular system of normal training was authorized; uniform courses were provided for the public high schools; and small township schools with twelve pupils or less were discontinued, and transportation supplied for pupils in such abandoned schools to central school houses. The proportion of illiterates is very small, in 1900, 95.4% of the population (of 10 years old or over) being able to read and write. The total school revenue from state and local sources in 1905 amounted to $10,642,638, or $13.85 per capita of enumeration ($19.34 per capita of enrolment). In 1824 a state college was opened at Bloomington; it was re-chartered in 1838 as the State University. Purdue University (1874) at Lafayette, maintained under state control, received the benefit of the Federal grant under the Morrill Act. Other educational institutions of college rank include Vincennes University (non-sectarian), at Vincennes; Hanover College (1833, Presbyterian), at Hanover; Wabash College (1832, non-sectarian), at Crawfordsville; Franklin College (1837, Baptist), at Franklin; De Pauw University (1837, Methodist Episcopal), at Greencastle; Butler University (1855, Christian), at Indianapolis; Earlham College (1847, Friends), at Richmond; Notre Dame University (1842, Roman Catholic), at Notre Dame; Moore's Hill College (1856, Methodist Episcopal), at Moore's Hill; the University of Indianapolis (non-sectarian), a loosely affiliated series of schools at Indianapolis, centring around Butler University; and Rose Polytechnic Institute (1883, non-sectarian), at Terre Haute.

The charitable and correctional institutions of Indiana are well
administered in accordance with the most improved modern methods, and
form one of the most complete and adequate systems possessed by any
state in the Union. The state was one of the first to establish
schools for the deaf and the blind. Its Institution for the Education
of the Deaf was established in 1844, and its Institution for the
Education of the Blind in 1847, both being in Indianapolis. The first
State Hospital for the Insane was opened in Indianapolis in 1848 and
became the Central Indiana Hospital for the Insane in 1883; other
similar institutions are the Northern Indiana Hospital at Logansport
(1888), the Eastern at Richmond (1890), the Southern at Evansville
(1890), and the South-eastern at North Madison (1905). There are a
Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home at Knightstown (1868), and a
State Soldiers' Home at Lafayette (1896); a School for Feeble-Minded
Youth (1879), removed from Knightstown to Fort Wayne in 1890; a
village for epileptics at New Castle (1907); and a hospital for the
treatment of tuberculosis, authorized in 1907, for which a site at
Rockville was purchased in 1908. There are five state penal and
correctional institutions: the Indiana Boys' School (1868-1883, the
House of Refuge; 1883-1903, the Reform School for Boys), at
Plainfield; the Indiana Girls' School, established at Indianapolis
(1873), and removed to Clermont in 1907; a woman's prison (the first
in the United States, authorized in 1869 and opened in 1873 at
Indianapolis), which is entirely under the control of women (as is
also the Indiana Girls' School) and has a correctional department
(1908), in reality a state workhouse for women, formed with a view to
removing as far as possible sentenced women from the county jails; a
reformatory (1897), at Jeffersonville, conducted upon a modification
of the "Elmira plan," formerly the State Prison (1822), later (1860)
the State Prison South, so called to distinguish it from the State
Prison North (1860) at Michigan City; and the prison at Michigan City,
which became the Indiana State Prison in 1897. The old State Prison at
Jeffersonville was at first conducted on the lease system, but public
opinion compelled the abandonment of that system some years before the
Civil War. The prisoners of the reformatory work under a law providing
for trade schools; the product of the work is sold to the state
institutions and to the civil and political divisions of the state,
the surplus being disposed of on the market. At the State Prison
practically one half the prisoners are employed on contracts. Not more
than 100 may be employed on any one contract, and the day's work is
limited to eight hours. The remainder of the population of the prison
is employed on state account. The policy of indeterminate sentence and
paroles was adopted in 1897 in the two prisons and the reformatory.
Prisoners released upon parole are carefully supervised by state
agents. Indiana has an habitual-criminal law, and a law providing for
the sterilization of mental degenerates, confirmed criminals, and
rapists. There are also an adult probation law and a juvenile court
law, the latter applying to every county in the state. Each of the
state institutions mentioned above is under the control of a separate
bi-partisan board of four members. The whole system of public
charities is under the supervision of a bi-partisan Board of State
Charities (1889), which is appointed by the governor, and to which the
excellent condition of state institutions is largely due. In the
counties there are unsalaried boards of county charities and
correction and county boards of children's guardians, appointed by the
circuit judges. The township trustees, 1016 in number, are ex-officio
overseers of the poor. They dispense official outdoor relief. Nowhere
else have the principles of organized charities in the administration
of public outdoor relief been applied to an entire state. Each county
provides for the indoor care of the poor in poor asylums and
children's homes, and for local prisoners in county jails. Provision
is made for truant, dependent, neglected and delinquent children. No
child can be made a public ward except upon order of the juvenile
court, and all such children may be placed in family homes by agents
of the Board of State Charities.

_Finance._--The total true value of taxable property in the state was,
according to the tax levy of 1907, $1,767,815,487, and the total
taxes, including delinquencies, in the same year amounted to
$38,880,257. The total net receipts for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1908, were $4,771,628, and the total net expenditure
$5,259,002, the cash balance in the treasury for the year ending
September 30, 1907, amounted to $1,096,459, leaving a cash balance on
September 30, 1908, of $609,085. The total state debt on September 30,
1908, was $1,389,615.

_History._--Of the prehistoric inhabitants of Indiana little is known, but extensive remains in the form of mounds and fortifications abound in every part of the state, being particularly numerous in Knox and Sullivan counties. Along the Ohio river are remnants of several interesting stone forts. Upon the earliest arrival of Europeans the state was inhabited chiefly by the various tribes of the Miami Confederacy, a league of Algonquian Indians formed to oppose the advance of the Iroquois. The first Europeans to visit the state were probably French _coureurs des bois_ or Jesuit missionaries. La Salle, the explorer, it is contended, must have passed through parts of Indiana during his journeys of 1669 and the succeeding years. Apparently a French trading post was in existence on the St Joseph river of Michigan about 1672, but it was in no sense a permanent settlement and seems soon to have been abandoned. It seems probable that the Wabash-Maumee portage was known to Father Claude Jean Allouez as early as 1680. When, a few years later, this portage came to be generally used by traders, the necessity of establishing a base on the upper Wabash as a defence against the Carolina and Pennsylvania traders, who had already reached the lower Wabash and incited the Indians to hostility against the French, became evident; but it was not, apparently, until the second decade of the 18th century that any permanent settlement was made. About 1720 a French post was probably established at Ouiatenon (about 5 m. S.W. of the present city of Lafayette), the headquarters of the Wea branch of the Miami, on the upper Wabash. The military post at Vincennes was founded about 1731 by François Margane, Sieur de Vincennes (or Vincent), but it was not until about 1735 that eight French families were settled there. Vincennes, which thus became the first actual white settlement in Indiana, remained the only one until after the War of Independence, although military posts were maintained at Ouiatenon and at the head of the Maumee, the site of the present Fort Wayne, where there was a French trading post (1680) and later Fort Miami. After the fall of Quebec the British took possession of the other forts, but not at once of Vincennes, which remained for several years under the jurisdiction of New Orleans, both under French and Spanish rule. The British garrisons at Ouiatenon and Fort Miami (near the site of the later Fort Wayne) on the Maumee were captured by the Indians as a result of the Pontiac conspiracy. All Indiana was united with Canada by the Quebec Act (1774), but it was not until three years later that the forts and Vincennes were occupied by the British, who then realized the necessity of ensuring possession of the Mississippi Valley to prevent its falling into the hands of the rebellious colonies. Nevertheless, in 1778 Vincennes fell an easy prey to agents sent to occupy it by George Rogers Clark, and although again occupied a few months later by General Henry Hamilton, the lieutenant-governor at Detroit, it passed finally into American control in February 1779 as a result of Clark's remarkable march from Kaskaskia. Fort Miami remained in British hands until the close of the war.

The first American settlement was made at Clarksville, between the present cities of Jeffersonville and New Albany, at the Falls of the Ohio (opposite Louisville), in 1784. The decade following the close of the war was one of ceaseless Indian warfare. The disastrous defeats of General Josiah Harmar (1753-1813) in October 1790 on the Miami river in Ohio, and of Governor Arthur St Clair on the 4th of November 1791 near Fort Recovery, Ohio, were followed in 1792 by the appointment of General Anthony Wayne to the command of the frontier. By him the Indians were signally defeated in the Battle of Fallen Timbers (or Maumee Rapids) on the 20th of August 1794, and Fort Wayne, Indiana, was erected on the Maumee river. On the 3rd of August 1795, at Greenville, Ohio, a treaty was concluded between Wayne and twelve Indian tribes, and a narrow slice of the east-south-eastern part of the present state (the disputed lands in the valley of the Maumee) and various other small but not unimportant tracts were ceded to the United States. Then came several years' respite from Indian war, and settlers began at once to pour into the region. The claims of Virginia (1784) and the other eastern states having been extinguished, a clear field existed for the establishment of Federal jurisdiction in the "Territory North-West of the Ohio," but it was not until 1787 that by the celebrated Ordinance of that year such jurisdiction became an actuality. The North-West Territory was governed by its first governor, Arthur St Clair, until 1799, when it was accorded a representative government. In 1800 it was divided, and from its western part (including the present states of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin, the north-east part of Minnesota, and a large part--from 1803 to 1805 all--of the present state of Michigan) Indiana Territory was erected, with General William Henry Harrison--who had been secretary of the North-West Territory since 1798--as its first governor, and with Vincennes as the seat of government. Harrison made many treaties with the Indians, the most important being that signed at Fort Wayne on the 7th of June 1803, defining the Vincennes tract transferred to the United States by the Treaty of Greenville; those signed at Vincennes on the 18th and the 27th of August 1804, transferring to the United States a strip north of the Ohio river and south of the Vincennes tract; that concluded at Grouseland on the 21st of August 1805, procuring from the Delawares and others a tract along the Ohio river between the parcels of 1795 and 1804; and the treaties of Fort Wayne, signed on the 30th of September 1809, and securing one tract immediately west of that of 1795 and another north of the Vincennes tract defined in 1803. In January 1805 Michigan Territory was erected from the northern part of Indiana Territory, and in July following the first General Assembly of Indiana Territory met at Vincennes. In March 1809 the Territory was again divided, Illinois Territory being established from its western portion; Indiana was then reduced to its present limits. In 1810 began the last great Indian war in Indiana, in which the confederated Indians were led by Tecumseh, the celebrated Shawnee chief; it terminated with their defeat at Tippecanoe (the present Battle Ground) by Governor Harrison on the 7th of November 1811. After the close of the second war with Great Britain, immigration began again to flow rapidly into the Territory, and, having attained a sufficient population, Indiana was admitted to the Union as a state by joint resolution of Congress on the 11th of December 1816. The seat of government was established at Corydon, whither it had been removed from Vincennes in 1813. In 1820 the site of the present Indianapolis was selected for a new capital, but the seat of government was not removed thither until 1825.

The first great political problem presenting itself was that of slavery, and for a decade or more the only party divisions were on pro-slavery and anti-slavery lines. Although the Ordinance of 1787 actually prohibited slavery, it did not abolish that already in existence. Slavery had been introduced by the French, and was readily accepted and perpetuated by the early American settlers, almost all of whom were natives of Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia or the Carolinas. According to the census of 1800 there were 175 slaves in the Territory. The population of settlers from slave states was considerably larger than in Illinois, the proportion being 20% as late as 1850. It was but natural, therefore, that efforts should at once have been made to establish the institution of slavery on Indiana soil, and as early as 1802 a convention called to consider the expediency of slavery asked Congress to suspend the prohibitory clause of the Ordinance for ten years, but a committee of which John Randolph of Virginia was chairman reported against such action. Within the Territory there were several attempts to escape, by means of legislation, the effects of the Ordinance. These efforts consisted in (1) a law regulating the status of "servants," by which it was sought to establish a legal relation between master and slave; (2) a law by which it was sought to establish practical slavery by a system of indenture. By 1808 the opponents of slavery, found chiefly among the Quaker settlers in the south-eastern counties, began to awake to the danger that confronted them, and in 1809 elected their candidate, Jonathan Jennings (1776-1834) to Congress on an anti-slavery platform. In 1810, by which year the number of slaves had increased to 237, the anti-slavery party was strong enough to secure the repeal of the indenture law, which had received the unwilling acquiescence of Governor Harrison. Jennings was re-elected in 1811, and subsequently was chosen first governor of the state on the same issue, and the state constitution of 1816 pronounced strongly against slavery. The liberation of most of the slaves in the eastern counties followed; and some slave-holders removed to Kentucky. In 1830 there were only three slaves in the state, and the danger of the establishment of slavery as an institution on a large scale was long past.

The problem of "internal improvements" came to be of paramount importance in the decade 1820-1830. In 1827 Congress granted land to aid in the construction of a canal to connect Lake Erie and the Ohio river. This canal was completed from the St Joseph river to the Wabash in 1835, opened in 1843, and later abandoned. In 1836 the state legislature passed a law providing for an elaborate system of public improvements, consisting largely of canals and railways. The state issued bonds to the value of $10,000,000, a period of wild speculation followed, and the financial panic of 1837 forced the abandonment of the proposed plan and the sale to private persons of that part already completed. The legislature authorized the issue of $1,500,000 in treasury bonds, which by 1842 had fallen in value to 40 or 50% of their face value. A new constitution was adopted in February 1851 by a vote of 109,319 against 26,755.

Despite its large Southern population, Indiana's answer to President Lincoln's first call for volunteers at the outbreak of the Civil War was prompt and spirited. From first to last the state furnished 208,000 officers and men for the Union armies, besides a home legion of some 50,000, organized to protect the state against possible invasion. The efficiency of the state military organization, as well as that of the civil administration during the trying years of the war, was largely due to the extraordinary ability and energy of Governor Oliver P. Morton, one of the greatest of the "war governors" of the North. The problems met and solved by Governor Morton, however, were not only the comparatively simple ones of furnishing troops as required. The legislature of 1863 and the state officers were opposed to him politically, and did everything in their power to thwart him and deprive him of his control of the militia. The Republican members seceded, legislative appropriations were blocked, and Governor Morton was compelled to take the extraconstitutional step of arranging with a New York banking house for the payment of the interest on the state debt, of borrowing money for state expenditure on his own responsibility, and of constituting an unofficial financial bureau, which disbursed money in disregard of the state officers. Furthermore Indiana was the principal centre of activity of the disloyal association known as the Knights of the Golden Circle, or Sons of Liberty, which found a ready growth among the large Southern population. Prominent among Southern sympathisers was Senator Jesse D. Bright (1812-1875), who on the 5th of February 1862 was expelled from the United States Senate for writing a letter addressed to Jefferson Davis, as President of the Confederacy, in which he recommended a friend who had an improvement in fire-arms to dispose of. The Knights of the Golden Circle at first confined their activities to the encouragement of desertion, and resistance to the draft, but in 1864 a plot to overthrow the state government was discovered, and Governor Morton's prompt action resulted in the seizure of a large quantity of arms and ammunition, and the arrest, trial and conviction of several of the leaders. In June 1863 the state was invaded by Confederate cavalry under General John H. Morgan, but most of his men were captured in Indiana and he was taken in Ohio. There were other attempts at invasion, but the expected rising, on which the invaders had counted, did not take place, and in every case the home legion was able to capture or drive out the hostile bands.

Politically Indiana has been rather evenly divided between the great political parties. Before the Civil War, except when William Henry Harrison was a candidate for the presidency, its electoral vote was generally given to the Democratic party, to which also most of its governors belonged. After the war the control of the state alternated with considerable regularity between the Republican and Democratic parties, until 1896, between which time and 1904 the former were continuously successful. In 1908 a Democratic governor was elected, but Republican presidential electors were chosen.

GOVERNORS OF INDIANA

_Territorial._

Arthur St Clair (North-West Territory) 1787-1800
John Gibson, Territorial Secretary (acting) 1800-1801
William Henry Harrison 1801-1812
John Gibson, Territorial Secretary (acting) 1812-1813
Thomas Posey 1813-1816

_State._

Jonathan Jennings 1816-1822 Democratic-
Republican
Ratliff Boone (acting) 1822 "
William Hendricks 1822-1825 "
James B. Ray, President of Senate (acting) 1825 "
James B. Ray 1825-1831 "
Noah Noble 1831-1837 "
David Wallace 1837-1840 Whig
Samuel Bigger 1840-1843 "
James Whitcomb 1843-1848 Democrat
Paris C. Dunning, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1848-1849 "
Joseph A. Wright 1849-1857 "
Ashbel P. Willard 1857-1860 "
Abram A. Hammond, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1860-1861 "
Henry S. Lane 1861 Republican
Oliver P. Morton, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1861-1865 "
Oliver P. Morton 1865-1867 "
Conrad Baker, Lt-Gov. (acting) 1867-1869 "
Conrad Baker 1869-1873 "
Thomas A. Hendricks 1873-1877 Democrat
James D. Williams 1877-1880 "
Isaac P. Gray, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1880-1881 "
Albert G. Porter 1881-1885 Republican
Isaac P. Gray 1885-1889 Democrat
Alvin P. Hovey 1889-1891 Republican
Ira J. Chase, Lt.-Gov. (acting) 1891-1893 "
Claude Matthews 1893-1897 Democrat
James A. Mount 1897-1901 Republican
Winfield T. Durbin 1901-1905 "
J. Frank Hanly 1905-1909 "
Thomas R. Marshall 1909- Democrat

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is a bibliography of Indiana history, by Isaac S.
Bradley, in the _Proceedings_ of the Wisconsin State Historical
Society for 1897. The _History of Indiana_ by William Henry Smith (2
vols., Indianapolis, 1897) is the best general account of Indiana
history and institutions. J. B. Dillon's _History of Indiana_
(Indianapolis, 1859) is the most authoritative account of the early
history to 1816. J. P. Dunn's _Indiana, a Redemption from Slavery_
(Boston, 1888) in the "American Commonwealth" series, as its secondary
title indicates, is devoted principally to the struggle over the
provision in the Ordinance of 1787 prohibiting slavery. For the Civil
War period consult J. A. Woodburn, "Party Politics in Indiana during
the Civil War" in _Annual Report of the American Historical
Association_ (Washington, 1902); W. H. H. Terrell, "Indiana in the War
of the Rebellion" (Official _Report_ of the Adjutant-General
Indianapolis, 1869); and E. B. Pitman, _Trials for Treason at
Indianapolis_ (Indianapolis, 1865). See also De W. C. Goodrich and C.
R. Tuttle, _Illustrated History of the State of Indiana_ (Chicago,
1875); the same, revised and enlarged by W. S. Haymond (Indianapolis,
1879); O. H. Smith, _Early Indiana Trials and Sketches_ (Indianapolis,
1858); and Nathaniel Bolton, "Early History of Indianapolis and
Central Indiana," in Indiana Historical Society _Publications_, No. 5.
"The Executive Journal of Indiana Territory" has been reprinted in the
Indiana Historical Society's _Publications_, vol. iii., 1900. For
government and administration see E. L. Hendricks, _History and
Government of Indiana_ (New York, 1908), _The Legislative and State
Manual of Indiana_ (Indianapolis, published biennially by the State
librarian), _Constitutions of 1816 and 1851 of the State of Indiana
with Amendments_ (Indianapolis, 1897), _School Law of Indiana, with
Annotations_ (Indianapolis, 1904), and Wm. A. Rawles, _Centralizing
Tendencies in the Administration of Indiana_ (New York and London,
1903), Columbia Univ. Press. "The New Municipal Code of Indiana" is
explained in an article by H. O. Stechhan in the _Forum_
(October-December, 1905). For education see Fassett A. Cotton's
_Education in Indiana_ (Indianapolis, 1905), and James A. Woodburn,
_Higher Education in Indiana_ (Washington, 1891), U.S. Documents,
Bureau of Education, Circulars of Information, No. 1. For resources,
industries, &c., consult the _Reports of the Chief of the Bureau of
Statistics of Indiana_ (biennial, Indianapolis, 1886 to date), _Annual
Report of the Department of Geology and Natural Resources_
(Indianapolis, 1869 to date), and _Reports of the State Agricultural
Society_. See also the _Reports_ of the Twelfth Federal Census for
detailed statistical matter as to production, industries and
population.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] No man can serve as governor for more than four years in any
period of eight years.

INDIANAPOLIS, the capital and largest city of Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the W. fork of the White river, in Marion county, of which it is the county-seat, and at almost the exact geographical centre of the state. It is 824 m. W. of New York by rail, and 183 m. S.E. of Chicago, and is about 710 ft. above sea-level, and about 138 ft. above Lake Erie. Its area is 30.77 sq. m., of which 29.95 sq. m. is land. Pop. (1880) 75,074; (1890) 105,436; (1900) 169,164, of whom 17,122 were foreign-born (8362 being by birth German, 3765 Irish, and 1154 English) and 15,931 were negroes; (1910 census) 233,650. Indianapolis is near the centre of population of the United States. From 1847, when the first railway entered the city, Indianapolis has steadily grown in importance as a railway centre. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central System), the Lake Erie & Western (New York Central System), the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania System) and the Vandalia (Pennsylvania System) railways. At the Union Station more than 150 trains enter and depart daily, carrying more than 30,000 passengers. Outside the city there is a "belt line," 15½ m. long, connecting the several railways and carrying more than 1,000,000 freight cars annually; and an extensive electric street railway system, with more than 150 m. of track and with interurban connexions, serves every part of the city and its suburbs. The city has a large traction terminal station, and is the principal centre for the interurban electric lines of Indiana, which handle freight as well as passengers; in 1908 twenty-five interurban electric lines entered the city and operated about 400 cars every 24 hours.

Physically Indianapolis is one of the most attractive inland cities in America. It is built on a level plain surrounded by low, gently sloping and beautifully wooded hills. Four principal avenues radiate from points near a central circle to the four corners of the city. The other streets run at right angles to one another. Streets and avenues are 90 ft. wide, except Washington Street, which has a width of 120 ft. An excellent system of parks--8 within the city with an aggregate area of 1311 acres, and 3 with an aggregate area of 310 acres just outside the city limits--adds to the beauty of the city, among the most attractive being the Riverside, the St Clair, the University, the Military, the Fair View, the Garfield and the Brookside. The city is lighted by gas and electricity,--it was one of the first cities in the United States to adopt electric lighting,--and has a good water-supply system, owned by a private corporation, with a 4½ acre filter plant of 18,000,000 gallons _per diem_ capacity and an additional supply of water pumped from deep wells outside the city. The public buildings and business blocks are built mostly of Indiana building stone. The state capitol stands in a square 8 acres in extent, and has a central tower and dome 240 ft. high. It covers 2 acres of ground and cost $2,000,000. The Marion county court-house cost $1,750,000. Other noteworthy buildings are the Federal building (containing post-office, custom-house and Federal court-rooms; erected at a cost of $3,000,000); Tomlinson Hall, capable of seating 3000 persons, given to the city by Daniel Tomlinson; the Propylaeum, a club-house for women; the Commercial club; Das Deutsche Haus, belonging to a German social club; the Maennerchor club-house; the Union railway station; the traction terminal building; the city hall, and the public library. Near the city is the important United States army post, Fort Benjamin Harrison, named in honour of President Benjamin Harrison, whose home was in Indianapolis. In or near the city are the Central Indiana Hospital for the Insane, the Indiana Institution for the Education of the Blind, the Indiana Institution for the Education of the Deaf, the Indiana Girls' School (included with the Women's prison until 1899, and under the same management as the prison from 1899 to 1903, when it became a separate institution,--it was removed to Clermont, 10 m. from Indianapolis, in 1907), and a Women's prison (opened in 1873, the first in the United States), which is under female management. The public library, founded in 1871, contains more than 100,000 volumes. There are ten other libraries, the most important of which are the state law library (about 40,000 volumes) and the state library (about 46,000 volumes).

The city is an educational centre of considerable importance. The university of Indianapolis (1896) is a loose association of three really independent institutions--the Indiana Law School (1894), the Indiana Dental College (1879), and Butler University (chartered in 1849 and opened in 1855 as the North-western Christian University, and named Butler University in 1877 in honour of Ovid Butler, a benefactor). Other educational institutions are the Indianapolis College of Law (1897), the Indiana Medical College (the School of Medicine of Purdue University, formed in 1905 by the consolidation of the Medical College of Indiana, the Central College of Physicians and Surgeons and the Fort Wayne College of Medicine), the State College of Physicians and Surgeons (the medical school of Indiana University), the Indiana Veterinary College (1892), the Indianapolis Normal School, the Indiana Kindergarten and Primary Normal Training School (private), and the Winona Technical Institute. The last named was opened in 1904, and is controlled by the Winona Lake corporation, having official connexion with several national trade unions. It has departments of pharmacy, chemistry, electrical wiring, lithography, house-painting, printing, carpentry, moulding, tile-setting, bricklaying, machinery and applied science. The art association of Indianapolis was founded in 1883; and under its auspices is conducted an art school (1902) in accordance with the bequest of John Herron (1817-1895), the school and museum of the association being housed in the John Herron Art Institute, dedicated in 1906.

The city has several fine monuments, among which are statues of Oliver P. Morton, George Rogers Clark, William Henry Harrison, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas A. Hendricks and Major-General Henry W. Lawton. The Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, erected by the state, stands in the circle in the centre of the city, rises to a height of 284.5 ft. above the street level, and is surmounted by a statue of Victory 38 ft. high. On the east and west faces of the base are two great stone groups of Peace and War respectively. The monument was erected after designs by Bruno Schmidt of Berlin, with fountains at the base said to be among the largest in the world, their capacity being 20,000 gallons per minute.

The city's central geographical position, its extensive railway connexions, and its proximity to important coal-fields have combined to make it one of the principal industrial centres of the Middle West. The value of its "factory" products was 17.6% of the state's total in 1900 and 20.9% of the total in 1905. The increase in the value of the "factory" product between 1900 and 1905 was from $59,322,234 to $82,227,950, or 38.6%. Indianapolis is the principal live stock centre of the Ohio Valley, and has extensive stock-yards covering more than 100 acres. Slaughtering and meat-packing is the most important industry, the value of the product amounting to $24,458,810 in 1905; this industry dates from about 1835. Among other important manufactures are foundry and machine shop products ($6,944,392 in 1905); flour and grist-mill products ($4,428,664); cars and shop construction and repairs by steam railways ($2,502,789); saws; waggons and carriages ($2,049,207); printing and publishing (book and job, $1,572,688; and newspapers and periodicals, $2,715,666); starch; cotton and woollen goods; furniture ($2,528,238); canned goods ($1,693,818); lumber and timber ($1,556,466); structural iron work ($1,541,732); beer ($1,300,764); and planing-mill products, sash, doors and blinds ($1,111,264).

Indianapolis is governed under a form of government adopted originally in a special charter of 1891 and in 1905 incorporated in the new state municipal code, which was based upon it, It provides for a mayor elected every four years, a single legislative chamber, a common council, and various administrative departments--of public safety, public health, &c. The guiding principle of the charter, which is generally accepted as a model of its kind, is that of the complete separation of powers and the absolute placing of responsibility.

On the admission of Indiana as a state, Congress gave to it four sections of public land as a site on which to establish a state capital. This was located in 1820 in almost the exact geographical centre of the state, where a small settlement had recently been made, and the town of Indianapolis was laid out in the following year. It was then in the midst of dense forests and was wholly unconnected by roads with other parts of the state. Upon its final acceptance as the capital, there was some activity in land speculation, but Indianapolis had only 600 inhabitants and a single street when the seat of government was removed thither in 1824. The legislature met here for the first time in 1825. Some impetus was given to the city's growth by the completion of the National Road, and later by the opening of railways, but until after the Civil War its advancement was slow. It was incorporated as a town in 1832, its population then being 1000. The first state capitol was completed in 1836. Indianapolis suffered severely from the business panic of 1837, and ten years later, when it received its first city charter, it had only about 6000 inhabitants; in the same year a free public school system was inaugurated.

AUTHORITIES.--B. R. Sulgrove, _History of Indianapolis and Marion
County_ (Philadelphia, 1884); M. R. Hyman, _Handbook of Indianapolis_
(Indianapolis, 1907); Nathaniel Bolton, "Early History of Indianapolis
and Central Indiana" (Indiana Historical Society's _Publications_, No.
5, 1897); W. R. Holloway, _Indianapolis, a Historical and Statistical
Sketch_ (Indianapolis, 1870); the Indianapolis Board of Trade's
_Report on the Industries of Indianapolis_ (1889); _Civic Studies of
Indianapolis_ (Indianapolis, 1907 seq.), edited by Arthur W. Dunne;
and P. S. Heath's sketch of Indianapolis in L. P. Powell's _Historic
Towns of the Western States_ (New York, 1901).

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. The development of architectural art in India is of the highest interest for the history of the subject; and whatever may be our estimate of its aesthetic qualities, we can hardly fail to realize that Indian builders attained with marked success the aims they had before them, though they employed arrangements and adopted forms and details very different from those of western builders in ancient and medieval times. These forms and adaptations, of course, require study properly to understand them, and to recognize the adjustment of the designs to their purposes. But besides the scientific advantages of such a study, it has been well remarked by Fergusson, to whose genius the history of Indian architecture is so specially due as its creator, that "it will undoubtedly be conceded by those who are familiar with the subject that, for certain qualities, the Indian buildings are unrivalled. They display an exuberance of fancy, a lavishness of labour, and an elaboration of detail to be found nowhere else." Besides, if anywhere the history of a country is imprinted in its architecture, it is in India that it throws the most continuous, distinct and varied light on that history.

In the early architecture of India, as in that of Burma, China and Japan till the present day, wood was solely or almost solely employed; and it was only about the 3rd century B.C. that stone became largely used as the material for important structures; if brick or stone were in use previously, it was only for foundations and engineering purposes. Even at the end of the 4th century B.C. Megasthenes states that Pataliputra, the capital of Chandragupta--the Sandrokottos of Greek writers--was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced with loop-holes for the discharge of arrows." And if the capital were defended by such palisading, we may fairly infer that the architecture of the time was wholly wooden. On the Sanchi gateways, brick walls are indeed represented, but apparently only as fences or limits with serrated copings, but not in architectural structures. And at whatever date stone came to be introduced, the Hindus continued and repeated the forms they had employed in the earlier material, and preserved their own style, so that it bore witness to the general antecedent use of wood. Hence we are able to trace its conversion into lithic forms until finally its origin disappears in its absorption in later styles.

India possesses no historical work to afford us a landmark previous to the invasion of Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C., nor do we know of an architectural monument of earlier date. For later periods there are fortunately a few examples dated by inscriptions, and for others by applying the scientific principles developed by Thomas Rickman for the discrimination of other styles and the relative ages of architectural works, we are enabled to arrange the monuments of India approximately in chronological sequence or order of succession.

The invasion of Alexander and the westward spread of Buddhism brought India into contact with Persia, where the Achaemenian kings had hewn out mausolea in the rocks, and built palaces with stone basements, doorways and pillars, filling in the walls with bricks. These works would attract the attention of Indian visitors--ambassadors, missionaries and merchants; and the report of such magnificent works would lead to their imitation.

About the middle of the 3rd century B.C. we find the great Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, in communication with the contemporary kings of Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Epirus and Cyrene; and to his reign belong the great stone pillars, with capitals of Persian type, that are engraved with his religious edicts. A convert to Buddhism, Asoka is credited with the construction all over the country of vast numbers of stupas--monumental structures enshrining relics of Sakyamuni Buddha or other Buddhist saints; and with them were erected monasteries and chapels for the monks.

On the monumental pillars, known as lats, set up by this emperor, besides the Persepolitan form of capital, we find the honeysuckle with the bead and reel and the cable ornaments that were employed in earlier Persian carvings; and though not continued later in India proper, these prevailed in use in Afghanistan for some centuries after the Christian era. This seems to indicate that these forms first came from Persia along with the ideas that led to the change of wooden architecture for that of stone.

The stupas were structures that may be regarded as conventional architectural substitutes for funeral tumuli, and were constructed to enshrine relics of Buddha or of his more notable disciples, or even to mark the scene of notable events in the tradition of his life. How relic-worship originated and came to hold so large a place in the Buddhist cult we can hardly conjecture: the sentiment could not have arisen for the first time on the death of Gotama Buddha, when, we are told, eight stupas were built over his corporeal relics, a ninth over the vessel with which they were divided, and a tenth over the charcoal of the funeral pile.

These stupas, known as dagabas in Ceylon, and chaityas in Nepal, are called _topes_ in the ordinary patois of upper India. They consisted of a low circular drum supporting a hemispherical dome of less diameter and leaving a ramp or berme round it of a few feet in width. Round the drum was an open passage for circumambulation, and the whole was enclosed by a massive stone railing with lofty gates on four sides. These railings and gateways are their principal architectural features; the rails are constructed as closely as possible after wooden patterns, and examples are still found at Sanchi and Buddh-Gaya[1]; what remained of the Bharahat stupa was transferred to the Calcutta Museum, and portions of the Amravati rail are now in the British and Madras museums. The uprights and cross bars of the rails were in many cases covered with elaborate carvings of scenes of the most varied kinds, and are illustrative of manners and customs as well as of the art of sculpture.

FIG. 8.--SANCHI NORTH GATEWAY.

_Photo, F. Frith & Co._

FIG. 9.--THE KUTB MINAR NEAR DELHI.

_Photo lent by the India Office._

FIG. 10.--SHER SHAH'S MOSQUE AT DELHI.]

FIG. 11.--GREAT TEMPLE AT HALEBID.

FIG. 12.--ROOF OF DOME OF VIMALA'S TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.

(_From Photographs kindly lent by the India Office._)]

The great stupa at Sanchi in Bhopal is now the most entire of the class, as it still retains the gateways--styled _torans_--which must have been a feature of all stupas, though perhaps mostly in wood (see Plate I. fig. 8). The whole of the superstructure of the Sanchi examples is essentially wooden in character, and we are astonished that it should have stood "for twenty centuries nearly uninjured." These torans reappear to this day in Japan as _tori-i_ and in China as _p'ai-lus_ or _p'ai-fangs_. The whole of the surfaces, inside and out, are carved with elaborate sculptures of much interest. A cast of the eastern toran from Sanchi is to be seen in the museums at S. Kensington, Edinburgh, Dublin, Paris and Berlin. On the southern one, an inscription appears to indicate that it was erected about 150 B.C.

The earlier cave temples are of about the same age as the stupas; some of those in Behar bear inscriptions of Asoka and of his successor in the 2nd century B.C. And the earlier cave façades in western India indicate the identity of style and construction in the patterns from which both must have been copied. These Buddhist rock excavations are of two types: the chaitya or chapel caves, with vaulted roofs of considerable height, the earliest with wooden fronts and later with a screen wall left in the rock, but in both forms with a large horse-shoe shaped window over the entrance. The interior usually consisted of a nave, separated from the side aisles by pillars, and containing a chaitya or small stupa at the inner and circular end. The façades of these chaitya chapels were covered with sculpture--some of them very richly; and to protect them from the weather a screen was contrived and cut in the rock in front of the façade, with large windows in the upper half for the entrance of light. This mode of lighting by a great arch over the entrance has attracted considerable attention, as being admirably adapted for its purpose. As Fergusson remarked, "nothing invented before or since is lighted so perfectly, and the disposition of the parts or interior for an assembly of the faithful ... is what the Christians nearly reached in after-times but never quite equalled."