Chapter XIX: Part 19

_Algonkian and Iroquoian._--Southward, along the Atlantic coast, the
period of actual settlement by the whites in large numbers was
preceded by numerous conflicts with the Algonkian Indians in which all
too often the whites (adventurers, fishermen, &c.) were principally at
fault, the natives being sometimes carried off as slaves to Spain and
elsewhere in Europe. When Champlain, very shortly after the founding
of Quebec, decided to help his Algonkian neighbours against their
Iroquoian enemies, an alliance was entered upon which had much to do
with the final defeat of France in North America. The battle fought
and won by Champlain near Ticonderoga in 1609 made the Iroquois the
lasting antagonists of the French, and, since the former held a large
portion of what is now the state of New York, the latter were
effectually prevented from annihilating or destroying the English
colonies to the south. The Iroquois alliance with the English in New
York was preceded by one with the Dutch. Another result of the feud
between the Iroquois and the French was the destruction of the
confederacy of the Hurons, themselves a people of Iroquoian stock,
established in the region between Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, over
a large portion of what is now the province of Ontario, although the
antagonism between Hurons and Iroquois had existed even before the
coming of Cartier and the inevitable conflict had already begun. As an
outcome of Champlain's visit to the country of the Hurons in 1615 the
Jesuit missionaries had established themselves among these Indians and
for thirty-five years laboured with a devotion and sacrifice almost
unparalleled in the history of the continent. The struggle ended in
the campaign of 1648-1649, in which the Iroquois destroyed the Huron
settlements and practically exterminated the people, the French
priests in many cases having suffered martyrdom in the most cruel
fashion at the hands of the savage conquerors. Such of the Hurons as
succeeded in escaping took refuge in some of the safer French
settlements or found shelter among friendly Indian tribes farther
west. Some of these refugees have their descendants among the Hurons
of Lorette to-day and among the Wyandots of Oklahoma. The _Tionontati_
(Tobacco Nation) Hurons continued the struggle for some time longer, a
battle being fought in 1659 on the Ottawa above Montreal, in which the
Iroquois were victorious and the Huron chief slain. As late as
1747-1748 some of the Hurons, who had taken refuge in the west, under
Orontony, a wily and unscrupulous chief, who was offended at certain
actions of the French, entered into a conspiracy with many Algonkian
tribes of the region to destroy the French posts at Detroit, &c.,
which, however, proved unsuccessful, the plot being revealed through
the treachery of a Huron woman. A notable event in the French-Iroquois
wars was the attack on Montreal in 1689. After the coming of Frontenac
as governor of Canada the wars between the French and English involved
some of the Indian tribes more and more, on one side or the other, the
_Mohawks_ especially, who took part against the French, being famous
for their raids from the region of Ohio to far into New Brunswick.
During the French war and the American War of Independence the
Algonkian and Iroquoian Indians serving on both sides were in part or
wholly responsible for numerous massacres and other acts of barbarity,
though the whites sometimes showed themselves fully the equals of the
savages they condemned.

In New England the most notable conflicts were "the _Pequot_ war" of
1637-1638 and "King Philip's war" of 1675-1676, the latter resulting
in the overthrow of a powerful confederacy, which at one time
threatened the very existence of the colony, and the practical
extermination of the Indians concerned, after great havoc had been
wrought by them in the white settlements. New England also suffered
much from Indian "wars" instigated by the French, and at Caughnawaga
and other Iroquois settlements in French Canada there is much white
blood resulting from the adoption of captives taken away (e.g. at
Marlboro and Deerfield, Mass., in 1703-1704) in raids on New England
villages. Celebrated in the annals of war are the Algonkian chiefs
Tecumseh (Shawnee), who aided the British in the war of 1812, and
Pontiac (Ottawa), whose remarkable conspiracy of 1763 has been studied
by Parkman; of noted Iroquoian chiefs and warriors may be mentioned
Joseph Brant, who fought for the British in the War of Independence,
and Logan, ill-famed for his barbarities perpetrated against the
border settlements on the Ohio, 1775-1780, &c.

In Virginia the future of the English colony was not absolutely
assured much before 1620. From the founding of Jamestown in 1607 until
about 1616 the colony was in more or less danger of extinction by
starvation or destruction at the hands of the Indians. The most famous
and romantic of the Indian wars of Virginia was that in which Captain
John Smith was concerned in the days of Powhatan and Opechancanough,
when his rescue by Pocahontas is said to have taken place. Under
Opechancanough massacres of the English settlers took place in 1622
and 1644 in particular, while intermittent hostilities continued
between these dates, many hundreds of whites being slain by the
Powhatan Indians and their confederates of Algonkian stock. As a
result of wars with the English and also with other Indian tribes,
many of the Algonkian peoples of Virginia, like some of the Iroquoian
peoples farther south, were by the end of the 17th century greatly
reduced in numbers. In the Carolinian region the Iroquoian _Cherokee_
warred against the English colonists from 1759 until the War of
Independence, and continued their struggle then against the Americans
until 1794. After their forcible removal west of the Mississippi in
1838-1839 no serious hostilities occurred, with the exception of a
conflict between the whites and a portion of the Cherokee, who had
earlier moved into eastern Texas while that state was under the
Mexican régime. The _Tuscarora_ were in frequent conflict with the
English, particularly in the "Tuscarora war" of 1713-14.

Of Algonkian tribes farther west the _Cheyenne_ began conflicts with
the whites about 1840, made their first incursion into Mexico in 1853,
and between 1860 and 1878-1879, according to Mooney, "they were
prominent in border warfare ... and have probably lost more in
conflict with the whites than any other tribe of the plains in
proportion to their number." They participated in the "Sitting Bull
war" of 1876.

The _Chippewa_ of the north-western United States in the latter half
of the 18th century and till the close of the war of 1812 kept up
warfare with the border settlements, but have been generally peaceful
since 1815, when a treaty was made. The only serious outbreak among
the _Cree_, who have been generally friendly to the whites from the
period of first contact, occurred during the Riel "rebellion" of 1885,
but was soon settled. In the latter part of the 18th century (up to
the treaty of Greenville, 1795) the _Delawares_ took a prominent part
in opposing the advance of the whites. The _Kickapoos_ were concerned
in the Indian plot to destroy the fort at Detroit in 1712, and a
hundred years later they aided the English against the Americans; in
1832 numbers of them helped Black Hawk in his war against the whites.
The _Micmac_ were long hostile to the English, being prominent as aids
to the French in the New England wars, and it was not until about 1779
or long after the French cession that conflicts between these Indians
and the whites came to an end. The _Mississaguas_ fought with the
Iroquois against the French about 1750, having soon become friendly
with the English and remaining so. The _Ottawa_ were prominent in the
wars of the region about Detroit from 1750 till 1815. Pontiac, whose
"conspiracy" of 1763 is noted in American history, was an Ottawa
chief. The _Penobscot_, as friends of the French, continued their
attacks on the English settlements till about 1750. The _Sacs_ and
_Foxes_ appear early in the 18th century as antagonists of the French
(a rare thing among Algonkian peoples) and they were the instigators
of the nearly successful attack on Detroit in 1712. In the war of 1812
most of these Indians sided with the British. Black Hawk, the chief
figure in the "war" of 1831-1832, was a Sac and Fox chief, who
endeavoured to engage all the Indian tribes of the region in a general
alliance against the whites. The _Shawnees_ were prominent in the
border warfare of the Ohio region, and their famous chief Tecumseh
fought for the British in the war of 1812.

_Athabaskan._--The Athabaskan tribes of the far north, with the
exception of occasional disputes with the traders and settlers, have
generally been of a peaceful disposition, and "wars" with the whites
have not been recorded to any extent. The warlike members of this
stock have been the Apache and the Navaho. The Apache from the middle
of the 16th century have given evidence of their instinct for raids
and depredations on the frontiers of civilization. In recent times the
most noteworthy outbreaks were those under Cochise, Victorio,
Geronimo, Nana, Nakaidoklini, &c., between 1870 and 1886, in which
several hundred whites in Mexico and New Mexico were killed and much
property destroyed. As late as 1900 some of the hostile Apaches, who
had escaped to the mountains, made a raid on the Mormon settlers in
Chihuahua, Mexico. The Navaho, when New Mexico passed into the
possession of the United States in 1849, had long been in the habit of
committing depredations upon the white settlements and the Pueblos.
These "wars" continued till 1863, when "Kit" Carson completely
defeated them and the greater part of the tribe were made prisoners.
Since their release in 1867 they have thriven in peace, although
occasionally serious trouble has threatened, as, e.g., in November
1905.

_Caddoan._--The _Caddo_ proper were friendly to the French and helped
them against the Spaniards in the wars of the 18th century. After the
annexation of Texas the Indians were badly treated and some of them
made answer in kind; in 1855 a massacre of the Indians was proposed by
the whites. Since their forced march to Oklahoma in 1859 they have
been at peace. The _Arikara_ had a brief conflict with the United
States authorities in 1823, as a result of the killing of some
traders. In the wars of the 18th century the _Kichai_ adhered to the
cause of the French. The _Pawnee_ seem never to have warred against
the United States, in spite of much provocation at times.

_Californian Stocks._--Such "wars" as are recorded, for the most part
between the minor Californian stocks and the whites, have been largely
directly or indirectly instigated by the latter for various purposes
of gain. The Lutuamian stock is remarkable as furnishing both the
_Klamath_, who have always kept peace with the whites, and the
_Modoc_, who are well known through the "Modoc war" of 1872-73 under
the leadership of their chief, Kintpuash or "Captain Jack."

_Kiowan._--The Indians of the Kiowan stock joined with the Comanche,
Apache, &c., in the border wars in Texas and Mexico, and, according to
Mooney, "among all the prairie tribes they were noted as the most
predatory and bloodthirsty, and have probably killed more white men in
proportion to their numbers than any other." They have been on their
present reservation since 1868, and the only outbreak of importance
latterly occurred in 1874-75, when they joined with the Comanche,
Cheyenne, &c.

_Muskogian._--This stock has furnished some of the most warlike
Indians of the continent. The _Chickasaw_ were friendly to the
English, or rather hostile to the French, in the 18th century (war of
1736-40), and their action practically settled the question of the
extension of French power in this region. The _Choctaw_ aided the
French in the wars of the 18th century, and a few Indians of this
tribe participated in the "Creek War" of 1813-14. The _Creeks_ or
_Muskogees_ are famous on account of the terrible war of 1813-14 in
which they sustained overwhelming defeat. Earlier they were hostile to
the Spaniards in Florida, and during the 18th century were generally
friendly to the English, particularly in the "Apalachee war" of
1703-08, when they served under Governor Moore of Carolina. Another
Muskogian people, the _Seminole_, are remembered for the long and
bloody "Seminole War" in Florida, 1835-45, in which many atrocities
were committed.

_Sahaptian._--The Indians of this stock have been generally very
friendly to the whites, and the only notable "war" occurred in 1877,
when the _Nez Percés_, under their famous chief, Joseph, resisted
being confined to their reservation in Idaho. Joseph displayed
wonderful generalship; he defeated the American troops several times,
and finally executed a most remarkable retreat, over 1000 m., in an
attempt to reach Canadian territory. This was foiled within a short
distance of the boundary, and the entire force surrendered to Colonel
Miles on October 5, 1877.

_Shoshonian._--North of Mexico this great stock has developed several
warlike peoples. Trouble with the _Bannock_ occurred in 1877-78,
resulting from the encroachment of the whites at the time of the Nez
Percés war, the killing of several settlers, scarcity of food, &c. The
outbreak was ended by a campaign under General Howard in which many
Indians, men, women and children, were killed and some one thousand
taken prisoners. The _Comanche_, through a long period of more than
150 years after the Spanish occupation, kept up a continual series of
raids and depredations upon the settlements of the whites in Mexico,
&c. Their general friendly attitude towards Americans in later years
did not extend to the Texans, with whom for more than thirty years
they indulged in savage warfare. They often entered into warlike
alliance with the Apache, the Kiowa, &c. After the outbreak of 1874-75
they settled down for good. The leader in this "war" was Quana Parker,
a half-blood Comanche, who, after the matter was settled, accepted
broadly the new order of things and became "the most prominent and
influential figure among the three confederated tribes" (Mooney). The
_Paiute_, _Shoshonees_ (_Snakes_) and _Utes_ have figured in several
more or less temporary outbreaks since 1865.

_Siouan._--This great stock has had its celebrated antagonists of the
whites as well as its famous combatants of other Indian tribes. The
_Dakota_ (or _Sioux_) were unfriendly to the French for aiding their
enemies, the Chippewa, and after the fall of French power in America
in 1763, they allied themselves with the English and assisted them in
the War of Independence and the war of 1812, with few exceptions.
After the treaty of peace in 1815 various minor troubles occurred, but
in 1862 the Indians in Minnesota rose under Chief Little Crow and
committed terrible barbarities against the settlers, some 800 whites
being killed before the revolt was put down. The gold-fever of the
whites in Dakota, where the Indians had settled down, precipitated a
formidable outbreak in 1876 under the leadership of Sitting Bull,
Crazy Horse, Spotted Tail and other chiefs. The most notable event of
this "war" was the so-called "massacre" (properly cutting-off) of
General Custer and his cavalry at the battle of Little Bighorn on June
25, 1876. When the "Ghost Dance" was prevalent among so many Indian
tribes of the Plains in 1890-1891 another serious rising of the Sioux
took place, which was put down by General Miles. Sitting Bull was
killed (December 15, 1890); and resistance to an attempt to disarm a
large party of Indians at Wounded Knee Creek, near the Pine Ridge
Agency, resulted (December 29) in a deplorable massacre, in which many
women and children were killed. The story of these Sioux outbreaks and
the guiltiness of the whites with respect to them has been told
authoritatively by Mooney (_14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol._, 1892-1893).
At one time these troubles threatened to involve the Canadian Indians
of the region adjacent. The _Catawba_ of South Carolina, in the wars
of the 18th century, aided the English against the French, the
Tuscaroras (war of 1713-14) and the Lake tribes. They sided with the
Americans during the War of Independence. The _Osage_ were friendly
with the French early in the 18th century and fought with them against
the Sacs and Foxes at Detroit in 1714.

_Pueblos._--After the Spanish conquest of the Pueblos Indians of
Arizona and New Mexico the most remarkable effort of the natives to
throw off the foreign yoke was in the general revolt of 1680 under the
leadership of Popé of San Juan. At that time among the Moqui
(Shoshonian) the missionaries were killed, the churches laid in ruins,
&c., and similar events occurred elsewhere in the Pueblos region. For
this the Spaniards subsequently took ample vengeance. The Pueblos
Indians in general have never taken too kindly to the whites; and
to-day at the Moqui pueblo of Oraibi there exist a "Hostile" and a
"Friendly" faction, the first bitterly opposed to the Caucasian and
all his ways, the latter more liberal-minded, but Indian none the
less. An open rupture nearly took place in 1906.

In Canada, since the organization of the Dominion in 1867, Indian wars
have been unknown, and Indian outbreaks of any sort rare. In 1890 an
outbreak of the Kootenays was threatened, but it amounted to
nothing--the present writer traversed all parts of the Kootenay
country in 1891 in perfect safety. Occasional "risings" have been
reported from the Canadian North-West and British Columbia, but have
amounted to little or nothing. In the matter of war it should be noted
that some Indian stocks nave been essentially peaceful, and have
resorted to force only when driven beyond endurance or treated with
outrageous injustice. Again, within the same stock one tribe has shown
itself peaceable, another quite warlike (e.g. Klamath and Modoc, both
Lutuamian; the Hares and the Apache, both Athabaskan). Probably the
amount and extent of wars existing north of Mexico in Pre-Columbian
times were not as large as is generally stated. The introduction of
fire-arms, European-made weapons, the horse, &c., and the development
of ideas of property made possible through these, doubtless stimulated
intertribal disputes and increased the actual number of warlike
enterprises. Over a large portion of the continent "wars" were nearly
always initiated and carried out by a portion only of the tribe, which
often had its permanent "peace party."

Missions and Education.

The missionary labours of the various Christian churches among the North American aborigines have been ably summarized by Mooney in the _Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico_ (pt. i. 1907, pp. 874-909). Besides the famous _Relation des Jésuites_ (ed. Thwaites, 1896-1901) there are now special mission histories for the Baptists, Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Moravians, Mormons, Presbyterians, Quakers, Roman Catholics (also the various orders, &c.), who have all paid much attention to Christianizing and civilizing the Indians. To-day "practically every tribe officially recognized within the United States is under the missionary influence of some religious denomination, workers of several denominations frequently labouring in the same tribe." Something of the same sort might be said of the Indians of Canada, whose religion (that of 76,319 out of 110,345 altogether reported, is known) is given as follows in the _Report of the Department of Indian Affairs_ for 1907: Roman Catholics 35,682; Anglicans 15,380; Methodists 11,620; Presbyterians 1527; Baptists 1103; Congregationalists 18; and other denominations 597; besides 10,347 pagans. All the Indians of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, are Catholics; in Quebec there are but 678 Protestants (mostly Methodist); in Ontario there are 6173 Catholics to 1030 Baptists, 4626 Methodists, 5306 Anglicans, 18 Congregationalists and 34 Presbyterians. The Indians of British Columbia number 11,529 Catholics, 4304 Anglicans, 3277 Methodists and 431 Presbyterians; those of Manitoba, 1780 Catholics, 1685 Methodists, 382 Presbyterians and 3103 Anglicans; those of Saskatchewan and Alberta 4249 Catholics, 1527 Methodists, 719 Presbyterians, 2549 Anglicans. In some of the tribes and settlements both in Canada and in the United States missionary activities, the influence of individual white men, &c., have led to a great diversity of religious faith, sometimes within comparatively limited areas. Thus in the Mistawasis band of Cree, belonging to the Carlton Agency, province of Saskatchewan, numbering but 129, there are 6 Anglicans, 86 Presbyterians and 37 Catholics; in the Oak River band of Sioux in Manitoba there are 60 Anglicans, 1 Presbyterian, 13 Methodists, 4 Catholics and 195 pagans out of a total of 273. Among the "Six Nations" and the larger Indian peoples of Oklahoma all the leading Christian sects, besides the Salvation Army, the Christian Scientists, the Mormons and the "New Thought" movement are represented. There are also the "Navaho New Faith," the "Shaker Church" of Washington, &c. The history of missionary labours in North America among the aborigines contains stories of disappointment and disaster as well as chronicles of success. Some peoples, like the Timuquans, the Apalachee, the Pakawan tribes, &c., have been converted only to disappear altogether; other great attempts at colonization or "reduction," like the missions of Huronia and California, succeeded for the time on a grand scale, but have fallen victims sooner or later to the fortunes of war, the changes of politics, or their own mechanism and its inherent weaknesses and defects. But the thousands of good church-members, including many ministers of the Gospel, in Canada and the United States, coming from scores of different tribes and many distinct stocks, no less than the general good conduct of so many Indian nations, are a remarkable tribute to the work done by Catholic and Protestant missionaries alike all over the broad continent from the Mexican border to the snows of Greenland and the islands of the Arctic. The martyrdom of the Jesuits among the fierce Iroquois, the zeal of Duncan at Metlakahtla, the fate of the Spanish friars in the Pueblos rebellion of 1680 under Popé, the destruction of the Huron missions in 1641-1649 and of those of the Apalachee in 1703, the death of Whitman at the hands of the Cayuse in 1847, are but a few of the notable events of mission history. The following brief accounts of missionary labours among one or two of the chief Indian stocks and in a few of the chief areas of the continent will serve to indicate their general character.

_Californian Indians._--Beginning with the foundation by Father
Junipero Serra in 1769 of San Diego de Alcalá, and ending with that of
San Francisco Solano in 1823, there were established, from beyond San
Francisco Bay to the River Colorado, twenty-three missions of the
Catholic faith among the Indians of California, whose direct influence
lasted until the "secularization" of the missions and the expulsion of
the friars by the Mexican government in 1834. In that year the
missions counted 30,650 Indians and produced 122,500 bushels of wheat
and corn. They possessed also 424,000 cattle, 62,500 horses and mules,
321,900 sheep, goats, hogs, &c. The mission-buildings of brick and
stone contained besides religious houses and chapels, school-rooms and
workshops for instruction in arts and industries, and were surrounded
by orchards, vineyards and farms. Here Indians of diverse linguistic
stocks were "reduced" and "civilized," and their labour fully utilized
by the mission-fathers. But, in the words of Mooney (_Handb. of Amer.
Inds._ pt. i., 1907, p. 895), "Despite regular life, abundance of food
and proper clothing according to the season, the Indian withered away
under the restrictions of civilization supplemented by epidemic
diseases introduced by the military garrisons or the seal-hunters
along the coast. The death-rate was so enormous, in spite of apparent
material advancement, that it is probable that the former factor alone
would have brought about the extinction of the missions within a few
generations." Some of the missions had but a few hundred Indians,
some, however, as high as three thousand. Kroeber thinks that their
influence was "probably greater temporally than spiritually." After
the "secularization" of the missions decay soon set in, which the
American occupation of California later on did nothing to remedy, and
the native population rapidly decreased. When the supervision of the
missionaries no longer sustained them the Indians fell to pieces and
the practical results of seventy years of labour and devotion were
lost. In 1908 there remained of the "Mission Indians" less than 3000
individuals (belonging to the Shoshonian and Yuman stocks), whose
condition was none too satisfactory, the only human relics of the huge
attempt at the "reduction" of the Indian that was planned and carried
out in California.

_Iroquoian._--The French missions among the Hurons began in 1615-1616
with Father le Caron of the Recollect order; those of the Jesuits with
Father Breboeuf in 1626. These missions flourished, in spite of wars
and other adverse circumstances, till the invasion of the Huron
country in Ontario by the Iroquois in 1641 and again in 1649 brought
about their destruction and the dispersal of the Hurons who were not
slain or carried off as prisoners by the victors. Some took refuge
among neighbouring friendly tribes; others settled finally at Lorette
near Quebec, &c. The Wyandots, now in Oklahoma, are another fragment
of the scattered Hurons. The Hurons of Lorette numbered in 1908, 1
Anglican, 6 Presbyterians and 459 Catholics. The Wyandots of Oklahoma
are largely Protestants. The mission among the Mohawks of New York was
established in 1642 by Father Jogues (afterwards martyred by the
Indians), and in 1653 the church at Onondaga was built, while during
the next few years missions were organized among the Oneida, Cayuga
and Seneca, to cease during the warlike times of 1658-66, after which
they were again established among these tribes. The mission of St
François Xavier des Pré (La Prairie), out of which came the modern
Caughnawaga, was founded in 1669, and here gathered many Christian
Iroquois of various tribes--Mohawk especially. About this time the
Iroquois settlement on the Bay of Quinté, Ontario, was formed by
Christian Mohawks, Cayugas, &c. The Lake of the Two Mountains mission
dates from 1720, that of St Regis from 1756. Another mission at
Oswegatchie, founded in 1748, was abandoned in 1807. The Episcopal
missions among the Iroquois began early in the 18th century, the
Mohawks being the first tribe influenced, about 1700. The extension of
the work among the other Iroquoian tribes was aided by Sir William
Johnson in the last half of the century and by Chief Joseph Brant,
especially after the removal of those of the Iroquois who favoured the
British to Canada at the close of the War of Independence. In 1776 the
Congregationalists established a mission among the New York Oneida,
and later continued their labours also among the Oneida of Wisconsin.
The Congregational mission among the New York Seneca began in 1831. In
1791-1798, at the request of Chief Cornplanter, the Pennsylvania
Quakers established missions among the Oneida, Tuscarora and Seneca.
The Moravian missions among the New York Onondaga were established
under the Rev. David Zeisberger about 1745. The Methodist missions
among the Ontario Iroquois date from 1820. Of the "Six Nations"
Indians of the Grand river, Ontario, the Cayuga and Onondaga are still
"pagan," the others being Anglican, Methodist and other denominations,
including Seventh Day Adventists, Salvation Army, &c. Among the New
York Iroquois great variety of religious faith also exists, the
Presbyterians (largest), Methodists, Episcopalians and Baptists being
all represented. The Iroquois of Caughnawaga and St Regis are mainly
Catholic; at Caughnawaga there is, however, a Methodist school.

_Muskogian._--Several tribes of this stock came under the influence of
the missions established by the Spanish friars along the Atlantic
coast after the founding of St Augustine in 1565. The missionaries in
this region were chiefly Franciscans, who succeeded the Jesuits. They
were very successful among the Apalachee, but these Indians were
constantly subject to attack by the Yamasi, Creek, Catawba and other
savage peoples, and in 1703-1704 they were destroyed or taken captive,
and the missions came to an end. A few of the survivors were gathered
later at Pensacola for a time. In the early part of the 18th century
French missions were established among the Choctaw, Natchez, &c., and
the Jesuits laboured among the Alibamu from 1725 till their expulsion
in 1764. From 1735 to 1739 the Moravians (beginning under Spangenberg)
had a mission school among the Yamacraw, a Creek tribe near Savannah.
In 1831 a Presbyterian mission was established among the Choctaw on
the Yalabusha river in northern Mississippi, to which went in 1834 the
Rev. Cyrus Byington, the Eliot mission over which he presided there
and in the Indian Territory till 1868 being one of great importance.
After the removal of the Indians to the Indian Territory more missions
were established among the Choctaw, the Creek and the Seminole, &c.
The work was much interfered with by the Civil War of 1861-65, but the
mission work was afterwards reorganized. The Baptist missions among
the Choctaw began in 1832 and among the Creek in 1839. The "Choctaw
Academy," a high school, at Great Crossings, Kentucky, chiefly for
young men of the Choctaw and Creek nations, was founded in 1819 and
continued for twenty-four years. In 1835 a Methodist mission was
established among the Creek, but soon abandoned, to be reorganized
later on. Among the Indians of Oklahoma, the Catholic and Mormon
churches and practically all the Protestant denominations, including
the Salvation Army and the Christian Scientists, are now represented
by churches, schools, missions, &c. The missionaries among the
Muskogian tribes during the last half of the 18th century, as may be
seen from Pilling's _Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages_ (1889),
furnished many able students of Indian tongues, whose researches have
been of great value in philology. This is true likewise of labourers
in the mission-field among the Algonkian, Iroquoian, Athabaskan,
Siouan and Salishan tribes and among the Eskimo. The celebrated "Eliot
Bible," the translation (1663) of the scriptures into the language of
the Algonkian Indians of Massachusetts, made by the Rev. John Eliot
(q.v.), is a monument of missionary endeavour and prescientific study
of the aboriginal tongues. In his work Eliot, like many other
missionaries, had the assistance of several Indians. The names of such
mission-workers as Egede, Kleinschmidt, Fabricius, Erdmann,
Kohlmeister, Bruyas, Zeisberger, Dencke, Rasles, Gravier, Mengarini,
Giorda, Worcester, Byington, Wright, Riggs, Dorsey, Williamson, Voth,
Eells, Pandosy, Veniaminov, Barnum, André, Mathevet, Thavenet, Cuoq,
Sagard, O'Meara, Jones, Wilson, Rand, Lacombe, Petitot, Maclean,
Hunter, Horden, Kirkby, Watkins, Tims, Evans, Morice, Hall, Harrison,
Legoff, Bompas, Peck, &c., are familiar to students of the aboriginal
tongues of America.

When in 1900 the withdrawal by the United States of government aid to denominational schools occurred, it compelled some of the weaker churches to give up such work altogether, and interfered much with the activities of some of the stronger ones. According to the statistics given by Mooney (_Handb. of Amer. Inds._, 1907, pt. i. p. 897) the Catholic Church had in 1904 altogether, under the care of the Jesuits, Franciscans and Benedictines, &c., and the sisters of the orders of St Francis, St Anne, St Benedict, St Joseph, Mercy and Blessed Sacrament, "178 Indian churches and chapels served by 152 priests; 71 boarding and 26 day schools with 109 teaching priests, 384 sisters and 138 other religious or secular teachers and school assistants." The Catholic mission work is helped by "the Preservation Society, the Marquette League and by the liberality of Mother Katharine Drexel, founder of the order of the Blessed Sacrament for negro and Indian mission work." The corresponding statistics for the chief Protestant churches were as follows:--

+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+
| Denomination. | Missions and | Missionaries. | Schools. |
| | Churches. | | |
+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+
| Baptist | 14 | 15 | 4 |
| Congregationalist| 10 | 12 | 5 |
| Episcopalian | 14 | 28 | 17 |
| Friends | 10 | 15 | 1 |
| Mennonite | 5 | 6 | 0 |
| Methodist | | 40 | 1 |
| Moravian | 3 | 3 | 0 |
| Presbyterian | 101 | 69 | 32 |
+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+
| Total | 157 | 188 | 60 |
+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+

This is exclusive of Alaska, where Greek Orthodox (18 ministers in
1902), Roman Catholics (12 Jesuits and lay brothers and 11 sisters of
St Anne in 1903), Moravians (5 mission stations with 13 workers and 21
native assistants among the Eskimo in 1903), Episcopalians (31
workers, white and native, 13 churches, 1 boarding and 7 day schools
in 1903), Presbyterians (a dozen stations and several schools),
Baptists, Methodists (several stations), Swedish Evangelical (several
stations), Friends (several missions), Congregationalists (mission
school) and Lutherans (orphanage), all are labouring.

Before the advent of the whites the children of the North American aborigines "had their own systems of education, through which the young were instructed in their coming labours and obligations, embracing not only the whole round of economic pursuits--hunting, fishing, handicraft, agriculture and household work--but speech, fine art, customs, etiquette, social obligations and tribal lore" (Mason). Parents, grandparents, the elders of the tribe, "priests," &c., were teachers, boys coming early under the instruction of their male relatives and girls under that of their female relatives. Among some tribes special "teachers" of some of the arts existed and with certain of the more developed peoples, such as some of the Iroquoian and Siouan tribes, both childhood and the period of puberty received special attention. Playthings, toys and children's games were widespread. Imitation of the arts and industries of their elders began early, and with not a few tribes there were "secret societies," &c., for children and fraternities of various sorts, which they were allowed to join, thus receiving early initiation into social and religious ideas and responsibility in the tribal unit. Corporal punishment was little in vogue, the Iroquois e.g. condemning it as bad for the soul as well as the body. Appeals to the feelings of pride, shame, self-esteem, &c., were commonly made. As the treatment of the youth at puberty by the Omaha e.g. indicates, there was among some tribes distinct recognition of individuality, and the young Indian acquired his so-called "totem" or "guardian spirit" individually and not tribally. In some tribes, however, the tribal consciousness overpowered altogether children and youth. With the Indian, as with all other young human beings, "unconscious absorption" played its important rôle. Parental affection among some of the peoples north of Mexico reached as high a degree as with the whites, and devices for aiding, improving and amusing infants and children were innumerable. Some of the "beauty makers," however, amounted to rather serious deformations, though often no worse than those due to the corset, the use of uncouth foot-wear, premature factory labour, &c., in civilized countries.

Interesting details of Indian child-life and education are to be found
in books like Eastman's _Indian Boyhood_ (1902), Jenks' _Childhood of
Jishib the Ojibwa_ (1900), Spencer's _Education of the Pueblo Child_
(1889), La Flesche's _The Middle Five_ (1901), Stevenson's _Religious
Education of the Zuñi Child_ (1887), and in the writings of Miss A. C.
Fletcher, J. O. Dorsey, J. Mooney, W. M. Beauchamp, &c., besides the
accounts of missionaries and travellers of the better sort.

Outside of missions proper there were many efforts made by the colonists to educate the Indians. It is an interesting fact, emphasized by James in his _English Institutions and the American Indian_ (1894), that several institutions still existing, and now of large influence in the educational world of the United States and Canada, had their origin in whole or in part in the desire to Christianize and to educate the aborigines, which object was mentioned in charters (e.g. Virginia in 1606 and again in 1621), &c. Sums of money were also left for the purposes of educating Indian children and youth, many of whom were sent over to England for that purpose, by colonists who adopted them (one such was Sampson Occum, minister and author of the hymn, "Awaked by Sinai's Awful Sound"). In 1618 Henrico College in Virginia was founded, where Indian youth were taught religion, "civility" and a trade. It was succeeded by the College of William and Mary (founded in 1691 with the aid of a benefaction of Robert Boyle), where Indian youth were boarded and received their education for many years. The great university of Harvard has long outgrown "the Indian college at Cambridge," whose single graduate Cheeshateaumuck, took his degree in 1665, but died afterwards of consumption. But its original charter provided for all things "that may conduce to the education of the English and Indian youth of this country in knowledge and godliness." Since Cheeshateaumuck's time, doubtless, there have been graduates of Harvard who could boast of Indian blood in their veins (e.g. recently William Jones, the ethnologist), but they have been few and far between. Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire, founded in 1754, really grew out of Wheelock's Indian school at Lebanon, Connecticut--at this period there were several such schools in New England, &c. In the royal charter, granted to Dartmouth in 1769, is the provision "that there be a College erected in our said Province of New Hampshire, by the name of Dartmouth College, for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land, in reading, writing and all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and christianizing children of pagans, as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences, and also of English Youth and any other." The college of New Jersey long served as one of the institutions for the education of Indian youth. A glimpse of Indians at Princeton is given by Collins (_Princeton Univ. Bull._, 1902) in his account of the attempt to confer an academic education, at the end of the 18th century, upon Thomas Killbuck and his cousin, George Bright-eyes, son of a Delaware chief, and a descendant of Taimenend, eponym of the political "Tammany." It would seem that at this period the states and Congress were in the habit of granting moneys for the education of individual Indians at various institutions.

At the present time the most noteworthy institutions for the education of the Indian in the United States are the Chilocco Indian Industrial school, under government auspices, in Kay county, Oklahoma, near Arkansas city, Kansas; the Carlisle school (government) at Carlisle, Pa.; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (private, but subsidized by the government), at Hampton, Va.

The Chilocco school is, in many respects, a model institution for
Indian youth of both sexes, devoted to "agriculture and attendant
industries." It was opened in 1884 with 186 pupils, and in 1906 the
attendance was 685 out of an enrolment of 700. There are 35 buildings,
and the corps of instruction, &c., consists of "a superintendent, 51
principal employés and 20 minor Indian assistants." The Carlisle
school, "the first non-reservation school established by the
government," whose origin is due to "the efforts of General R. H.
Pratt, when a lieutenant in charge of Indian prisoners of war at St
Augustine, Florida, from May 11, 1875, to April 14, 1878," was opened
in November 1879 with 147 Indians, including 11 Florida prisoners; it
had in 1906 an enrolment of over 1000 pupils of both sexes, under both
white and Indian teachers, and an average attendance of 981. In 1906
there were in attendance members of 67 tribes, representing at least
22 distinct linguistic stocks. According to J. H. Dortch (_Handb. of
Amer. Inds._, 1907, pt. i. p. 207), "since the foundation of the
school nearly every tribe in the United States has had representatives
on its rolls." The following statistics, cited by Mr Dortch, indicate
both the success of the school in general and of the "outing system"
(pupils are allowed to work in temporary homes, but keeping in close
touch with the school), which "has come to be a distinctive feature
not only of the Carlisle school but of the Indian school service
generally":

Admitted during 25 years 5,170
Discharged during 25 years 4,210
On rolls during fiscal year 1904 1,087
Outings, fiscal year 1904 (girls 426, boys 498) 924
Outings during 21 years (girls 3214, boys 5118) 8,332
Students' earnings 1904 $34,970
Students' earnings during 15 years $352,951

The staff of the school consists of a superintendent, 75 instructors,
clerks, &c. It has graduated "a large number of pupils, many of whom
are filling responsible positions in the business world, and
especially in the Indian service, in which, during the fiscal year
1903, 101 were employed in various capacities from teachers to
labourers, drawing a total of $46,300 in salaries." The Carlisle
football team competes with the chief white colleges and universities.

The Hampton Institute was established in 1868 by General S. C.
Armstrong and trains both Negroes and Indians, having admitted the
latter since 1878. It is partly supported by the government of
Virginia and by the United States government, the latter paying $167 a
year for 120 Indian pupils, boys and girls (in 1906 there were in
attendance 112, of whom 57 were girls and 55 boys), belonging to 33
different tribes, representing 13 distinct linguistic stocks. The
following extract from the report of the principal for 1905-1906 is of
interest: "Fifteen catechists among the Sioux still hold their own.
There are two field-matrons and seven camp-school teachers, all coming
into close touch with the more ignorant of the people. Four are
physicians getting their living from their white patients and doing
more or less missionary work among their own people. William Jones has
his degrees of A.M. and Ph.D., and is doing valuable ethnological work
for the Carnegie Institution, Columbia University and the American
Museum of Natural History in New York. James Murie is assisting in
similar work for the Field Museum in Chicago. Hampton has but one
Indian lawyer. There are about 50 students holding positions pretty
steadily in government schools. About 40 boys have employment at
government agencies, 20 being employed as clerks and interpreters,
either at the agencies or at the schools. Ten boys are working in
machine shops at the north and three are in the navy. A fair
proportion are working on their farms; some have accumulated quite a
little stock, and five are prosperous cattlemen, seven boys have
stores of their own and make a good living from them." The Indian
Department has now adopted the policy of giving industrial training
and household economy the chief place in education, varying the
instruction to suit the environment in which the boy or girl is to
grow up and live and not mixing the needs of Alaska with those of
California, or those of Dakota with those of Florida.

In Canada the most notable institutions for the education of the Indians are the Mohawk Institute at Brantford, Ontario; the Mount Elgin Institute at Muncey, Ontario; the Brandon Industrial school at Brandon, Manitoba; the Qu'Appelle Industrial school at Lebret, Saskatchewan.

The Mohawk Institute is the oldest, having been founded in 1831 by the
"New England Company," which began its work among the Canadian
Iroquois in 1822. It is undenominational, aided by a government grant,
and had in 1907 an average attendance of 106 out of an enrolment of
111 of both sexes. The Mount Elgin Industrial Institute was founded by
the Methodist Missionary Society in 1847, and had an attendance for
1907 of 104 of both sexes. The Brandon Industrial school, under
Methodist auspices, had in 1907 an attendance of 104 of both sexes.
The Qu'Appelle Industrial school, under Roman Catholic auspices, had
an average attendance of 210 of both sexes. All these schools receive
government aid. As in the United States, Indian teachers and
assistants are often employed when fitted for such labours.

The first appropriation by the Congress of the United States for the general education of the Indians was made in 1819, when the sum of $10,000 was assigned for that and closely allied purposes, and by 1825 there were 38 schools among the Indians receiving government aid, but government schools proper date from 1873 (contract schools are four years older), the order of their institution being day schools, reservation boarding schools, then non-reservation boarding schools. In 1900 the contract schools were practically abandoned and the Indian appropriation devoted to government schools altogether. Latterly some departure from this policy has occurred, following a decision of the Supreme Court. In less than a century the expenditure for Indian education increased from an annual outlay of $10,000 to one of about $5,000,000, to which must be added the expenditures from private sources, which are considerable.

Exclusive of Alaska, there were in the United States in 1906, according to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 324 Indian schools (government 261, mission 48, contract 15), with an enrolment of 30,929 and an average attendance of 25,492 pupils, costing the government annually $3,115,953. Of the government schools 25 were non-reservation and 90 reservation boarding schools, and 146 day schools; of the mission schools 45 boarding and 3 day; of the contract schools 8 boarding and 6 public. The schools of a denominational character belonged as follows: 29 to the Catholic Church, 5 to the Presbyterian, 4 to the Protestant Episcopal, 2 to the Congregational, 2 to the Lutheran, and 1 each to the Evangelical Lutheran, Reformed Presbyterian, Methodist, Christian Reformed and Baptist. Besides there were in all 446 public schools on or near reservations which Indians could attend.

In Canada, according to the report of the Department of Indian Affairs for 1907, there was a total of 303 Indian schools (day 226, boarding 55, industrial 22), of which 45 were undenominational, 91 Church of England, 106 Roman Catholic, 44 Methodist and 1 Salvation Army. The total enrolment of pupils was 9618, with an average attendance of 6138. In several cases Indians attend white schools, not being counted in these statistics. The total amount appropriated for Indian schools during the year 1906-1907 was $356,277.

Indian talent and capacity.

The intelligence of the American Indians north of Mexico ranges from a minimum with the lowest of the Athabaskan tribes of extreme north-western Canada and the lowest of the Shoshonian tribes of the south-western United States to a maximum with the highest developed members of the Muskogian and Iroquoian stocks (both the Cherokee branch and the Iroquois proper). It must be remembered, however, that the possibilities of improvement by change of environment are very great, as is shown by the fact that the Hupa of California and the Navaho of Arizona and New Mexico (also the cruel and cunning Apaches) belong to the Athabaskan family, while the Shoshonian includes many of the "civilized nations" of ancient Mexico and, in particular, the famous Aztecs. One way of judging of the intellectual character of the various stocks of North American aborigines is from the "great men" they have produced during the historical periods of contact with the whites. Many of these stocks have, of course, not had occasion for the development of great men, their small numbers, their isolation, their lack of historical experience, their long residence in an unfavourable environment, their perpetual and unrestricted democracy, &c., are some of the sufficient explanations for this state of affairs, as they would be in any other part of the world. The Eskimoan, Athabaskan, Koluschan, Wakashan (and other tribes of the North Pacific coast), Salishan and Shoshonian (except in Mexico) stocks, together with the numerous small or unimportant stocks of the Oregon-California and Gulf-Atlantic regions, have not produced any great men, although members of many tribes have been individually of not a little service to the intruding race in pioneer times and since then, or have been highly esteemed by them on account of their abilities or character, &c. Here might be mentioned perhaps Sacajawea (see _Out West_, xxiii. 223), the Indian woman who acted as guide and helper of the Lewis and Clark expedition and saved the journals at the risk of her life (she has now a statue erected to her memory in Seattle); Louise Sighouin, the Sahaptian convert of whom the missionary de Smet thought so much; Catherine Tekatawitha, the "Iroquois saint," &c.

The following list will serve to indicate some of the "great men" of the Indian race north of Mexico and the stocks to which they have belonged; in it are included also some products of the contact of the two cultures:--

1. _Algonkian._--In politics and in oratory, as well as in combat,
this stock has produced notable characters, the conflict with the
whites and the Iroquois doubtless serving to stimulate native genius.
Among Algonkian notables may be mentioned "King Philip" and Powhatan;
Pontiac and Tecumseh; Black Hawk; Sampson Occum; George Copway;
Francis Assickinack, &c.

2. _Athabaskan._--The possibilities of this stock have been recently
illustrated by the Apaches, who, on the one hand, have produced
Geronimo, the chief who from 1877 to 1886 gave the United States
authorities such trouble, and, on the other, Dr Carlos Montezuma, a
full-blood Indian, who, after receiving a good education, served the
government as physician at several Indian agencies, and in 1908 was
practising his profession in Chicago and teaching in the College of
Physicians and Surgeons and the Post-Graduate Medical School. From
these southern Athabaskans much is to be expected under favouring
conditions.

3. _Iroquoian._--Here, as among the Algonkian tribes, circumstances
favoured the development of men of great ability. Of these may be
mentioned: Hiawatha, statesman and reformer (fl. c. 1450), the chief
mover in the formation of the great "League of the Iroquois"; Captain
Joseph Brant; "Red Jacket"; Oronhyatekha (d. 1906), the head of the
Independent Order of Foresters, an important secret charitable
society, a physician, and a man of remarkable power as an organizer.

4. _Sahaptian._--A remarkable Indian character was Nez Percé Joseph,
the leader of his people in the troubles of 1877. In 1905, at the
general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, a delegate representing
both whites and Indians was Mark Arthur (b. 1873), a full-blood Nez
Percé and since 1900 the successful pastor (fully ordained) of the
church at Lapwai, Idaho, the oldest Presbyterian church west of the
Rocky Mountains.

5. _Siouan._--The most famous Indian of Siouan stock is "Sitting Bull"
(d. 1890), medicine-man and chief. Miss Angel de Cora, a Winnebago,
was in 1908 instructor in art at the Carlisle school.