Chapter IX: Part 9

_Head-dress._--This is of two kinds: the turban and the cap. The former is chiefly worn in northern India, the latter in Oudh and the United Provinces. What is known in Europe as a turban (from the Persian _sarband_, a binding for the head) is in India divided into two classes. The first, made of a single piece of cloth 20 to 30 in. wide and from 6 to 9 yds. long, is bound round the head from right to left or from left to right indifferently and quite simply, so as to form narrow angles over the forehead and at the back. This form is called _amamah_ (Arabic), _dastar_ (Persian), _shimla_ or _shamla_, _safa_, _lungi_, _sela_, _rumal_, or _dopatta_. The terms _amamah_ and _dastar_ are used chiefly with reference to the turbans of priests and _ulema_, that is learned and religious persons. They are usually white; formerly Syeds wore them of green colour. They are never of bright hue. The _lungi_ is made of cloth of a special kind manufactured mostly in Ludhiana. It is generally blue and has an ornamented border. In the case of Pathans and sometimes of Punjabi Moslems it is bound round a tall red conical cap called a _kullah_ (Plate I. fig. 1). The ends are frequently allowed to hang down over the shoulders, and are called _shimla_ or _shamla_, terms which also apply to the whole head-dress. The names _safa_, _sela_, _rumal_ and _dopatta_ are sometimes given to this form of turban. The _sela_ is gaudier and more ornamental generally; it is worn by the nobles and wealthier classes.

The second form of the turban is known as the _pagri_.[12] This head-dress is of Hindu origin but is much worn by Mahommedans. It is a single piece of cloth 6 to 8 in. wide, and of any length from 10 to 50 yds. The methods of binding the _pagri_ are innumerable, each method having a distinctive name as _arabi_ (Arab fashion); _mansabi_ (official fashion, much used in the Deccan); _mushakhi_ (sheik fashion); _chakridar_ (worn by hadjis, that is those who have made the pilgrimage to Mecca); _khirki-dar_ (a fashion of piling the cloth high, adopted by retainers of great men); _latudar_ (top-shaped, worn by _kayasths_ or writers); _joridar_ (the cloth twisted into rope shape) (Plate I. fig. 6); _siparali_ (shield-shaped, worn by the Shia sect); _murassa_, or _nastalikh_ (ornately bound), _latpati_ (carelessly bound) (Plate I. fig. 4). Many other fashions which it would be difficult to describe can best be learned by studying pictures with the help of a competent teacher. The _chira_ is a pagri of checked cloth. The _mandil_ is of gold or highly ornamented cloth; it is worn by nobles and persons of distinction.

The cap or _topi_ is not bound round the head, but is placed upon it. It is made of cut and sewn cloth. Some varieties are _dopallari_, a skull-cap; _kishtinuma_, or boat-shaped cap; _goltopi_, a round cap of the kind known in England as "pork-pie"; _bezwi_, or egg-shaped cap; _sigoshia_, or three-cornered cap; _chaugoshia_, or four-cornered cap; _tajdar_, or crown-shaped cap; &c. Many other caps are named after the locality of manufacture or some peculiarity of make, e.g. _Kashmire-kitopi_; _jhalardar_, fringed cap, &c.

A form of cap much worn in Bengal and western India is known as _Irani kullah_, or Persian cap. It is made of goatskin and is shaped like a _tarbush_ but has no tassel. The cap worn in cold weather is called _top_, _topa_, or _kantop_ (ear-cover) (Plate I. fig. 2); these are sometimes padded with cotton. Caps are much worn by Mussulmans of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and other cities of the United provinces.

The _tarbush_ or _turki-topi_ was introduced into India by Sir Sayyid Ahmad (Plate I. fig. 3). It must not be confused with the Moorish "fez," which is skull-shaped. The _tarbush_ is of Greek origin and was adopted by Sultan Mahmud of Turkey in the early part of the 19th century. To remove the head-dress of whatever kind is, in the East, an act of discourtesy; to strike it off is a deep insult.

_Clothing._--The following rules from the _hadith_ or traditional sayings of the prophet are noteworthy:--"Wear white garments, for verily they are full of cleanliness, and pleasant to the eye." "It is lawful for the woman of my people to clothe herself in silken garments, and to wear ornaments of gold; but it is forbidden to man: any man who shall wear silken garments in this world, shall not wear them in the next." "God will not be merciful to him who through vanity wears long trousers" (i.e. reaching below the ankle). The foregoing rules are now only observed by the ultra-orthodox, such as the Wahabi sect and by ulemas, or learned elderly men. The Mogul court of Delhi, especially during the reign of Mahommed Shah, nicknamed _Rangila_ or the "dandy," greatly influenced change in these matters. Coloured clothing, gold ornaments and silken raiment began to be worn commonly by Mussulman men in his reign.

For the upper part of the body the principal article of clothing is the _kurta_. The Persian name for this is _pairahan_ and the Arabic _kamis_, whence "chemise." This _kurta_ is the equivalent for the shirt of Europe. It is usually of white cotton, and has the opening or _gala_ in front, at the back, or on either side indifferently. It was formerly fastened with strings, but now with the _ghundi_ (the old form of button) and _tukmah_ or loop. In southern India, Gujarat and in the United Provinces the _kurta_ is much the same as to length and fit as the English shirt; as the traveller goes northward from Delhi to the Afghan border he sees the _kurta_ becoming longer and looser till he finds the Pathan wearing it almost to his ankles, with very full wide sleeves. The sleeves are everywhere long and are sometimes fastened with one or two buttons at the wrist.

Mussulmans always wear some form of trousers. They are known as _izar_ (Arabic) or _pa'ejáma_[13] (Persian). This article of clothing is sometimes loose, sometimes tight all the way, sometimes loose as far as the knee and tight below like Jodhpur riding breeches. They are fastened round the waist with a scarf or string called _kamarband_ (waistband) or _izarband_, and are usually of white cotton. The varieties of cut are sharai or canonical, orthodox, which reach to the ankles and fit as close to the leg as European trousers; _rumi_ or _ghararedar_, which reach to the ankles but are much wider than European trousers (this pattern is much worn by the Shias); and _tang_ or _chust_, reaching to the ankles, from which to the knee they fit quite close. When this last kind is "rucked" at the ankle it is called _churidar_ (Plate I. fig. 4). They are sometimes buttoned at the ankle, especially in the Meerut district. The _shalwar_ pattern, very large round the waist and hanging in folds, is worn by Pathans, Baluchis, Sindis, Multanis, &c.

FIG. 1.--Punjabi Mahommedan wearing _lungi_ bound round a red or gold
_kullah_.

FIG. 2.--Mahommedan Saint, _pir_, wearing the _kantop_, ear-cap.

FIG. 3.--Student of the Aligarh College wearing the _tarbush_.

FIG. 4.--Punjabi Mahommedan wearing _pagri_, with _shimla_, _achkan
izar_ or _paejamas_.

FIG. 5.--Bombay or Gujarati Bora wearing white and gold turban with
red top.

FIG. 6.--Mahommedan Jat cultivators. Wife:--with _izar_, _kurta_, and
_orhni_ or _chadar_; husband:--with _majba_, _chadar_, and _joridar
pagri_.

FIG. 7.--The Parsi _khoka_, a tall hat of glazed chintz.

FIG. 8.--Parsi woman wearing Parsi _sari_ and _mathabana_ or white
hair cover.

FIG. 9.--Parsi schoolgirl.

FIG. 10.--Parsi pith hat with felt brim.

_From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lockwook Kipling, C.I.E._]

FIG. 1.--Deccan Brahman wearing _pagri_, _dhoti_ or _pitamber_, _anga_
and _dopatta_.

FIG. 2.--Brahman wearing _dhoti_ and _janeo_ or sacred thread. This is
the dining and sacrificial dress of most Hindus.

FIG. 3.--Rajput wearing _chapkan_, which is worn both by Mussulmans
and Hindus, buttoning on different sides.

FIG. 4.--Hindu woman showing method of wearing the _sari_.

FIG. 5.--Bengali _Babu_ wearing the most popular form of the
embroidered cap.

FIG. 6.--Sikh devotee, _Akali_ or _Nihung_, vowed to the wearing of
blue and steel, &c.

_From Pen and Ink Drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, C.I.E._]

The new fashion in vogue amongst the younger generation of Mussulman is called the _ikbarah_ or _patalunnuma_, which is like the European trousers. They are usually made of calico; they have no buttons but are fastened with string (kamarband). Bathing drawers are called _ghutannah_ and reach to the knee. The tight drawers worn by wrestlers are called _janghiah_.

Garments for outdoor wear are the _anga_, or _angarkha_, the _chapkan_, the _achkan_ or _sherwani_; the _anga_, a coat with full sleeves, is made of any material, white or coloured. It is slit at the sides, has perpendicularly cut side-pockets, and is fastened with strings just below the breast. It is opened on the right or left side according to local custom. The _anga_ is now considered old-fashioned, and is chiefly worn by elderly men or religious persons. It is still not uncommon in Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and at native courts, but is being superseded by the _achkan_ (Plate I. fig. 4), which is buttoned straight down the front. Both _anga_ and _achkan_ reach to a little below the knee, as also does the _chapkan_, a relic of Mogul court dress, best known as the shield-like and highly adorned coat worn by government _chaprasis_ (Plate II. fig. 3). Over the _anga_ is sometimes worn an overcoat called a _choga_; this is made of any material, thick or thin, plain or ornamented; it has one or two fastenings only, loops below the breast whence it hangs loosely to below the knees. The _choga_ is sometimes known by its Arabic names _aba_ or _kaba_, terms applied to it when worn by priests or ulemas. In cold weather Pathans and other border residents wear _posteens_, sleeved coats made of sheepskin with the woolly side in. In India farther south in cold weather an overcoat called _dagla_ is worn; this is an _anga_ padded with cotton wool. A padded _choga_ is called _labada_; when very heavily padded _farghul_. Whereas the European wears his waistcoat _under_ his coat, the Indian wears his _over_ his _anga_ or _chapkan_ (not over the _achkan_). A sleeveless waistcoat generally made of silk is called a _sadari_; when it has half sleeves it is called _nimastin_; the full-sleeved waistcoat worn in winter padded with cotton is called _mirzai_. For ceremonial purposes a coat called _jama_ is worn. This fits closely as to the upper part of the body, but flows loosely below the waist. It is generally white, and is fastened in front by strings.

In Gujarat and other parts of western India are to be found classes of Moslems who differ somewhat from those met with elsewhere, such as Memans, Boras and Khojas. The first are Sunnis: the two last Shias. Memans wear (1) a gold embroidered skull-cap, (2) a long _kamis_ fastened at the neck with 3 or 4 buttons on a gold chain, (3) _sadariya_, i.e. a tight waistcoat without sleeves, fastened in front with small silk buttons and loops, (4) an over-waistcoat called _shaya-sadriya_ instead of the _anga_, with sleeves, and slits at the sides (probably of Arab origin). When he does not wear a skull-cap his _amamah_ is made after the arched Arab form, or is a Kashmir scarf wound round a skull-cap made of Java straw. The Bora adopts one of four forms of pagri; the _Ujjain_, a small neatly bound one; the _Ahmadabad_, a loose high one; the _Surat_, fuller and higher than the _Ujjain_ pattern (Plate I. fig. 5); or the _Kathiawada_, a conical turban with a gold stripe in the middle of the cone. The Bora wears the _anga_, otherwise he resembles the Meman. The Khoja wears a _pagri_ smaller than the Meman's, called a _Moghalai phenta_; this leaves a portion of the head bare at the back. The material is always of _kashida_, a kind of embroidered cloth. Amongst Mahommedans only Pathans wear ear-rings.

MAHOMMEDAN WOMEN. _Head-dress._--The _rupatta_ (also called _dopatta_), or veil, is of various colours and materials. Its length is about 3 yds., its width about 1½. It is worn over the head and thrown over the left shoulder. It is considered essential to modesty to cover the head. This head-dress is also known as _orhna_, _orhni_, _pochan_, _pochni_ (Baluchistan and western India) _chundri_, _reo_ (Sind), _sipatta_, _takrai_ or _chadar_ (Pathan). Among the poorer classes it is called _pacholi_. Farther south in India when of thicker material it is called _chadar_ or _chaddar_. It is called _pachedi_, _potra_ or _malaya_ by Meman, Bora and Khoja women. As a rule married women wear brighter colours than unmarried ones. In Kashmir a small round cap, _goltopi_, is worn. The _kassawa_ is a handkerchief bound over the head and tied at the back, and is worn by Mahommedan women indoors to keep the hair tidy; Mahommedan women plait their hair and let it hang down behind (Plate I. fig. 6).

_Clothing._--A short jacket fastened at the back and with short sleeves is worn. It may be of any material. In Sind, Gujarat and other parts of western India it is called a _choli_. It is also very generally known as _angiya_. Other common names are _mahram_ and _sinaband_ (breast-cover). The _kurta_ is a sort of sleeveless shirt, open in front and reaching to the waist. It may be of any material. When this is worn with the _angiya_ it is worn over it. This combination of dress is worn only by young married women. In Kashmir and northern India generally the _angiya_ is not worn, and the _kurta_ is worn instead. This is like the _kamis_ of the man, already described; it has full sleeves, is open at the front, which is embroidered, and reaches to the knee or lower. Among Pathans there are two kinds of _kurta_ (_kamis_ or _khat_); one worn by married women called _gìradana khat_ is dark red or blue, embroidered with silk in front; the _jalana khat_ worn by unmarried women is less conspicuous for colour and ornament. A large pocket (_jeb_) is often sewn on in front like the Highlander's sporran.

The _Pa'ejamas_, also called _izar_, are cut like those of men, and known by the same names. They differ only in being of silk or other fine material and being coloured (Plate I. fig. 6). Among Pathans they are called _partog_ or _partek_ (_pardek_), and those of unmarried girls are of white, while married women wear them of _susi_, a kind of coloured silk or cotton. As a general rule the wearing of _paijamas_ is the chief distinction between Mussulman and Hindu women. In the Shahpur and other districts, however, where Mahommedans have followed Hindu customs, Moslem women wear the _majla_, a cloth about 3 yds. long by 1½ wide tied tightly round the waist so as to fall in folds over the legs. Even Mahommedan men sometimes wear the _majla_ in these districts. This form of dress is known among Moslems as _tahband_ [lower binding] (Plate I. fig. 6). In Rajputana, Gujarat and the southern Punjab, Mahommedan women sometimes wear a _lhenga_ or _ghagra_ skirt without trousers; in the Sirsa district and parts of Gujarat the ghagra is worn over the trousers. The _sadari_ or waistcoat is worn by women as well as men. The _tillak_ or _peshwaz_ is a dress or robe the skirt and bodice of which are made in one piece, usually of red or other coloured material; it is common in Gujarat, Rajputana and the Sirsa district, and is the style usually adopted by nautch girls when dancing. Meman women wear also the _aba_, or overcoat, which differs from that worn by men in that it has loose half sleeves, and fastens with two buttons at each side of the neck over the shoulders; it is embroidered on the breast, and adorned with gold lace on the skirts.

In Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and other towns in the Punjab and the United Provinces a special wedding dress is worn by the bride, called _rit-kajora_, the "dress of custom." It is worn on the wedding night only; and it is a rule that no scissors are employed in making it. The trouser string of this dress is not the usual _kamarband_, but is made of untwisted cotton thread called _kalawa_. Out of doors Mahommedan women wear the _burka_, a long loose white garment entirely covering the head and body. It has two holes for the eyes. Mahommedan women pencil the eyes with _kohl_ or _surma_, use _missi_ for the teeth and colour the palms and nails of the hand with henna. A nose-ring is a sign of marriage.

HINDUS.--Caste does not influence dress amongst Hindus as much as might be expected. The garment distinctive of the Hindus of all castes, men and women, all over India, is the _dhoti_ or loin cloth. It is a very ancient dress, and their gods are represented as clothed in it in old sculptures.

The general term used for clothing is _kapra_, _lata_ or _luga_. Under Mahommedan influence Hindu clothing developed into "suits," consisting of five pieces for men, hence called _pancho tuk kapra_--(1) head-dress, (2) _dhoti_, (3) coat, (4) _chaddar_ or sheet, (5) bathing cloth; and three for women, hence called _tin tuk_--(1) _dhoti_, (2) jacket, (3) shawl.

_Men._--The Hindu (except the Rajput) shaves his head, leaving only a top-knot on the point of the skull. He shaves the face (except the eye-brows) and his body. The Rajput wears a full beard and whiskers, usually parted in the middle. He sometimes draws the beard and whiskers to the side of the head, and to keep it tidy wraps round it a cloth called _dhata_ or _galmocha_.

_Head-dress._--Hindus wear sometimes turbans and sometimes caps. When the turban is worn it is always of the _pagri_ form, never the _amamah_. Hindus wind the _pagri_ in various ways as described for Mussulmans, but the angles are formed over the ears and not from front to back. Mahrattas wear flat red pagris, with a small conical peak variously shaped and placed. The _pagri_ is known in different parts of India as _pag_, _phenta_, _phag_, _phagdi_ and many other names. In Bengal a sort of turban is worn which can be taken off like a hat. When Hindus wear caps or _topis_ they resemble those worn by Mahommedans, but they never wear the _fez_, _tarbush_ or _irani topi_. In Gaya a peculiar cap made of _tal_ leaves is worn in rainy weather, called _ghunga_. Bengalis, whether Brahmans or of other castes, frequently go bareheaded.

_Body Clothing._--The _dhoti_ is a simple piece of cloth (cotton), generally white. It is wound round the loins, the end passed between the legs from front to back and tucked in at the waist behind (Plate II. fig. 2). The small form of _dhoti_ worn by men of the lower class is called _langoti_. It does not fall below mid-thigh. A Brahman's _dhoti_, as also that of some other castes, reaches to a little below the knee; a Rajput's to his ankles. The _dhoti_ is known under many names, _dhutia_, _pitambar_, _lungi_, &c. In some parts of India half the dhoti only is wound round the loins, the other half being thrown over the left shoulder. Some upper classes of Hindus wear for coat the _kurta_; most wear the _angharka_ (Plate II. fig. 1), a short _anga_ reaching to the waist. It is also known as _kamri_, _baktari_, _badan_ or _bandi_. Hindus wear the _angharkha_ or _anga_ as Mahommedans do, but whereas the Mahommedan has the opening on the left the Hindu wears it on the right. When the _kurta_ is worn it is worn under the _anga_. The _chaddar_ (_chadar_ or _dopatta_) is of various kinds. It is a piece of cotton cloth 3 yds. long by 1 yd. wide. It is worn across the shoulders, or wrapped round the body, but when bathing, round the loins. Hindus, both men and women, wear ear-rings.

_The Brakminical thread_ (_janeo_) (Plate II. fig. 2) is a cord made of twisted cotton prepared with many ceremonies. It is worn over the left shoulder and hangs down to the right hip. It is of three strands till the wearer is married, when it becomes six or nine. It is 96 handbreadths in length, and is knotted. Rajputs also wear this thread, similar in make and length, but the knots are different.

Caste and sect marks also distinguish Hindus from each other.

_Women._--The hair is sometimes worn plaited (_chotì_), usually an odd number of thin plaits made into one large one, falling down the back and fastened at the end with ribbons. Another style is wearing it in a knot after the ancient Grecian fashion; it is always worn smooth in front and parted in the middle. Over the head is worn the _orhna_ or veil. The end is thrown over the left shoulder in such a manner as to conceal the breast. On the upper part of the body the _kurta_ is sometimes worn. A bodice called _angiya_ is worn. This covers the breast and shoulder; it has half sleeves, is very short, and is fastened at the back with strings.

The skirt is called _lhenga_ or _ghagra_. It is worn mostly in Rajputana hanging in full flounces to the knee or a little below. In Bengal, Madras and Bombay Presidencies women do not wear a skirt, only a _choli_ and _sari_. This last is a long piece of cotton or silk cloth. Half is draped round the waist and hangs to the feet in folds; the remainder is passed over the head and thrown over the left shoulder (Plate II. fig. 4).

SIKH.--The Sikh does not shave or cut his hair. The beard is parted in the middle and carried up each side of the face to the top of the head. A piece of cloth called _dhata_ or _galmocha_ is wound round the chin and head so as to keep the hair clean and tidy. The hair of the head is tied into a knot (_kes_) at the top of the head or at the back, a distinguishing mark of the Sikh. His religion requires the Sikh to carry five articles--_kes_, the knot of hair on the head; the _kanga_, a comb; the _kard_, a knife; the _kach_, a pair of short trousers peculiar to the Sikh; and the _khara_, an iron bangle on the wrist. It is _de rigueur_ that he should carry some piece of iron on his person. His head-dress he calls a _pag_; it is a turban of _amamah_ shape but enormously large. The Sikh nobility and gentry wear two turbans, either both of pagri form or one of pagri and one of _amamah_ form. Each is of a different colour.

The Sikh calls his _kurta jhagga_; it is very large and loose, bound with a scarf round the waist. The _kach_ is a sort of knickerbockers reaching to just below the knee, which they encircle tightly. Over all the Sikh wears the _choga_. In outlying villages he wears instead of the _kurta_ a _chadar_ or cloth, which he calls _khes_, on the upper part of his body. Some village Sikhs wear a _tahband_ or waistcloth instead of the _kach_. Sikhs are fond of jewelry and wear ear-rings. The dress of Sikh women does not differ greatly from that of Hindu women; but in the Sirsa district and some other parts she wears the Mahommedan _sutan_ or trousers, under the _lhenga_ or skirt. There is a small sect of Sikh known as _Akali_ or _Nihang_. Their dress is entirely of dark blue colour, the turban being also blue, high and pointed; on it are fastened three steel quoits. The quoit was the ancient weapon of the Sikh, who calls it _chakar_. Certain steel blades are stuck through the body of the turban. The Akalis also wear large flat iron rings round the neck and arms (Plate II. fig. 6).

PARSIS.--When the Parsis were first admitted into India, certain conditions were imposed upon them by the Hindus; among others they were not to eat beef, and they were to follow the Hindu custom of wearing a top-knot of hair. Old-fashioned Parsis in country districts still follow these customs. To uncover the head is looked upon as a sin; hence Parsis of both sexes always wear some head covering whether indoors or out. In the house the man wears a skull cap; out of doors the older Parsis wear the _khoka_, a tall hat, higher in front than at the back, made of a stiff shiny material, with a diaper pattern (Plate I. fig. 7). The younger generation adopted a round pith hat with a rolled edge of felt, but, under the influence of the _swadeshi_ movement, they have generally reverted to the older form (Plate I. fig. 10). Next to the skin the Parsi wears a _sadra_ or sacred shirt, with a girdle called _kasti_. Over the _sadra_ a white cotton coat is worn, reaching to a little below the waist. The Parsi wears loose cotton trousers like a Mussulman. In country districts he wears a _jama_, and over the _jama_ a _pechodi_ or shoulder cloth. The young Parsi in Bombay has adopted European dress to a great extent, except as to head-gear. The Parsi woman dresses her hair in the old Greek fashion with a knot behind. She also wears a _sadra_ or sacred shirt. Country Parsis in villages wear a tight-fitting sleeveless bodice, and trousers of coloured cloth. Over all she winds a silken _sari_ or sheet round the body; it is then passed between the legs and the end thrown over the right shoulder. Out of doors she covers her head and right temple (Plate I. fig. 8). In towns the _sari_ is not passed between the legs, but hangs in loose folds so as to hide the trousers. The upper classes wear a sleeved _polka_ jacket instead of the bodice. Parsi children up to the age of seven wear cotton frocks called _jabhlan_. They wear long white trousers of early Victorian cut, with frills at the bottom. They wear a round cap like a smoking-cap. The little girls wear their hair flowing loose (Plate I. fig. 9).

SHOES.--There is no distinction between the shoes worn by Hindus, Moslems, Sikhs or Parsis, but Hindus will not wear them when made of cow's leather. Shoes are called _juta_, _juti_ or _jute_ by Mahommedans, and _jore_ or _zore_ by Hindus. Shoes are usually distinguished by the name of the material, as _nari ka juta_, leather shoes, _banati juta_, felt shoes, and so on.

There are innumerable styles of cut of shoe, three being the commonest: (1) _Salimshahi_, these are shaped like English slippers, but are pointed at the toe, terminating in a thin wisp turned back and fastened to the instep. They are mostly made of thin red leather, plain in the case of poorer people and richly embroidered in the case of rich people. This cut of shoe is most in vogue amongst Moslems. (2) _Gol panje ki juti_, like English slippers, but rounded at the toes. (3) _Ghelta_ or _nagphani_ (snake's head) _juta_, the toe is turned up, while the back part is folded inwards and trodden under the heel. Ladies usually wear shoes of this fashion, known as _phiri juti_. Women's shoes differ only in size and in being made of finer material, and in being embroidered. Hindu women seldom wear shoes. On the northern frontier the pattern known as the _kafshi_ is worn; this is a slipper having neither sides nor back; the sole towards the heel is narrow and raised by a small iron-shod heel. In the hills shoes resembling sandals, called _chaplis_, made of wood, straw or grass are worn. The soles are very thick, and are secured with straps; there is generally a loop for the big toe. They are known as _phulkarru_ in Kashmir, and _pula_ in Kulu and Chamba.

Shoes are invariably removed on entering mosques or other holy places. It is also customary to remove them when entering a house. Orientals sit on the floor in preference to chairs; hence it is thought very necessary by them that the carpet should be kept clean, which could not be done were persons to keep their shoes on. While it would be considered a breach of good manners to enter a room with the shoes on, an exception has been made in favour of those natives who have adopted European boots or shoes. The babus of Bengal have taken to English-made shoes of patent leather worn over white socks or stockings.

AUTHORITIES.--The Indian section of the Victoria and Albert Museum
(London) includes an exhibition of oriental dress; and the library of
the India Office many prints and photographs. The following books may
be consulted: _Coloured Drawings illustrating the Manners and Customs
of Natives of India_ (originally prepared by order of the marquess
Wellesley, Governor-General; _vide_ Council minute dated 16th August,
1866) (1 vol.); J. Forbes Watson and J. W. Kaye, _The People of
India_; F. Baltazar Solvyns, _Les Hindous_ (4 vols. illustrated,
Paris, 1808); India Office Library, 3 small portfolios of pictures of
Katch and Bombay men and women; _Costume of Bala Ghat_ (Carnatic),
S.E. India (large water-colours, India Office Library); Illustrations
of various trades in Kashmir, by Indian artists (India Office
Library); R. H. Thalbhoy, _Portrait Gallery of Western India_ (1886)
(chiefly portraits of Parsi notables); Edward Tuite Dalton, C.S.I.,
_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (1 vol., 1872); Talboys Wheeler,
_History of the Imperial Assembly at Delhi, 1st January 1877_; _Queen
Victoria's Jubilee, 6th February 1887_ (in Urdu, illustrated); T. H.
Hendley, C.I.E., V.D., _Rulers of India and Chiefs of Rajputana_
(London, 1897)--the last three are useful for the study of ceremonial
dress; G. A. Grierson, _Bihar Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, 1885; this is a
most valuable work of learning and research; in division 2,
subdivision 3, chapter 1, on clothes, will be found names and
descriptions of every article of clothing used in south, central and
eastern India); H. B. Baden-Powell, _Handbook of Manufactures and Arts
of the Punjab_ (Lahore, 1872); W. W. Hunter, _Statistical Account of
Bengal_ (1875); Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_ (London, 1895); Sir
Denzil Ibbetson, _Outlines of Punjab Ethnography_; E. Thurston,
_Castes and Tribes of Southern India_. It is to be hoped that steps
will shortly be taken to arrange articles of costume now displayed at
the Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, in some systematic
order so as to assist students in arriving at a scientific knowledge
of the subject. (C. G.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The spelling throughout all the articles dealing with India is
that adopted by the government of India, modified in special
instances with deference to long-established usage.

[2] The historicity of this convention, not now usually admitted by
scholars, is maintained by Bishop Copleston of Calcutta in his
_Buddhism, Primitive and Present_ (1908).

[3] In 1909 the excavation of a ruined stupa near Peshawar disclosed
a casket, with an inscription of Kanishka, and containing fragments
of bones believed to be those of Buddha himself.

[4] In 1909 an inscription in Brahmi characters was discovered near
Bhilsa in Central India recording the name of a Greek, Heliodorus. He
describes himself as a worshipper of Bhagavata (= Vishnu), and states
that he had come from Taxila in the name of the great king
Antialcidas, who is known from his coins to have lived c. 170 B.C.

[5] This is the conventional European form of the name. For other
forms see YUE-CHI.

[6] V. A. Smith, _Early Hist. of India_, p. 238.

[7] Smith, _op. cit._ pp. 239, &c., says that he probably succeeded
Kadphises II. about A.D. 120. Dr Fleet dates the beginning of
Kanishka's reign 58 B.C. (see INSCRIPTIONS: _Indian_). Mr Vincent
Smith (_Imp. Gaz. of India, The Indian Empire_, ed. 1908, vol. ii. p.
289, note) dissents from this view, which is also held by Dr Otto
Franke of Berlin, stating that Dr Stein's discoveries in Chinese
Turkestan "strongly confirm the view" held by himself.

[8] See V. A. Smith, _op. cit._ pp. 297, &c.

[9] His era, however, is dated from 606.

[10] So V. A. Smith, _op. cit._ p. 314, who on this point differs
from Sylvain Levi and Ettinghausen.

[11] For Harsha's reign see Smith, _op. cit._ xiii. 311-331.

[12] This has been Englished by Anglo-Indians into "puggaree" or
"pugree" and applied to a scarf of white cotton or silk wound round a
hat or helmet as a protection against the sun.

[13] Anglicized as "pyjamas" (in America "pajamas"), the term is used
of a form of night-wear for men which has now generally superseded
the night-shirt. This consists of a loose coat and trousers of silk,
wool or other material; the trousers are fastened by a cord round the
waist.

INDIA, FRENCH, a general name for the French possessions in India--on the Coromandel coast, Pondicherry, Karikal and Yanaon; on the Malabar coast, Mahé; and in Bengal, Chandernagore. In addition there are a few "lodges" elsewhere, but they are merely nominal remnants of French factories. The total area amounts to 203 sq. m., of which 113 sq. m. belong to the territory of Pondicherry. In 1901 the total population amounted to 273,185. By decree of the 25th of January 1879 French India was provided with an elective general council and elective local councils. The results of this measure have not been very satisfactory, and the qualifications for and the classes of the franchise have been modified. The governor resides at Pondicherry, and is assisted by a council. There are two tribunals of first instance (at Pondicherry and Karikal), one court of appeal (at Pondicherry) and five justices of the peace. The agricultural produce consists of rice, earth-nuts, tobacco, betel nuts and vegetables.

_History._--The first French expedition to India is believed to have taken place in the reign of Francis I., when two ships were fitted out by some merchants of Rouen to trade in eastern seas; they sailed from Havre in that year and were never afterwards heard of. In 1604 a company was granted letters patent by Henry IV., but the project failed. Fresh letters patent were issued in 1615, and two ships went to India, only one returning. _La Compagnie des Indes_ was formed under the auspices of Richelieu (1642) and reconstructed under Colbert (1664), sending an expedition to Madagascar. In 1667 the French India Company sent out another expedition, which reached Surat in 1668, where the first French factory in India was established. In 1672 Saint Thomé was taken, but the French were driven out by the Dutch and retired to Pondicherry (1674). In 1741 Dupleix became governor of Pondicherry and in 1744 war broke out between France and England; for the remaining history of the French in India see INDIA.

See Haurigot, _French India_ (Paris, 1887); Henrique, _Les Colonies
françaises_ (Paris, 1889); Lee, _French Colonies_ (Foreign Office
Report, 1900); _L'Année coloniale_ (Paris, 1900); and F. C. Danvers,
_Records of the India Office_ (1887).

INDIANA, a north-central state of the United States of America, the second state to be erected from the old North-West Territory; popularly known as the "Hoosier State." It is located between latitudes 37° 47´ and 41° 50´ N. and longitudes 84° 49´ and 88° 2´ W. It is bounded on the N. by Michigan and Lake Michigan, on the E. by Ohio, on the S. by Kentucky from which it is separated by the Ohio river, and on the W. by Illinois. Its total area is 36,350 sq. m., of which 440 sq. m. are water surface.

_Physiography._--Topographically, Indiana is similar to Ohio and
Illinois, the greater part of its surface being undulating prairie
land, with a range of sand-hills in the N. and a chain of picturesque
and rocky hills, known as "Knobs," some of which rise to a height of
500 ft., in the southern counties along the Ohio river. This southern
border of hills is the edge of the "Cumberland Plateau" physiographic
province. In the northern portion of the state there are a number of
lakes, of glacial origin, of which the largest are English Lake in
Stark county, James Lake and Crooked Lake in Steuben county, Turkey
Lake and Tippecanoe Lake in Kosciusko county and Lake Maxinkuckee in
Marshall county. In the limestone region of the south there are
numerous caves, the most notable being Wyandotte Cave in Crawford
county, next to Mammoth Cave the largest in the United States. In the
southern and south-central part of the state, particularly in Orange
county, there are many mineral springs, of which the best known are
those at French Lick and West Baden. The larger streams flow in a
general south-westerly direction, and the greater part of the state is
drained into the Ohio through the Wabash river and its tributaries.
The Wabash, which has a total length of more than 500 m., has its
headwaters in the western part of Ohio, and flows in a north-west,
south-west, and south direction across the state, emptying into the
Ohio river and forming for a considerable distance the boundary
between Indiana and Illinois. It is navigable for river steamboats at
high water for about 350 m. of its course. Its principal tributaries
are the Salamanie, Mississinewa, Wild Cat, Tippecanoe and White
rivers. Of these the White river is by far the most important, being
second only to the Wabash itself in extent of territory drained. It is
formed by the confluence of its East and West Forks, almost 50 m.
above its entrance into the Wabash, which it joins about 100 m. above
the Ohio. Other portions of the state are drained by the Kankakee, a
tributary of the Illinois, the St Joseph and its principal branch, the
Elkhart, which flow north through the south-west corner of Michigan
and empty into Lake Michigan; the St Mary's and another St Joseph,
whose confluence forms the Maumee, which empties into Lake Erie; and
the White Water, which drains a considerable portion of the south-west
part of the state into the Ohio.

_Flora and Fauna._--The flora of the state is varied, between 1400 and
1500 species of flowering plants being found. Among its native fruits
are the persimmon, the paw-paw, the goose plum and the fox grape.
Cultivated fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, grapes and
berries, are raised in large quantities for the market. The economic
value of the forests was originally great, but there has been reckless
cutting, and the timber-bearing forests are rapidly disappearing. As
late as 1880 Indiana was an important timber-producing state, but in
1900 less than 30% of the total acreage of the state--only about
10,800 sq. m.--was woodland, and on very little of this land were
there forests of commercial importance. There are about 110 species of
trees in the state, the commonest being the oak. The bald cypress, a
southern tree, seems to be an anomalous growth. Blue grass is valuable
for grazing and hay-making. The principal crops include Indian corn,
wheat, oats, potatoes, buckwheat, rye and clover.

The fauna originally included buffalo, elk, deer, wolves, bear, lynx,
beaver, otter, porcupine and puma, but civilization has driven them
all out entirely. Rattlesnakes and copperheads were formerly common in
the south. The game birds include quail (Bob White), ruffed grouse
and a few pinnated grouse (once very plentiful, then nearly
exterminated, but now apparently reappearing under strict protection),
and such water birds as the mallard duck, wood duck, blue- and
green-winged teals, Wilson's snipe, and greater and lesser yellow legs
(snipe). The song birds and insectivorous birds include the cardinal
grosbeak, scarlet and summer tanagers, meadow lark, song sparrow,
catbird, brown thrasher, wood thrush, house wren, robin, blue bird,
goldfinch, red-headed woodpecker, flicker (golden-winged woodpecker),
and several species of warblers. The game fish include the bass
(small-mouth and large-mouth), brook trout, pike, pickerel, and
muskallonge, and there are many other large and small food fishes.

_Climate._--The climate of Indiana is unusually equable. The mean
annual temperature is about 52° F., ranging from 49° F. in the north
to 54° in the south. The mean monthly temperature varies from 25° in
the months of December and January to 77°-79° in July and August. Cold
winds from the Great Lakes region frequently cause a fall in
temperature to an extreme of -25° F. in the north and north central
parts of the state. The mean annual rainfall for the entire state is
about 43 in., varying from 35 in. in the north to 46 in. in the Ohio
Valley.

The soil of the greater part of the state consists of a drift deposit
of loose calcareous loam, which extends to a considerable depth, and
which is exceedingly fertile. In the Ohio and White Water river
valleys a sandstone and limestone formation predominates. The north
and north central portions of the state, formerly rather swampy, have
become since the clearing of the forests as productive as the south
central. The most fertile part of the state is the Wabash valley; the
least fertile the sandy region, of small extent, immediately south of
Lake Michigan.

_Industry and Manufactures._--Agriculture has always been and still is
the chief industry of the state of Indiana. According to the census of
1900, 94.1% of the land area was included in farms, and of this 77.2%
was improved. The proportion of farms rented comprised 28.6% of the
whole number, four-fifths of these being rented on a share basis. The
average size of farms, which in 1850 was 136.2 acres, had decreased to
105.3 acres in 1880 and to 97.4 acres in 1900. The value of the farm
property increased from $726,781,857 in 1880 to $978,616,471 in 1900.
The farms are commonly cultivated on the three-crop rotation system.
The proximity of such good markets as Chicago, Cincinnati, St Louis
and Louisville, in addition to the local markets, and the unusual
opportunities afforded by the railways that traverse every portion of
the state, have been important factors in the rapid agricultural
advance which has enabled Indiana to keep pace with the newly
developed states farther west. Indiana was ninth in the value of its
agricultural products in 1889, and retained the same relative rank in
1899, although the value had considerably more than doubled,
increasing from $94,759,262 in 1889 to $204,450,196 in 1899. The
principal crops in which the state has maintained a high relative rank
are Indian corn, wheat and hay; the acreage devoted to each of these
increased considerably in the decade 1890-1900. In 1907, according to
the Department of Agriculture, the acreage of Indian corn was
4,690,000 acres (7th of the states), and the yield was 168,840,000
bushels (5th of the states); of wheat, 2,362,000 acres (6th of the
states) was planted, and the crop was 34,013,000 bushels (7th of the
states); and 2,328,000 acres of hay (the 8th largest acreage among the
states of the United States) produced 3,143,000 tons (the 8th largest
crop). Other important staple crops are oats, rye and potatoes, of
which the crops in 1907 were respectively 36,683,000 bushels, 961,000
bushels, and 7,308,000 bushels. There are no well-defined crop belts,
the production of the various crops being general throughout the
state, except in the case of potatoes, most of which are raised in the
sandy regions of the north. The value of the orchard products is
large, and is steadily increasing: in the decade 1890-1900 the number
of pear trees increased from 204,579 to 868,184, and between 1889 and
1899 the crop increased from 157,707 to 231,713 bushels. Of apple
trees, which surpass all other orchard trees in number, there were
more than 8,600,000 in 1900. The total value of the state's orchard
products in 1899 was $3,166,338, and the value of small fruits was
$1,113,527. The canning industry both for fruits and small vegetables
has become one of much importance since 1890.

Stock-raising is an industry of growing importance, the value of the
live stock in the state increasing from $71,068,758 in 1880 to
$93,361,422 in 1890 and $109,550,761 in 1900. Sheep-raising, however,
which is confined largely to the north and east portions of the state,
decreased slightly in importance between 1890 and 1900. The value of
the dairy products sold in 1899 (census of 1900) was $8,027,370,
nearly one-half of which was represented by butter; and the total
value of dairy products was $15,739,594.

In the value, extent and producing power of her manufacturing
industries Indiana has made remarkable advance since 1880. This
increase, which more than kept pace with that of the country as a
whole, was due largely to local causes, among which may be mentioned
the unusual shipping facilities afforded by the network of railways,
the discovery and development of natural gas, and the proximity of
coal fields, the gas and the coal together furnishing an ample supply
of cheap fuel. The number of manufacturing establishments (under the
"factory" system) within the state was 7128 in 1900, 7044 in 1905;
their invested capital was $219,321,080 in 1900 and $312,071,234 in
1905, an increase of 42.3%; and the value of their total product was
$337,071,630 in 1900 and $393,954,405 in 1905, an increase of 16.9%.
The most important manufactured products in 1905 were flour and grist
mill products, valued at $36,473,543; in 1900, when they were second
in importance to slaughter-house products and packed meats, they were
valued at $29,037,843. Next in importance in 1905 was the slaughtering
and meat-packing industry, of which the total product was valued at
$29,352,593; in 1900 it was valued at $43,862,273. Other important
manufactured products were: those of machine shops and foundries, the
value of which increased from $17,228,096 in 1900 to $23,108,516 in
1905, or 34.1%; distilled liquors, the value of which had increased
from $16,961,058 in 1900 to $20,520,261 in 1905, an increase of 21%;
iron and steel, valued at $19,338,481 in 1900 and at $16,920,326 in
1905; carriages and wagons, valued at $12,661,217 in 1900 and at
$15,228,337 in 1905; lumber and timber products, valued at $19,979,971
in 1900 and at $14,559,662 in 1905; and glass, valued at $14,757,883
in 1900 and at $14,706,929 in 1905--this being 3.7% of the product
value of all manufactures in the state in 1905, and 18.5% of the value
of glass produced in the United States in that year. The growth in the
preceding decade of the iron and steel industry, the products of which
increased in value from $4,742,760 in 1890 to $19,338,481 in 1900
(307.7%), and of the manufacture of glass, the value of which
increased from $2,995,409 in 1890 to $14,757,883 in 1900 (392.7%), is
directly attributable to the development of natural gas as fuel; the
decrease in the value of the products of these same industries in
1900-1905 is partly due to the growing scarcity of the natural gas
supply. As compared with the other states of the United States in
value of manufactured products, Indiana ranked second in 1900 and in
1905 in carriages and wagons, glass and distilled liquors; was seventh
in 1900 and fourth in 1905 in furniture; was fourth in 1900 and
seventh in 1905 in wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing; was fifth
in 1900 and sixth in 1905 in agricultural implements; and in iron and
steel and flour and grist mill products was fifth in 1900 and eighth
in 1905. The most important manufacturing centres are Indianapolis,
Terre Haute, Evansville, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Anderson, Hammond,
Richmond, Muncie, Michigan City and Elwood, each having a gross annual
product of more than $6,000,000.

According to the annual report on _Mineral Resources of the United
States_ for 1906, Indiana ranked fifth in the Union in the value of
natural gas produced, sixth in petroleum, and sixth in coal. Natural
gas was discovered in 1886 in the east-central part of the state, and
its general application to manufacturing purposes caused an industrial
revolution in the immediate region. Pipe lines carried it to various
manufacturing centres within the state and to Chicago, Ill., and
Dayton, Ohio. During the early years an enormous amount was wasted;
this was soon prohibited by law, and a realization that the supply was
not unlimited resulted in a better appreciation of its great value.
The gas, which is found in the Trenton limestone, had an initial
pressure at the point of discovery of 325 lb.; this pressure had
decreased in the field centre by January 1896 to 230 lb., and by
January 1901 to 115 lb., the general average of pressure at the latter
date being 80 lb. The gas field extends over Hancock, Henry, Hamilton,
Tipton, Madison, Grant and Delaware counties. The value of the output
fell from $7,254,539 in 1900 to $1,750,715 in 1906, when the state's
product was only 4.2% of that of the entire country. On the 1st of
January 1909 there were 3223 wells in operation, some of which were
1200 ft. deep. It has been found that "dead" gas wells, if drilled
somewhat deeper, generally become active oil wells. The development of
the petroleum field, which extends over Adams, Wells, Jay, Blackford
and Grant counties, was rapid up to 1904. The annual output increased
from 33,375 barrels in 1889 to 11,339,124 barrels in 1904, the latter
amount being valued at $12,235,674 and being 12.09% of the value of
the product of the entire country. In 1906 there was an output of only
7,673,477 barrels, valued at $6,770,066, being 7.3% of the product
value of the entire country. The Indiana coal fields, which cover an
area of between 7000 and 7500 sq. m. in the west and south-west,
chiefly in Clay, Vigo, Sullivan, Vermilion and Greene counties,
yielded in 1902 9,446,424 tons, valued at $10,399,660; in 1907,
13,985,713 tons, valued at $15,114,300; the production more than
trebled since 1896, when it was 3,905,779 tons. The deposits consist
of workable veins, 50 to 220 ft. in depth, and averaging 80 ft. below
the surface. It is a high grade block, or "splint" coal, remarkably
free from sulphur and rich in carbon, peculiarly adapted to blast
furnace use. The quarries and clay beds of the state are of great
value. The quarries of sandstone and limestone are chiefly in the
south and south-central portions of the state. The value of the
limestone quarried in 1908 was $3,643,261, as compared with $2,553,502
in 1902. The Bedford oolitic limestone quarries in Owen, Monroe,
Lawrence, Washington and Crawford counties furnish one of the most
valuable and widely used building stones in the United States, the
value of the product in 1905 being $2,492,960, of which $2,393,475 was
from Lawrence and Monroe counties and $1,550,076 from Lawrence county
alone. Beds of brick-clays and potters' clay are widely distributed
throughout the state, the total value of pottery products in 1902
being $5,283,733 and in 1906 $7,158,234. Marls adapted to the
manufacture of Portland cement are found along the Ohio river, and in
the lake region in the north. In 1905 and 1906 Indiana ranked third
among the states in the production of Portland cement, which in 1908
was 6,478,165 barrels, valued at $5,386,563--an enormous advance
over 1903, when the product was 1,077,137 barrels, valued at
$1,347,797. The production of natural rock cement, chiefly in Clark
county, is one of the two oldest industries in the state, but in
Indiana as elsewhere it is falling off--from an output in 1903 of
about 1,350,000 barrels to 212,901 barrels (valued at $240,000) in
1908. There are many mineral springs in the state, and there are
famous resorts at French Lick and West Baden in Orange county. A large
part of the water bottled is medicinal: hence the high average price
per gallon ($0.99 in 1907 when 514,366 gallons were sold, valued at
$507,746, only 2% being table waters). In 1907 19 springs were
reported at which mineral waters were bottled and sold; they were in
Allen, Hendricks, Pike, Bartholomew, Warren, Clark, Martin, Brown,
Gibson, Wayne, Orange, Vigo and Dearborn counties. A law of 1909
prohibited the pumping of certain mineral waters if such pumping
diminished the flow or injured the quality of the water of any spring.