Chapter XX: Part 20

Another, not always just or fair, method of gauging the intelligence of the North American Indians is by their ability to assimilate the culture of the whites and to profit by the contact of the two races. Curiously enough, some of the tribes at one time considered lowest in point of general intellectual equipment have shown not a little of this ability, and there is a marked difference in this respect between tribes belonging to one and the same stock. The Athabaskan stock e.g. shows such variations, or rather perhaps this stock in general exhibits a tendency to adopt the culture of other peoples, thus some of the Athabaskan tribes in Alaska have acquired elements of culture from the Eskimo; the Takulli have been influenced by the Tsimshian, and Nahané by the Tlingit, the Chilcotin by the Salish, the Sarcee by the western Algonkian tribes, and in the extreme south the Navaho by the Pueblos Indians. The Salishan stock has largely this same characteristic. Of these two peoples Mr C. Hill-Tout (_The Salish and Déné_, London, 1907, p. 50) says: "It would be difficult indeed to find two peoples more susceptible to foreign influences, more receptive of new ideas and more ready and willing to adopt and carry them out." In the relations established between them and the whites not enough advantage in the proper way has been taken of this "philoneism," which ought to have been the basis of their acquisition of our culture, or such aspects of it as suited them best. And perhaps there are other stocks of which, if we knew them well, similar things might be said. Of the Indians of the Shoshonian stock the Paiutes of Nevada and Arizona have shown themselves capable of making themselves necessary to the whites (farmers, &c.) of that region, and not falling victims to the "vices of civilization." Although they still retain their primitive _wickiups_ (or rush huts), they seem actually to have improved in health, wealth and character from association with the "superior" race, a rare thing in many respects among the lower Indian tribes of North America. This improvement of the Paiutes causes us not to be surprised when we find the more cultured Moquis and the "civilized" Aztecs of ancient Mexico to belong to the same Shoshonian stock. Acculturation by borrowing has played an important rôle in the development of North American Indian ideas and institutions. This is well illustrated by the history of the Plains Indians, with their numerous intertribal societies, their temporary and their permanent alliances, federations, &c. If ways and means for the transfer of elements of culture indicate intelligence, some of these tribes must rank rather high in the scale. The Algonkian, Iroquoian and Muskogian stocks, both in the case of individuals and in the case of whole tribes (or their remnants), have exhibited great ability in the directions indicated. Of the Caddoan stock the Pawnees seem gifted with considerable native ability expressing itself particularly in the matter of religion (the Hupas, of the Athabaskan stock, seem also to have "a religious sense"). Some tribes of the Siouan stock have, both in the case of individuals and as peoples, given evidence of marked intelligence, especially in relation to psychic phenomena and the treatment of adolescent youth. In their culture, their ceremonies and ritual proceedings, as well as in their material arts, the Pueblos Indians of the south-western United States show, in many ways, their mental kinship with the creators and sustainers of the civilization of ancient Mexico and Central America. From the table of Indian tribes it will be seen that aborigines of the most diverse stocks have shown themselves capable of assimilating white culture and of adapting themselves to the new set of circumstances. Progress and improvement are not at all confined to any one stock.

Syllabaries.

A very interesting fact in the history of the education of the aborigines north of Mexico is the success of the attempt to enable them to read and write their own language by means of specially prepared syllabaries, "alphabets," &c. The first of these, the still existing "Micmac hieroglyphics," so-called, was the work of Father le Clercq in 1665, improved by Father Kauder in 1866; one of the most recent, the adaptation of the "Cree syllabary" of Evans by Peck to the language of the Eskimo of Cumberland Sound. The basis of many of the existing syllabaries is "the Cree syllabary," or "Evans Syllabary," invented about 1841 by the Rev. James Evans, a Methodist missionary in the Hudson's Bay region from the study of the shorthand systems current at that time. This syllabary and modifications of it are now in use (with much printed literature) for both writing and printing among many tribes of the Algonkian, Athabaskan (modified by Morice for the Carriers, by Kirkby and others for Chipewyan, Slavé, &c.), Eskimo (modified by Peck), Siouan (Cree syllabary used by Canadian Stonies) stocks. Among the Salishan tribes of the Thompson river region, the Shushwap, Okanagan, &c., a stenographic modification (reproduced by mimeograph) by Father le Jeune of the Duployan system of shorthand has been used with great success. But the most remarkable of all these syllabaries is one more of Indian than missionary origin, in its application at least, the well-known "Cherokee alphabet" of Sequoyah, an uneducated Cherokee half-blood, who got part of his idea from an old spelling-book though his characters did not at all correspond to English sounds--at first 82, later 86 syllables were represented. Invented about 1821 the "Cherokee alphabet" was first used for printing in 1827, and has been in constant use since then for correspondence and for various literary purposes. The effect of this invention is thus described by Mooney (_Myths of the Cherokee_, 1902):--

"The invention of the alphabet had an immediate and wonderful effect
on Cherokee development. An account of the remarkable adaptation of
the syllabary to the language, it was only necessary to learn the
characters to be able to read at once. No school-houses were built and
no teachers hired, but the whole Nation became an academy for the
study of the system, until, in the course of a few months, without
school or expense of time or money, the Cherokee were able to read and
write in their own language. An active correspondence began to be
carried on between the Eastern and Western divisions, and plans were
made for a national press, with a national library and museum to be
established at the capital, New Echota. The missionaries, who had at
first opposed the new alphabet on the ground of its Indian origin, now
saw the advisability of using it to further their own work."

In spite of absurdities of form and position in the characters of this syllabary, it serves its purpose so well that, as Pilling informs us (_Amer. Anthrop._, 1893), "a few hours of instruction are sufficient for a Cherokee to learn to read his own language intelligibly," and in two and a half months the Cherokee child "acquires the art of reading and writing fluently in these rude characters." The success of the "Cree syllabary" was also astonishing, and in 1890, according to Maclean (_Canad. Sav. Folk_, p. 283), "few Cree Indians can be found who are not able to read the literature printed in the syllabic characters." Here again, "an Indian with average intelligence can memorize the whole in a day, and in less than one week read fluently any book written upon this plan," and many Indians learn to read fluently "with no other teachers but the Indians around the camp-fires." Morice reports equal success with his syllabary: "Through it Indians of common intelligence have learnt to read in one week's leisurely study before they had any primer or printed matter of any kind to help them on. We even know of a young man who performed the feat in the space of two evenings." Le Jeune's experience with the Shuswap and Thompson Indians is the same. The creation of a "literary" class among so many Indian tribes within a comparatively brief period is certainly a very interesting result, and one which gives evidence of native intelligence among children and adults alike (_Amer. Journ. Psychol._, 1905).

For a general list of authorities on the American aborigines, see
bibliography under AMERICA, section 3, _Ethnology_. The literature on
the subject, already vast, is continually increasing, and it is
impossible to enumerate every contribution made by the large number of
expert anthropologists working in this field. The chief works of a
special nature have already been cited in the text. (A. F. C.)

INDICATOR (from Lat. _indicare_, to point out), that which points out or records. In engineering, the word is specifically given to a mechanical device for registering the pressure of the working fluid in an engine cylinder during a stroke of the piston, the record so provided being termed the "indicator diagram" (see STEAM-ENGINE). In chemistry, the word is generically applied to re-agents or chemicals which detect usually small quantities or traces of other substances; it is, however, more customarily restricted to re-agents which show whether a substance or solution is acid, alkaline or neutral, the character being revealed in a definite colour change.

Here we shall only deal with indicators in this last restricted sense. They were first systematically employed in analytical chemistry by Robert Boyle, who used the aqueous extracts of the coloured principles present in red-cabbage, violets and cornflowers. The indicator most in use to-day is litmus (q.v.), whose solution is turned red by an acid, and blue by an alkali. Several synthetic indicators are employed in acidimetry and alkalimetry. The choice is not altogether arbitrary, for experiments have shown that some are more suitable for acidimetry, while others are only applicable in alkalimetry; moreover, the strength of the acids and bases employed may exert a considerable influence on the behaviour of the indicator.

The following are well-known synthetic indicators: hacmoid, obtained from resorcin and sodium nitrite, resembles litmus. Phenolphthalein, obtained by condensing phenol with phthalic anhydride, is colourless both in acid and in neutral solution, but intensely red in the presence of alkali; the colour change is very sharp with strong bases, but tardy with weak ones, and consequently its use should be restricted to acidimetry when a strong base can be chosen, or to alkalimetry when a strong base is present. [alpha]-Naphtholphthalein has also been used (_Biochem. Zeit._, 1910, p. 381). Methyl orange, which is the sodium salt of the acid helianthin, obtained by diazotizing sulphanilic acid and coupling with dimethylaniline, is yellow in neutral and alkaline solutions, but red in acid; the change is only sharp with strong acids. Para-nitrophenol, obtained in the direct nitration of phenol, yields a colourless solution in the presence of acids, and an intense yellow with alkalis. Of more recent introduction are: alizarin red, I.W.S. (alizarin mono-sulphonic acid), claimed by G. E. Knowles (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. 389) to be better than methyl orange in alkalimetry; 3-amino-2-methylquinoline, used by O. Stark (ibid. 1907, i. 974) in ammonia estimations; para-nitrobenzeneazo-a-naphthol, shown by J. T. Hewitt (_Analyst_, 1908, 33, p. 85) to change from purple to yellow when alkalis are titrated with weak acids; para-dimethylaminoazobenzene-ortho-carboxylic acid, proposed by E. Rupp and R. Loose (_Ber._, 1908, 41, p. 3905) as very serviceable in the estimation of weak bases, such as the alkaloids or centinormal ammonia; the "resorubin" of M. Barberio (_Gazzetta_, 1907, ii. 577), obtained by acting with nitrous acid on resorcin, which forms a violet, blue or yellow coloration according as the solution is neutral, alkaline or acid. Mention may be made of E. Linder's (_J. Soc. Chem. Ind._, 1908, 27, p. 485) suggestion to employ metanil yellow, obtained by coupling diazotized meta-aminobenzenesulphonic acid with diphenylamine for distinguishing mineral from organic acids, a violet coloration being produced in the presence of the former.

_Theory of Indicators._--The ionic theory of solutions permitted the
formulation of a logical conception of the action of indicators by W.
Ostwald which for many years held its ground practically unchallenged;
and even now the arguments originally advanced hold good, except for
certain qualifications rendered necessary by more recent research. In
the language of the ionic theory, an acid solution is one containing
free hydrions, and an alkaline solution is one containing free
hydroxidions. A neutral solution contains hydrions and hydroxidions in
equal concentration; this is a consequence of the fact that pure water
itself undergoes a certain dissociation, and several different methods
show that in the purest water obtainable the concentration of the free
hydrions and hydroxidions is 10^(-7) at 24°. Moreover, the law of
mass-action (see CHEMICAL ACTION) demands that the product of the
concentrations of the hydrions and hydroxidions in any solution is
constant at a given temperature, and we see from the above values that
this constant is 10^(-14). It follows, therefore, that the acidity or
alkalinity of any solution can be expressed both in terms of hydrion
or hydroxidion concentration. Many researches have been directed to
classify acid and alkaline solutions according to the concentration of
the hydrion. Conductivity determinations show that the maximum
concentration of hydrion occurs in 5.8 - N nitric acid, where it has a
value of about 2 - N, and the minimum occurs in 6.7 - N potassium
hydroxide, where its value is 5 × 10^(-15), that of the hydroxidion
being about 2 - N. These figures apply to a temperature of 24°.
Bearing in mind the concentration of the ions in a neutral solution,
it is seen that a scheme of seven grades of "neutrality," differing by
successive powers of ten, may be formulated. The concentration of
hydrion and hydroxidion in any solution may be determined by several
independent methods, and it is therefore a simple matter to prepare
solutions of definite ionic concentrations and to test these with the
object of obtaining a list of indicators according to their
sensitiveness. It is found that litmus responds to concentrations of
10^(-6)H· and 10^(-6)OH', a result which shows this dye to be the best
indicator of true neutrality. Methyl orange responds to between
10^(-4)H· and 10^(-5)H·; para-nitrophenol to between 10^(-5)H· and
10^(-6)H·; and phenolphthalein to between 10^(-5)OH' and 10^(-6)OH'.
Salm (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 341) gives a list of
twenty-seven indicators classified on this principle. Other papers
bearing on this subject are Friedenthal, ibid., p. 113; Salessky,
ibid., p. 204; Fels, ibid., p. 208; Scholtz, ibid., p. 549; M. Handa,
_Ber._, 1909, 42, p. 3179.

The actual mechanism by which the indicator changes colour with
varying concentrations of hydrion or hydroxidion is now to be
considered. Ostwald formulated his ionization theory which assumes the
change to be due to the transition of the non-dissociated indicator to
the ionized condition, which are necessarily of different colours. On
this theory, an indicator must be weakly basic or acid, for if it were
a strong acid or base high dissociation would occur when it was in the
free state, and there would be no change of colour when the solution
was neutralized. Take the case of a weakly acid indicator such as
phenolphthalein. The presence of an acid depresses the very slight
dissociation of the indicator, and the colour of the solution is that
of the non-dissociated molecule. The addition of an alkali, if it be
strong, brings about the formation of a salt of phenolphthalein, which
is readily ionized, and so reveals the intense red coloration of the
anion; a weak base, however, fails to give free ions. An acid
indicator of medium strength is methyl orange. When free this
substance is ionized and the solution shows an orange colour, due to a
mixing of the red of the non-dissociated molecule and the yellow of
the ionized molecule. Addition of hydrions lessens the dissociation
and the solution assumes the red colour, while a base increases the
dissociation and so brings about the yellow colour. If the alkaline
solution be titrated with a strong acid, the hydrions present in a
very small amount of the acid suffices to reverse the colour; a weak
acid, however, must be added in considerable excess of the quantity
properly required to neutralize the solution, owing to its weak
dissociation. This indicator is therefore only useful when strong
acids are being dealt with, while its strongly acid nature renders it
serviceable for both strong and weak bases.

It seems, however, that in addition to a change in the ionic condition
of an indicator, there are cases where the coloration is associated
with tautomeric change. For example, J. T. Hewitt (_Analyst_, 1908,
33, p. 85) regards phenolphthalein and similar indicators as obeying
the following equilibrium in solution,

O: X_u·H --> X_v·O·H --> X_v·O´+H·,
<-- <--

X_u and X_v, being isomeric. This indicates the presence of two
tautomeric forms, one being of a quinonoid structure, and an ionized
molecule. A similar view is advanced by A. Hantzsch and F. Hilscher
(_Ber._, 1908, 41, p. 1187) who find that helianthin is quinonoid when
solid, whilst in solution there is an equilibrium between an aminoazo-
and sulphonic acid-form; on the other hand, the sodium salt, methyl
orange, is a sulphonate under both conditions.

INDICTMENT (from Anglo-Fr. _enditement_, _enditer_, to charge; Lat. _in_, against, _dictare_, declare), in English law, a formal accusation in writing laid before a grand jury and by them presented on oath to a court of competent jurisdiction. The accusation is drawn up in the form of a "bill" of indictment, prepared by the officer of the court or the legal adviser of the prosecution, engrossed on parchment, and sent before the grand jury. The grand jury hear in private the witnesses in support of the accusation (whose names are endorsed on the back of the bill), and, if satisfied that a prima facie case has been made out, find the bill to be a true bill and return it to the court as such. If otherwise, the jury ignore the bill and return to the court that they find "no true bill." Indictments differ from presentments, which are made by the grand jury on their own motion and their own knowledge; and from informations, which are instituted on the suggestion of a public officer without the intervention of a grand jury.

An indictment lies for "all treasons and felonies, for misprision of treasons and felonies and for all misdemeanours of a public nature at common law." And if a statute prohibit a matter of public grievance or command a matter of public convenience all acts or omissions in disobedience to the command or prohibition of the statute are treated as misdemeanours at common law, and unless the statute otherwise provides are punishable on indictment. In other words, the ordinary common law remedy in respect of criminal offences is by indictment of the accused and trial before a petty jury; and except in the case of informations for misdemeanour and summary proceedings by a court of record for "contempt of court" it is the only remedy, except where a statute creates another remedy, e.g. by trial before a court of summary jurisdiction.

The form of an indictment is still in the main regulated by the old common law rules of pleading, which as to civil pleadings were often amended during the 19th century, and finally abolished under the Judicature Acts.

An indictment may consist of one or more counts charging different offences. Each count consists of three parts: (1) the commencement, (2) the statement, (3) the conclusion. The formal commencement runs thus: "Surrey to wit." The first count begins "The jurors for our Lord the King (i.e. the grand jurors) upon their oath present that, &c."; and the subsequent counts begin, the "jurors aforesaid on their oath aforesaid do further present." The first words, which are placed in the margin of the document, are the "venue," i.e. the county or district over which extends the jurisdiction of the court before which the indictment is found. Subject to certain statutory exceptions it is necessary to prove that the acts or omissions alleged to constitute the offence occurred within that area. The conclusion consists of the words following: "against the form of the statute (or statutes) in that case made and provided, and against the peace of our Lord the King, his crown and dignity." Where the offence is statutory the whole phrase is used; where it is at common law only the second part is used. A formal conclusion is not now essential to the validity of the indictment, but from inveterate habit is in continued use. The statement sets forth the circumstances alleged to constitute the offence, i.e. the accusation made. There are still in force a number of rules as to the proper elements in the statement; but in substance it is only necessary to set forth the facts alleged against the accused with accuracy and sufficient precision as to the time and place and circumstances of the alleged offence, and to indicate whether felony or misdemeanour are charged, and so to frame the statement as to indicate a definite offence for which a lawful sentence may be imposed.

The following example illustrates the form of the statement:--

"That A. B. on the first day of June in the year of our Lord 1906 one
oak tree of the value of five pounds the property of C. D. then
growing in a certain park of the said C. D. situate in the parish of
E. in the county of F. feloniously did steal take and carry away
contrary to the statute, &c."

Only one offence should be stated in one count; and separate and distinct felonies should not be charged in the same indictment. If they are, the court makes the prosecution choose one upon which to proceed. This rule is altered by statute in certain cases: e.g. by allowing a limited number of separate thefts, or receivings of stolen property to be included in the same indictment. Misdemeanours and felonies may not be included in the same indictment because of the difference of procedure on the trial; but any number of misdemeanours may be included in different counts of the same indictment, subject to the right of the court to order separate trials or to quash the indictment if it is rendered vexatious by the agglomeration of charges.

There is no general limitation of the time within which indictments may lawfully be preferred; but various limitations have been fixed by statute for certain offences, e.g. in the case of certain forms of treason, of riot, of night poaching and of corrupt and illegal practices at elections. In this respect English law differs from European law, in which limitations of time for prosecution are the rule and not the exception.

Until the mitigation of the draconic severity of the English law in the early part of the 19th century, little or no power existed of amending defective statements or indictments, and the courts _in favorem vitae_ insisted strictly on accurate pleading and on proof of the offences exactly as charged. Since 1827 numerous enactments have been passed for getting rid of these technicalities, which led to undeserved acquittals, and since 1851 the courts have had power to disregard technical objections to the form of indictment and to amend in matters not essential in case of variance between the indictment and the evidence. These changes apply to ordinary offences; but for the most part do not touch charges of treason, as to which the old law in the main still applies. At the present time the looseness of pleading in criminal cases is carried almost too far; for while there is no danger in such looseness when times are quiet and when law is administered by the judges of the High Court in England, yet when crimes of a certain character are committed in times of great political excitement and the law is administered by an inferior judiciary, there may be some danger of injustice if the strictness of pleading and procedure is too much relaxed. In the Criminal Code drafted by Sir James Fitz James Stephen and revised by a judicial commission (Lord Blackburn and Lords Justices Lush and Barry), it was proposed to substitute for the old form of indictment a statement of the particulars of the offence with a reference to the section of the code defining the offence.

The law of Ireland as to indictments is in substance the same as that of England; but is to a certain extent expressed in different statutes.

In Scotland the terms indictment or criminal letters are used to express the _acte d'accusation_. But except in the case of high treason there is no grand jury, and the indictment is filed like an English criminal information by the lord advocate or one of his deputies: and it is only by order of the court of justiciary that a prosecution can be instituted without the general or particular assent of the lord advocate. By the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887 the form of Scots indictments is much simplified. They are drawn in the second and not in the third person.

In those of the British colonies in which by settlement or statute the English criminal law runs, the form of indictment is substantially the same, and is found by a grand jury as in England. But in certain colonies, e.g. the Australian states, an indictment by a public officer without the intervention of a grand jury has been adopted. In India and British Asiatic possessions the procedure is regulated by the Indian Procedure Code or its adaptations. In South Africa indictments are framed under Roman Dutch law as modified by local legislation.

In the United States prosecution or indictment by a grand jury is the rule: the form of indictment is the same, substituting the state or commonwealth of the United States for references to the king, and the conclusions "against the form of the statute" and "against the peace" are still in use. (W. F. C.)

"INDIES, LAWS OF THE," in the colonial history of Spain, a general term designative either (1) of certain codifications of legislation for the colonies listed below, and especially the compilation of 1680; or (2) of the whole body of colonial law, of which those compilations were but a selection, and which was made up of a multitude of royal _cédulas_, orders, letters, ordinances, provisions, instructions, _autos_, dispatches, pragmatics and laws--all emanating from the crown (or crown and cortes) and all of equal force--that were passed through various departments of government to various officers and branches of the colonial administration, or between the different departments of government in Spain. The transfer of Spanish law to Ultramar began with the first days of the Conquest; and especially the civil law was translated with comparatively slight alteration. Many things, however, peculiar to colonial conditions--the special relations of the crown and the papacy in America, the _repartimientos_ and _encomiendas_ ("divisions of lands" and "commendations," a system of patronage, or modified slavery) of the Indians, the development of African slavery, questions of natural and international law, the spread of discovery and establishment of new settlements and administrative areas, the sales and grants of public lands, the working of the mines--necessitated the organization of a great mass of special law, made up of a body of general doctrine and a vast quantity of administrative applications, _la matéria de Indias_--to which references are already found in the time of Ferdinand. The general doctrine was applicable everywhere in Ultramar, and the difficult and inconstant communication between the provinces, and other considerations, early counselled some work of codification. The first efforts to this end were begun in Mexico in 1525; a volume was published in 1563, and other inadequate compilations in 1596 and 1628, and finally the great _Recopilación de Leyes de las Reinos de las Indias_ of 1680. This code has enjoyed great fame, and in some ways even extravagant praise. The greatest praise that has been given it is that its dominant spirit through and through is not the mercantile aim but the political aim--the principle of civilization; and this praise it deserves. It had various defects, however, of an administrative nature; and as time passed its basic doctrines--especially its minute administrative strangulation of colonial political life, and its monopolistic economic principles--became fatally opposed to conditions and tendencies in the colonies. Two centuries in formation, the code of 1680--continually altered by supplementary interpretation and application--was only one century in effect; for in the seventeen-sixties Charles III. began, in a series of liberal decrees, to break down the monopolistic principles of colonial commerce. This change came too late to save the mainland colonies in America, but its remarkable effects were quickly seen in the aggrandizement of Cuba. It is in the history of this colony (as also in Porto Rico and the Philippines) that one must follow the later history of the Laws of the Indies (see CUBA).

Of the _Recopilación_ of 1680, five editions were issued by the
government, the last in 1841 (Madrid, 4 vols.); and there are later,
private editions approved by the government. See also J. M. Zomora y
Coronado, _Biblioteca de legislacion Ultramarina_ (Madrid, 1844-1849,
6 vols., with appendices often bound as vol. 7); J. Rodriguez San
Pedro, _Legislacion Ultramarina concordada_, covering 1837-1868 (12
vols., Madrid, 1865-1868, vols. 10-12 being a supplement); the
_Boletin oficial del Ministerio de Ultramar_, covering 1869-1879; and
M. Fernandez Martin, _Compilacion legislativa del gobierno y
administracion civil de Ultramar_ (Madrid, 1886-1894); the gap of
1879-1886 can be filled for Cuba by the series of _Reales Ordenes ...
publicadas en la Gaceta de la Habana_ (annual, Havana, 1857-1898,
covering 1854-1898).

INDIGO (earlier _indico_, from Lat. _indicum_, the Indian substance or dye; the Sans. name was _niti_, from _nila_, dark blue, and this through Arab. _al-nil_, _annil_, gives "aniline") one of the most important and valuable of all dyestuffs. Until comparatively recently it was obtained exclusively from the aqueous extract of certain plants, principally of the genus _Indigofera_ which belongs to the natural order Leguminosae. Small quantities are also obtained from _Lonchocarpus eyanescens_ (west coast of Africa), _Polygonum tintorium_ (China) and the woad plant _Isatis tinctoria_. The latter is of historical interest, since up to the middle of the 17th century it was the only blue dyestuff used by dyers in England and on the adjoining continent; at the present time woad is still cultivated in Europe, but serves merely as a ferment in the setting of the fermentation indigo vat or so-called "woad vat" used in wool dyeing.

The bulk of the natural indigo which is brought into the market comes from India, while smaller quantities are imported from Java, Guatemala and other places. The plant from which indigo is made in Bengal is the _Indigofera sumatrana_, which is reared from seed sown about the end of April or the beginning of March. By the middle of June the plant has attained a height of from 3 to 5 ft., and it is at this period that the first manufacturing begins, a second crop being obtained in August. The indigo is contained in the leaf of the plant in the form of a colourless glucoside, known as indican, C14H17O6N·3H2O. This substance is soluble in water and by the joint action of an enzyme, contained in the leaf, and atmospheric oxygen it yields indigotine, the colouring matter of indigo. It is on these facts that the manufacturing of indigo from the plant is based.

The plant is cut early in the morning and transported to the factory in bullock carts. Here it is steeped in water in steeping vats having a capacity of about 1000 cub. ft. for periods varying, according to circumstances, from nine to fourteen hours, when the liquid--the colour of which varies from a bright orange to an olive green--is run into the beating vats which lie at a lower level. The beating, the object of which is to bring the liquor as freely as possible into contact with the air, was formerly done by striking the surface with bamboo sticks, but is now effected either by means of a paddle wheel or by forcing a current of air from a steam blower or a compressor through the liquid. When the beating is finished, the precipitated indigo is allowed to settle, the supernatant liquid being drawn off and run to waste. The indigo mud thus obtained, which is known as mal, is strained, boiled for a short period for the purpose of sterilizing, formed into bars, cut into blocks of about 3 in. cube and dried.[1] The actual amount of colouring matter yielded by the leaf is but small, averaging, according to Ch. Rawson, 0.5%, but the yield from the whole plant is considerably less, since the stalks and twigs contain practically no colour.

Since the introduction on a large scale of synthetic indigo efforts have been made in India and in Java to place the cultivation of the plant and the manufacture of the natural product on a more scientific basis. But although many important improvements have been achieved from the agricultural as well as from the manufacturing point of view, resulting no doubt in the retention of a portion of the industry, the synthetic product has gained the upper hand and is likely to retain it.

Natural indigoes vary considerably in composition, containing in some qualities as much as 90% and in others as little as 20% of colouring matter. The blue colouring matter which indigo contains is known as indigotine, but there are usually also present in small quantities other colouring matters such as indigo red or indirubrine, a yellow colour known as kaempferol, indigo green and indigo brown, as well as indigo gluten and more or less mineral matter.

The bulk of the indigo which now comes into the European market is prepared synthetically from coal tar. The following figures indicate the values of the imports into England of natural and synthetic indigo, and are taken from the official Board of Trade returns:--

+--------+-----------------+-------------------+
| | Natural Indigo. | Synthetic Indigo. |
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+
| 1899 | £986,090 | .. |
| 1900 | 542,089 | .. |
| 1901 | 788,820 | .. |
| 1902 | 498,043 | £143,613 |
| 1903 | 262,775 | 110,970 |
| 1904 | 316,070 | 83,397 |
| 1905 | 116,902 | 121,269 |
| 1906 | 111,455 | 147,325 |
| 1907 | 151,297 | 158,481 |
| 1908 | 136,882 | 134,052 |
+--------+-----------------+-------------------+

During the period 1899-1908, the average price of indigo had declined from a fraction under 3s. to about 2s. 2½d. per lb. At first sight it might appear that the use of indigo in England was rapidly declining, but this does not necessarily follow when it is borne in mind that London was formerly the distributing centre of natural indigo for the continent and America.

_Chemistry._--Our knowledge of the chemistry of indigo is largely
derived from the classical researches of A. von Baeyer and his
collaborators. In 1841 Erdmann and Laurent observed that on oxidation
indigo yielded isatin; and in 1848 Fritzsche obtained aniline by
distilling the dyestuff with potash. In 1870 A. v. Baeyer and Knop
succeeded in preparing indigotine by heating isatin with phosphorus
trichloride, acetyl chloride and phosphorus. In the same year, C.
Engler and A. Emmerling obtained small quantities of the dyestuff by
heating nitroacetophenone with soda-lime and zinc dust, while in 1875
M. v. Nencki prepared it by the oxidation of indol by ozone. Indol had
been previously obtained from albuminoids by means of the pancreas
ferment. It was not, however, until 1880 that v. Baeyer, who had been
at work on the subject since 1865, was able to obtain indigotine from
more or less easily accessible coal tar derivatives of known
constitution. The most important of these synthetic processes due to
the researches of v. Baeyer was the production of the dyestuff from
ortho-nitrophenylpropiolic acid (see Propiolic Acid), which yields
indigotine on being treated with caustic soda and a reducing agent
such as grape sugar or xanthate of soda. Although used in small
quantities in calico printing, it never attained any commercial
importance as a means of producing indigo, the cost of production
being far too high.

Many synthetic processes of preparing indigotine have since been
devised, but the one which stands out pre-eminently from a technical
point of view and the one which ultimately led to the commercial
success of the synthetic product is that of Heumann who showed in 1890
that indigotine can be prepared by melting phenylglycocoll
(phenylglycine), C6H5·NH·CH2·COOH, with caustic alkalis. The yield
was at first very unsatisfactory. It was subsequently found, however,
that by starting with phenylglycocoll-ortho-carboxylic acid, the yield
was sufficiently good to render the process a practical success. The
starting-point for the manufacture of synthetic indigo is naphthalene,
C10H8, which is oxidized, by heating with concentrated sulphuric acid
in the presence of a little mercury, to phthalic anhydride,
C6H4(CO)2O, which is then converted into ortho-aminobenzoic acid,
C6H4(NH2)(CO2H), by treatment with an alkaline hypochlorite. This acid
is then condensed with monochloracetic acid to form
phenylglycocoll-ortho-carboxylic acid, C6H4(NH·CH2·CO2H)(CO2H), which
on being melted with caustic alkali yields indoxylic acid,

/C(OH)\\
C6H4 / \\ C·CO2H,
\ NH /

and this readily loses carbon dioxide and passes over into indoxyl,

/C(OH)\\
C6H4 / \\ CH.
\ NH /

By alkaline oxidation indoxyl is converted into indigotine.

The patent literature of processes for bringing about the conversion
of the phenylglycine or its carboxylic acid into indoxylic acid,
indoxyl and indigotine is enormous; a circumstance due to the fact
that the efficiency of this operation controls the price of the
synthetic dyestuff. Caustic soda has been practically given up, being
replaced partly or wholly by caustic potash; in addition, alkaline
earths, sodamide, nitrides, alkali carbides, &c., have been used. In
1906, Meister, Lucius and Brüning patented the addition of lead and
sodium to a mixture of caustic potash and soda; the Basler Chemische
Fabrik use a mixture of caustic potash and soda at 210°-260°; Léon
Lilienfeld added slaked lime or magnesia to the fused alkali, with a
subsequent heating in a current of ammonia at 150°-300°, and in 1908
patented a process wherein the melt is heated under greatly reduced
pressure; this gave a yield of 80-90%.

Synthetic indigo comes into the market chiefly in the form of a 20%
paste but is also sold in the solid state in the form of a powder.

Indigotine, C16H10N2O2, is a derivative of indol and its constitution
is

CO CO
/ \ / \ / \ / \
| | C:C | |
\ / \ / \ / \ /
NH NH

It can be prepared in an almost pure state by extracting good
qualities of Bengal or Java indigo or synthetic indigo with boiling
nitrobenzene, from which it crystallizes on cooling in dark blue
crystals having a metallic sheen. When heated in an open vessel it
readily volatilizes, yielding a violet vapour which condenses on
cooling in the form of crystals. Indigotine is also soluble in boiling
aniline oil, quinoline, glacial acetic acid and chloroform, but is
insoluble in water, dilute acids and alkalis and ordinary solvents
like alcohol, ether, &c. By nitric acid and many other oxidizing
agents it is readily converted into isatin, C8H5NO2. Heated with
concentrated sulphuric acid it yields a disulphonic acid,
C16H8N2O2(SO3H)2, the sodium salt of which finds application as an
acid colour in wool dyeing under the name of Indigo carmine.[2] By the
action of reducing agents, indigotine is converted into _indigo
white_, C16H12N2O2, which is readily soluble in alkalis or milk of
lime with a yellow colour. On exposing the alkaline solution to the
air the indigo white is rapidly oxidized back to indigotine, and on
these two reactions the application of indigo in dyeing and printing
is based. (See DYEING and TEXTILE PRINTING.)

Various halogen (chlorine and bromine) substitutive derivatives of
indigotine have been introduced which, while not differing essentially
from ordinary indigo in their properties, produce for the most part
redder shades in dyeing. They are claimed to be faster and brighter
colours. It has been shown by Friedländer (Ber., 1909, 42, p. 765)
that the reddish violet colouring matter obtained from the
colour-yielding glands of the mollusc _Murex brandaris_, by means of
which the famous Tyrian purple of the ancients was dyed, is a
dibromindigo, C16H8Br2N2O2. A new departure in the synthetic dyestuffs
belonging to the indigo group was inaugurated by the discovery in 1906
by P. Friedländer of thioindigo red, a derivative of thionaphthen,
which is formed from phenylthioglycol-ortho-carboxylic acid,

/CO2H
C6H4 /
\ S·CH2CO2H.

This substance, on boiling with alkali and then with dilute acid
yields thioindoxyl,

/CO\
C6H4 / \ CH2,
\ S /

which is converted by alkaline oxidation into thioindigotin, having
the constitution

/CO\ /CO\
C6H4 / \ C:C / \ C6H4.
\ S / \ S /

The new dyestuff is therefore analogous to indigotine, from which it
differs by having the imino groups replaced by sulphur atoms.
Thioindigo red can be readily crystallized from boiling benzene, and
forms reddish brown crystals possessing a metallic reflex. Thioindigo
scarlet,

/CO\ /CO \
C6H4 / \ C = C / \ NH,
\ S / \C6H4 /

is also obtained synthetically. Both products come into the market in
the form of pastes and are used in dyeing like indigo (see DYEING).
(E. K.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For a full account of the manufacture of indigo in northern Behar
see Ch. Rawson, _Journ. Soc. Dyers and Colourists_ (July 1899).

[2] Although bright shades of blue are produced with this derivative,
they are not fast.

INDIUM (symbol In, atomic weight 114.8), a metallic chemical element, included in the sub-group of the periodic classification of the elements containing aluminium, gallium and thallium. It was first discovered in 1863 by F. Reich and Th. Richter (_Journ. für prak. Chem._, 1863, 89, p. 444) by means of its spectrum. It occurs naturally in very small quantities in zinc blende, and is best obtained from metallic zinc (which contains a small quantity of indium) by treating it with such an amount of hydrochloric acid that a little of the zinc remains undissolved; when on standing for some time the indium is precipitated on the undissolved zinc. The crude product is freed from basic zinc salts, dissolved in nitric acid and the nitric acid removed by evaporation with sulphuric acid, after which it is precipitated by addition of ammonia. The precipitated indium hydroxide is converted into a basic sulphite by boiling with excess of sodium bisulphite, and then into the normal sulphite by dissolving in hot sulphurous acid. This salt on strong ignition leaves a residue of the trioxide, which can be converted into the metal by heating in a current of hydrogen, or by fusion with sodium (C. Winkler, _Journ. für prak. Chem._, 1867, 102, p. 273). Indium is a soft malleable metal, melting at 155° C. Its specific gravity is 7.421 and its specific heat 0.05695 (R. Bunsen).

_Indium oxide_, In2O3, is a yellow powder which is formed on ignition of the hydroxide. It is readily reduced on heating with carbon or hydrogen, and does not pass into an insoluble form when ignited. The _hydroxide_, In(OH)3, is prepared, as a gelatinous precipitate, by adding ammonia to any soluble indium salt. It is readily soluble in caustic potash, but insoluble in ammonia.

Three chlorides of indium are known: the _trichloride_, InCl3, a deliquescent salt, formed by heating a mixture of the oxide and carbon in a current of chlorine; the _dichloride_, InCl2, obtained by heating the metal in hydrochloric acid gas; and the _monochloride_, InCl, which is prepared by distilling the vapour of the dichloride over metallic indium. The mono- and dichlorides are decomposed by water with the formation of the trichloride, and separation of metallic indium. _Indium Sulphate_, In2(SO4)3, is obtained as a white powder very soluble in water by evaporating the trioxide with sulphuric acid. Concentration of the aqueous solution in a desiccator gives a deposit of crystals of a very deliquescent salt, H2In2(SO4)4·8H2O. An _indium ammonium alum_, In2(S04)3·(NH4)2S04·24H20 is known.

The atomic weight of indium has been determined by C. Winkler and by R. Bunsen by converting the metal into its oxide. Thiel (_Ber._, 1904, 37, p. 1135) obtained the values 115.08 and 114.81 from analyses of the chloride and bromide, whilst F. C. Mathers (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. 352) obtained 114.88 and 114.86. Indium salts can be recognized by the dark blue colour they give in the flame of the Bunsen burner; and by the white beads of metal and the yellow incrustation formed when heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate.

INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. _individualis_, that which is not divided, an individual), in political philosophy, the theory of government according to which the good of the state consists in the well-being and free initiative of the component members. From this standpoint, as contrasted with that of the various forms of socialism (q.v.) which subordinate the individual to the community, the community as such is an artificial unity. Individualism is, however, by no means identical with egoism, though egoism is always individualistic. An individualist may also be a conscientious altruist: he is by no means hostile to or aloof from society (any more than the socialist is necessarily hostile to the individual), but he is opposed to state interference with individual freedom wherever, in his opinion, it can be avoided. The practical distinction in modern society is necessarily one of degree, and both "individualism" and "socialism" are very vaguely used, and generally as terms of reproach by opponents. Every practical politician of whatever party must necessarily combine in his programme individualistic and socialist principles. Extreme individualism is pure anarchy: on the other hand Thomas Hobbes, a characteristic individualist, vigorously supported absolute government as necessary to the well-being of individuals. Moreover it is conceivable under given circumstances that an individualist might logically advocate measures (e.g. compulsory military service) which conflict with individual freedom. In practice individualism is chiefly concerned to oppose the concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state and the municipality. The principles on which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications or the sense of responsibility required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises and the large sums of public money involved, and that the health of the state depends on the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit.

INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES. "Indo-Aryan" is the name generally adopted for those Aryans who entered India and settled there in prehistoric times, and for their descendants. It distinguishes them from the other Aryans who settled in Persia and elsewhere, just as the name "Aryo-Indian" signifies those inhabitants of India who are Aryans, as distinguished from other Indian races, Dravidians, Mundas and so on. A synonym of "Aryo-Indian" is "Gaudian" or "Gaurian," based on a Sanskrit word for the non-Dravidian parts of India proper. These two words refer to the people from the point of view of India, while "Indo-Aryan" looks at them from the wider aspect of Indo-European ethnology and philology. The general history of the Aryan languages is treated in the articles INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES and ARYAN. Here we propose to offer a brief review of the special course of their development in India.

Most of the Indo-Aryans branched off from the common Aryan stock in the highlands of Khokand and Badakshan, and marched south into what is now eastern Afghanistan. Here some of them settled, while others entered the Punjab by the valley of the river Kabul. This last migration was a gradual process extending over several centuries, and at different epochs different tribes came in, speaking different dialects of the common language. The literary records of the latest times of this invasion show us one Indo-Aryan tribe complaining of the unintelligible speech of another, and even denying to it the right of common Aryan-hood.

_The Pisaca Languages._--Before proceeding farther, it is advisable to discuss the fate of another small group of languages spoken in the extreme north-west of India. After the great fission which separated the main body of the Indo-Aryans from the Iranians, but before all the special phonetic characteristics of Iranian speech had developed, another horde of invaders crossed the Hindu Kush from the Pamirs, journeying directly south. They occupied the submontane tract, including the country round Chitral and Gilgit, Kashmir and Kafiristan. Some even followed the course of the Indus as far as Sind, and formed colonies there and in the western Punjab. Here they mingled with the Indo-Aryans who had come down the Kabul valley, and to a certain extent infected the local dialect with their idioms. How far their influence extended over the rest of India is undecided, and will probably never be known, but traces of it have been detected by some inquirers even in the dialects of modern Marathi. Those who remained behind in the hill country, the whole of which is popularly known as Dardistan, were isolated by the inhospitable nature of their home and by their own savage character. They seem to have had customs allied to cannibalism, and in later Indian literature legends grew around them as a race of demons called _Pisacas_, [Greek: hômophagoi], who spoke a barbaric tongue called _Paisaci_. This language appears now and then in the Sanskrit drama, and Sanskrit philologists wrote still-extant grammatical notices of its peculiarities. These show that it possessed an extremely archaic character, and the same fact is prominent in the Pisaca languages of the present day. Some words which were spoken in the oldest time are preserved with hardly a change of letter, while in India proper the corresponding forms have either disappeared altogether or have been so changed as to be hardly recognizable at first sight. The principal modern Pisaca languages are three or four spoken in Kafiristan, Khowar of Chitral, Shina of Gilgit, Kashmiri, and Kohistani. The last two are border tongues, much mixed with the neighbouring languages of India proper. The only one which has any literature is Kashmiri (q.v.). The rest are entirely uncultivated. Their general character may be described as partly Indian and partly Iranian, although they have in their isolated position developed some phonetic laws of their own.

_Indo-Aryan Classification._--The oldest specimens of Indo-Aryan speech which we possess very closely resemble the oldest Iranian (see PERSIA: _Language_). There are passages in the Iranian Avesta which can be turned into good Vedic Sanskrit by the application of a few simple phonetic laws. It is sufficient for our present purposes to note that after the separation the development of the two old forms of speech went on independently and followed somewhat different lines. This is most marked in the treatment of a nexus of two consonants. While modern Iranian often retains the nexus with little or no alteration, modern Indo-Aryan prefers to simplify it. For instance, while the old Aryan _sth_ becomes _s^it_ or _ist_ in modern Persian, it becomes _tth_ or _th_ in modern Indo-Aryan. Similarly _bhr_ becomes _b^ir_ in the former, but _bbh_ or _bh_ in the latter. Thus:--

+----------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+
| Old Indo-Aryan.| Old Iranian.| Modern Persian. | Hindi. |
+----------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+
| sthana- | stana- | s^itan_ or istan| thana, a place. |
| bhratar- | bratar- | b^iradar | bhai, a brother.|
+----------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------------+

The earliest extant literary record of Indo-Aryan languages is the collection of hymns known as the Rig-Veda. As we have it now, we may take it as representing, on the whole, the particular vernacular dialect spoken in the east of the Punjab and in the upper portion of the Gangetic Doab where it was compiled. The tribe which spoke this dialect spread east and south, and their habitat, as so extended, between the Punjab and the modern Allahabad and reaching from the Himalaya to the Vindhya Hills in the south, became known to Sanskrit geographers as the _Madhyadesa_ or "_Midland_," also called _Aryavarta_, or the "home of the Aryans." The language spoken here received constant literary culture, and a refined form of its archaic dialect became fixed by the labours of grammarians about the year 300 B.C., receiving the name of _Samskrta_ (Sanskrit) or "purified," in contradistinction to the folk-speech of the same tract and to the many Indo-Aryan dialects of other parts of India, all of which were grouped together under the title of _Prakrta_ (Prakrit) or "natural," "unpurified." Sanskrit (q.v.) became the language of religion and polite literature, and thus the Midland, the native land of its mother dialect, became accepted as the true pure home of the Indo-Aryan people, the rest being, from the point of view of educated India, more or less barbarous. In later times, the great _lingua franca_ of India, Hindostani, also took its origin in this tract.

Round the Midland, on three sides--west, south and east--lay a country inhabited, even in Vedic times, by other Indo-Aryan tribes. This tract included the modern Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Rajputana with the country to its east, Oudh and Behar. Rajputana belongs geographically to the Midland, but it was a late conquest, and for our present purposes may be considered as belonging to the Outer Band. The various Indo-Aryan dialects spoken over this band were all more closely related to each other than was any of them to the language of the Midland. In fact, at an early period of the linguistic history of India there must have been two sets of Indo-Aryan dialects,--one the language of the Midland and the other that of the Outer Band.[1] Hoernle was the first to suggest that the dialects of the Outer Band represent on the whole the language of the earlier Indo-Aryan immigrants, while the language of the Midland was that of the latest comers, who entered the Punjab like a wedge and thrust the others outwards in three directions.