Chapter II: Part 2

JÄGERNDORF (Czech, _Krnov_), a town of Austria, in Silesia, 18 m. N.W. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900), 14,675, mostly German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a château belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, who holds extensive estates in the district. Jägerndorf has large manufactories of cloth, woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an active trade. On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1420 ft.) are a church, much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat of the former princes of Jägerndorf. The claim of Prussia to the principality of Jägerndorf was the occasion of the first Silesian war (1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed, Austria retained the larger portion of it. Jägerndorf suffered severely during the Thirty Years' War, and was the scene of engagements between the Prussians and Austrians in May 1745 and in January 1779.

JAGERSFONTEIN, a town in the Orange Free State, 50 m. N.W. by rail of Springfontein on the trunk line from Cape Town to Pretoria. Pop. (1904), 5657--1293 whites and 4364 coloured persons. Jagersfontein, which occupies a pleasant situation on the open veld about 4500 ft. above the sea, owes its existence to the valuable diamond mine discovered here in 1870. The first diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of that year, and digging immediately began. The discovery a few weeks later of the much richer mines at Bultfontein and Du Toits Pan, followed by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg Kop (Kimberley) caused Jagersfontein to be neglected for several years. Up to 1887 the claims in the mine were held by a large number of individuals, but coincident with the efforts to amalgamate the interest in the Kimberley mines a similar movement took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims became the property of one company, which has a working arrangement with the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on the open system and has a depth of 450 ft., yields stones of very fine quality, but the annual output does not exceed in value £500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to working the mine on the underground system. Among the famous stones found in the mine are the "Excelsior" (weighing 971 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the "Jubilee" (see DIAMOND). The town was created a municipality in 1904.

Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site of the battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W. Pretorius and the British under Sir Harry Smith (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_).

JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of Richard Jago, rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in 1715. He went up to University College, Oxford, in 1732, and took his degree in 1736. He was ordained to the curacy of Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and became rector in 1754; and, although he subsequently received other preferments, Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died there on the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jago's best-known poem, _The Blackbirds_, was first printed in Hawkesworth's _Adventurer_ (No. 37, March 13, 1753), and was generally attributed to Gilbert West, but Jago published it in his own name, with other poems, in R. Dodsley's _Collection of Poems_ (vol. iv., 1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical poem, _Edge Hill, or the Rural Prospect delineated and moralized_; two separate sermons were published in 1755; and in 1768 _Labour and Genius, a Fable_. Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as _Poems Moral and Descriptive_.

See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, _English
Poets_ (vol. xvii., 1810); F. L. Colvile, _Warwickshire Worthies_
(1870); some biographical notes are to be found in the letters of
Shenstone to Jago printed in vol. iii. of Shenstone's _Works_ (1769).

JAGUAR (_Felis onca_), the largest species of the _Felidae_ found on the American continent, where it ranges from Texas through Central and South America to Patagonia. In the countries which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but in South America it is quite common, and Don Felix de Azara states that when the Spaniards first settled in the district between Montevideo and Santa Fé, as many as two thousand were killed yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs), and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara, dogs or cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes following the reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts a paw between the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by means of its sharp claws. Occasionally after having tasted human flesh, the jaguar becomes a confirmed man-eater. The cry of this great cat, which is heard at night, and most frequently during the pairing season, is deep and hoarse in tone, and consists of the sound _pu, pu_, often repeated. The female brings forth from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which are able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white to black, the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly visible. The general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan upon the head, neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root. The upper part of the head and sides of the face are thickly marked with small black spots, and the rest of body is covered with rosettes, formed of rings of black spots, with a black spot in the centre, and ranged lengthwise along the body in five to seven rows on each side. These black rings are heaviest along the back. The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside of the legs and the lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with irregular spots of black, those on the breast being long bars and on the belly and inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots near the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black behind, with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper lip are light rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a very large specimen measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length, however, is about 4 ft. from the nose to root of tail. In form the jaguar is thick-set; it does not stand high upon its legs; and in comparison with the leopard is heavily built; but its movements are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its more graceful relative. The skull resembles that of the lion and tiger, but is much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit. The species has been divided into a number of local forms, regarded by some American naturalists as distinct species, but preferably ranked as sub-species or races.

JAGUARONDI, or YAGUARONDI (_Felis jaguarondi_), a South American wild cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, ranging to north-eastern Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly coloured, is generally of some shade of brownish-grey, but in some individuals the fur has a rufous coat, while in others grey predominates. These cats are said by Don Felix de Azara to keep to cover, without venturing into open places. They attack tame poultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and eyra are applied indifferently to this species and _Felis eyra_.

JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal, situated on a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901), 7018. It was once a flourishing trading town, and in 1760 it formed one of the eight branches of the East India Company's central factory at Patna. Since the introduction of Manchester goods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth has almost entirely ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or Mahommedan weaver caste live in the neighbourhood.

JAHANGIR, or JEHANGIR (1569-1627), Mogul emperor of Delhi, succeeded his father Akbar the Great in 1605. His name was Salim, but he assumed the title of Jahangir, "Conqueror of the World," on his accession. It was in his reign that Sir Thomas Roe came as ambassador of James I., on behalf of the English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence enjoyed by his wife Nur Jahan, "the Light of the World." At first she influenced Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself with her relatives she aroused the jealousy of the imperial princes; and Jahangir died in 1627 in the midst of a rebellion headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan, and his greatest general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated in the gardens of Shahdera on the outskirts of Lahore.

JAHIZ (ABU 'UTHMAN 'AMR IBN BAHR UL-JAHIZ; i.e. "the man the pupils of whose eyes are prominent") (d. 869), Arabian writer. He spent his life and devoted himself in Basra chiefly to the study of polite literature. A Mu'tazilite in his religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own and founded a sect named after him. He was favoured by Ibn uz-Zaiyat, the vizier of the caliph Wathiq.

His work, the _Kitab ul-Bayan wat-Tabyin_, a discursive treatise on
rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The
_Kitab ul-Mahasin wal-Addad_ was edited by G. van Vloten as _Le Livre
des beautés et des antithèses_ (Leiden, 1898); the _Kitab ul-Bu-hala_.
_Le Livre des avares_, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1900); two other
smaller works, the _Excellences of the Turks_ and the _Superiority in
Glory of the Blacks over the Whites_, also prepared by the same. The
_Kitab ul-Hayawan,_ or "Book of Animals," a philological and literary,
not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906). (G. W. T.)

JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-1852), German pedagogue and patriot, commonly called _Turnvater_ ("Father of Gymnastics"), was born in Lanz on the 11th of August 1778. He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle, Göttingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at the Gymnasium zum Grauen as well as at the Plamann School. Brooding upon the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon, he conceived the idea of restoring the spirits of his countrymen by the development of their physical and moral powers through the practice of gymnastics. The first _Turnplatz_, or open-air gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 1811, and the movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught to regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the emancipation of their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in 1813 he took an active part at Breslau in the formation of the famous corps of Lützow, a battalion of which he commanded, though during the same period he was often employed in secret service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was appointed state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader in the formation of the student _Burschenschaften_ (patriotic fraternities) in Jena.

A man of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and outspoken, Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary spirit of the time, and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing of the _Turnplatz_ and the arrest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi-confinement at the fortress of Kolberg until 1824, he was then sentenced to imprisonment for two years; but this sentence was reversed in 1825, though he was forbidden to live within ten miles of Berlin. He therefore took up his residence at Freyburg on the Unstrut, where he remained until his death, with the exception of a short period in 1828, when he was exiled to Cölleda on a charge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by the Prussian government with the Iron Cross for bravery in the wars against Napoleon. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by the district of Naumburg to the German National Parliament. Jahn died on the 15th of October 1852 in Freyburg, where a monument was erected in his honour in 1859.

Among his works are the following: _Bereicherung des hochdeutschen
Sprachschatzes_ (Leipzig, 1806), _Deutsches Volksthum_ (Lübeck, 1810),
_Runenblätter_ (Frankfort, 1814), _Neue Runenblätter_ (Naumburg,
1828), _Merke zum deutschen Volksthum_ (Hildburghausen, 1833), and
_Selbstvertheidigung_ (Vindication) (Leipzig, 1863). A complete
edition of his works appeared at Hof in 1884-1887. See the biography
by Schultheiss (Berlin, 1894), and _Jahn als Erzieher_, by Friedrich
(Munich, 1895).

JAHN, JOHANN (1750-1816), German Orientalist, was born at Tasswitz, Moravia, on the 18th of June 1750. He studied philosophy at Olmütz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at the Premonstratensian convent of Bruck, near Znaim. Having been ordained in 1775, he for a short time held a cure at Mislitz, but was soon recalled to Bruck as professor of Oriental languages and Biblical hermeneutics. On the suppression of the convent by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at Olmütz, and in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental languages, biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 he published his _Einleitung ins Alte Testament_ (2 vols.), which soon brought him into trouble; the cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid a complaint against him for having departed from the traditional teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting Job, Jonah, Tobit and Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of demoniacal possession in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous disease. An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing too little consideration for the views of German Catholic theologians in coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising difficult problems by which the unlearned might be led astray. He was accordingly advised to modify his expressions in future. Although he appears honestly to have accepted this judgment, the hostility of his opponents did not cease until at last (1806) he was compelled to accept a canonry at St Stephen's, Vienna, which involved the resignation of his chair. This step had been preceded by the condemnation of his _Introductio in libros sacros veteris foederis in compendium redacta_, published in 1804, and also of his _Archaeologia biblica in compendium redacta_ (1805). The only work of importance, outside the region of mere philology, afterwards published by him, was the _Enchiridion Hermeneuticae_ (1812). He died on the 16th of August 1816.

Besides the works already mentioned, he published _Hebräische
Sprachlehre für Anfänger_ (1792); _Aramäische od. Chaldäische u.
Syrische Sprachlehre für Anfänger_(1793); _Arabische Sprachlehre_
(1796); _Elementarbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (1799); _Chaldäische
Chrestomathie_ (1800); _Arabische Chrestomathie_ (1802); _Lexicon
arabico-latinum chrestomathiae accommodatum_ (1802); an edition of
the Hebrew Bible (1806); _Grammatica linguae hebraicae_ (1809); a
critical commentary on the Messianic passages of the Old Testament
(_Vaticinia prophetarum de Jesu Messia_, 1815). In 1821 a collection
of _Nachträge_ appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical
subjects. The English translation of the _Archaeologia_ by T. C. Upham
(1840) has passed through several editions.

JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist, and writer on art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of June 1813. After the completion of his university studies at Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he travelled for three years in France and Italy; in 1839 he became privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842 professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at Greifswald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he accepted the chair of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived in 1851 for having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at Göttingen, on the 9th of September 1869.

The following are the most important of his works: 1. Archaeological:
_Palamedes_ (1836); _Telephos u. Troilos_ (1841); _Die Gemälde des
Polygnot_ (1841); _Pentheus u. die Mänaden_ (1841); _Paris u. Oinone_
(1844); _Die hellenische Kunst_ (1846); _Peitho, die Göttin der
Überredung_ (1847); _Über einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils_
(1849); _Die Ficoronische Cista_ (1852); _Pausaniae descriptio arcis
Athenarum_ (3rd ed., 1901); _Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf
Vasenbildern_ (1861). 2. Philological: Critical editions of Juvenal,
Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893); Censorinus
(1845); Florus (1852); Cicero's _Brutus_ (4th ed., 1877); and _Orator_
(3rd ed., 1869); the _Periochae_ of Livy (1853); the _Psyche et
Cupido_ of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867;
3rd ed. by J. Vahlen, 1905). 3. Biographical and aesthetic: _Üeber
Mendelssohn's Paulus_ (1842); _Biographie Mozarts_, a work of
extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music
(3rd ed. by H. Disters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend,
1891); _Ludwig Uhland_ (1863); _Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik_
(1866); _Biographische Aufsätze_ (1866). His _Griechische
Bilderchroniken_ was published after his death, by his nephew A.
Michaelis, who has written an exhaustive biography in _Allgemeine
Deutsche Biographie_, xiii.; see also J. Vahlen, _Otto Jahn_ (1870);
C. Bursian, _Geschichte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland_.

JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darab. The district has thirty-three villages and is famous for its celebrated _sháhán_ dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The town of Jahrum, situated about 90 m. S.E. of Shiraz, is surrounded by a mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It has a population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the other half outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of the surrounding districts, has six caravanserais and a post office.

JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in India. They are found in every province of upper Hindustan, in the cities along the Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are more numerous to the west--in Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper part of the Malabar coast--and are also scattered throughout the whole of the southern peninsula. They are mostly traders, and live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their community gives them a social importance greater than would result from their mere numbers. In the Indian census of 1901 they are returned as being 1,334,140 in number. Their magnificent series of temples and shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven wonders of India, is perhaps the most striking outward sign of their wealth and importance.

The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent of India of those schools of thought which grew out of the active philosophical speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry that prevailed in the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and 6th centuries before the Christian era. For many centuries Jainism was so overshadowed by that stupendous movement, born at the same time and in the same place, which we call Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors had absorbed the mass of the community, became thereby corrupted from its pristine purity and gradually died away, the smaller school of the Jains, less diametrically opposed to the victorious orthodox creed of the Brahmans, survived, and in some degree took its place.

Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by Vaddhamana, better known by his epithet of Maha-vira (the great hero), who was a contemporary of Gotama, the Buddha. But the Jains, like the Buddhists, believe that the same system had previously been proclaimed through countless ages by each one of a succession of earlier teachers. The Jains count twenty-four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or Tirthankaras, that is, conquerors or leaders of schools of thought. It is from this word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-four Jinas contains a germ of truth. Maha-vira was not an originator; he merely carried on, with but slight changes, a system which existed before his time, and which probably owes its most distinguishing features to a teacher named Parswa, who ranks in the succession of Jinas as the predecessor of Maha-vira. Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology, to have been born two hundred years before Maha-vira (that is, about 760 B.C.); but the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this statement is that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than Maha-vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. The curious will find in them many reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the antiquary must notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in order to recognize the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise identical, in the different Jain temples.

The Jains are divided into two great parties--the _Digambaras_, or Sky-clad Ones, and the _Svetambaras_, or the White-robed Ones. The latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubtfully, as far back as the 5th century after Christ; the former are almost certainly the same as the Niganthas, who are referred to in numerous passages of the Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must therefore be at least as old as the 6th century B.C. In many of these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as contemporaneous with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the Jñatrika clan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt, as the same person as the Vaddhamana Maha-vira of the Jain books. This remarkable confirmation, from the scriptures of a rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date of Maha-vira. The Niganthas are referred to in one of Asoka's edicts (_Corpus Inscriptionum_, Plate xx.). Unfortunately the account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta given in the Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's teachings given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre.

_Jain Literature._--The Jain scriptures themselves, though based on
earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the 5th
century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are called the
forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve Upangas, ten
Pakinnakas, six Chedas, four Mula-sutras and two other books. Devaddhi
Ganin, who occupies among the Jains a position very similar to that
occupied among the Buddhists by Buddhaghosa, collected the then
existing traditions and teachings of the sect into these forty-five
Agamas. Like the Buddhist scriptures, the earlier Jain books are
written in a dialect of their own, the so-called Jaina Prakrit; and it
was not till between A.D. 1000 and 1100 that the Jains adopted
Sanskrit as their literary language. Considerable progress has been
made in the publication and elucidation of these original authorities.
But a great deal remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the
possession of the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the
foundation of the existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to
the time of Bhadrabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still
older literature, on which the revision then made was based, the
so-called _Purvas_, have been lost. And the existing canonical books,
while preserving a great deal that was probably derived from them,
contain much later material. The problem remains to sort out the older
from the later, to distinguish between the earlier form of the faith
and its subsequent developments, and to collect the numerous data for
the general, social, industrial, religious and political history of
India. Professor Weber gave a fairly full and carefully-drawn-up
analysis of the whole of the more ancient books in the second part of
the second volume of his _Catalogue of the Sanskrit MSS. at Berlin_,
published in 1888, and in vols. xvi. and xvii. of his _Indische
Studien_. An English translation of these last was published first in
the _Indian Antiquary_, and then separately at Bombay, 1893. Professor
Bhandarkar gave an account of the contents of many later works in his
_Report on the Search for Sanskrit MSS._, Bombay, 1883. Only a small
beginning has been made in editing and translating these works. The
best _précis_ of a long book can necessarily only deal with the more
important features in it. And in the choice of what should be included
the _précis_-writer will often omit the points some subsequent
investigator may most especially want. All the older works ought
therefore to be edited and translated in full and properly indexed.
The Jains themselves have now printed in Bombay a complete edition of
their sacred books. But the critical value of this edition, and of
other editions of separate texts printed elsewhere in India, leaves
much to be desired. Professor Jacobi has edited and translated the
_Kalpa Sutra_, containing a life of the founder of the Jain order; but
this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has
also edited and translated the _Ayaranya Sutta_ of the Svetambara
Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages
octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document
on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of
appendices, added at different times, on the same subject. The older
part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets out
more especially the Jain doctrine of _tapas_ or self-mortification, in
contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism.
The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. Dr
Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the rules of
conduct for laymen, the _Uvasaga Dasao_.[1] Professor Leumann edited
another of the older works, the _Aupapatika Sutra_, and a fourth,
entitled the _Dasa-vaikalika Satra_, both of them published by the
German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more, the
_Uttaradhyayana_ and the _Sutra Kritanga_.[2] Finally Dr Barnett has
translated two others in vol. xvii. of the _Oriental Translation Fund_
(new series, London, 1907). Thus about one-fiftieth part of these
interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the European
scholar. The sect of the Svetambaras has preserved the oldest
literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of the sect
in the _Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_ for 1898.
Several scholars--notably Bhagvanlal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and
Hofrath Bühler[3]--have treated of the remarkable archaeological
discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many
details, and show that the Jains, in the centuries before the
Christian era, were a wealthy and important body in widely separated
parts of India.

_Jainism._--The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of Maha-vira and of his earliest followers was their practice of going quite naked, whence the term _Digambara_. Against this custom, Gotama, the Buddha, especially warned his followers; and it is referred to in the well-known Greek phrase, _Gymnosophist_, used already by Megasthenes, which applies very aptly to the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which means "free from bonds," may not be without allusions to this curious belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to freedom from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues of the Jinas in the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous size, are still always quite naked; but the Jains themselves have abandoned the practice, the Digambaras being sky-clad at meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being always completely clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the recluses or _Yatis_, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out this practice. The Jain laity--the _Sravakas_, or disciples--do not adopt it.

The Jain views of life were, in the most important and essential respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The two orders, Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first, independent, but directly opposed the one to the other. In philosophy the Jains are the most thorough-going supporters of the old animistic position. Nearly everything, according to them, has a soul within its outward visible shape--not only men and animals, but also all plants, and even particles of earth, and of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The Buddhist theory, as is well known, is put together without the hypothesis of "soul" at all. The word the Jains use for soul is _jiva_, which means life; and there is much analogy between many of the expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and atoms are all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They regard good and evil and space as ultimate substances which come into direct contact with the minute souls in everything. And their best-known position in regard to the points most discussed in philosophy is _Syad-vada_, the doctrine that you may say "Yes" and at the same time "No" to everything. You can affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point of view, and at the same time deny it from another; or, at different times and in different connexions, you may one day affirm it and another day deny it. This position both leads to vagueness of thought and explains why Jainism has had so little influence over other schools of philosophy in India. On the other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of asceticism (_tapas_) as they were compromising in their views of philosophy. Any injury done to the "souls" being one of the worst of iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed, the most austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash his teeth, for fear of injuring living things. "Subdue the body, chastise thyself, weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood." It was by suppressing, through such self-torture, the influence on his soul of all sensations that the Jain could obtain salvation. It is related of the founder himself, the Maha-vira, that after twelve years' penance he thus obtained Nirvana (Jacobi, _Jaina Sutras_, i. 201) before he entered upon his career as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died at Pava, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit of continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other hand, obtained Nirvana in his 35th year, under the Bo tree, after he had abandoned penance; and through the rest of his life he spoke of penance as quite useless from his point of view.

There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a great deal of information on various points in the introductions to the works referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best authority on the history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction between the Maha-vira and the Buddha: "Maha-vira was rather of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the genius which Buddha undoubtedly had.... The Buddha's philosophy forms a system based on a few fundamental ideas, whilst that of Maha-vira scarcely forms a system, but is merely a sum of opinions (_pannattis_) on various subjects, no fundamental ideas being there to uphold the mass of metaphysical matter. Besides this ... it is the ethical element that gives to the Buddhist writings their superiority over those of the Jains. Maha-vira treated ethics as corollary and subordinate to his metaphysics, with which he was chiefly concerned."

ADDITIONAL AUTHORITIES.--Bhadrabahu's _Kalpa Sutra_, the recognized
and popular manual of the Svetambara Jains, edited with English
introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Hemacandra's "Yoga
S'astram," edited by Windisch, in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morg.
Ges._ for 1874; "Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the _Indische Studien_,
vol. xv.; _Ein Fragment der Bhagavati_, by Professor Weber; _Mémoires
de l'Académie de Berlin_ (1866); _Nirayavaliya Sutta_, edited by Dr
Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam, 1879); _Over de
godsdienstige en wijsgeerige Begrippen der Jainas_, by Dr Warren (his
doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875); _Beiträge zur Grammatik des
Jaina-prakrit_, by Dr Edward Müller (Berlin, 1876); Colebrooke's
_Essays_, vol. ii. Mr J. Burgess has an exhaustive account of the Jain
Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in Fergusson and
Burgess's _Cave Temples in India_ (London, 1880).

See also Hopkins' _Religions of India_ (London, 1896), pp. 280-96, and
J. G. Bühler _On the Indian Sect of the Jainas_, edited by J. Burgess
(London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Published in the _Bibliotheca Indica_, Calcutta, 1888.

[2] These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and
ii. of his _Jaina Sutras_, published in the _Sacred Books of the
East_ (1884, 1895).

[3] The _Hatthi Gumpha_ and three other inscriptions at Cuttack
(Leyden, 1885); _Sravana Belgola_ inscriptions (Bangalore, 1889);
_Vienna Oriental Journal_, vols. ii.-v.; _Epigraphia Indica_, vols.
i-vii.

JAIPUR, or JEYPORE, a city and native state of India in the Rajputana agency. The city is a prosperous place of comparatively recent date. It derives its name from the famous Maharaja Jai Singh II., who founded it in 1728. It is built of pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is remarkable for the width and regularity of its streets. It is the only city in India that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and it is divided by cross streets into six equal portions. The main streets are 111 ft. wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The regularity of plan, and the straight streets with the houses all built after the same pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the East, while the painted mud walls of the houses give it the meretricious air of stage scenery. The huge palace of the maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another noteworthy building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are in metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded in 1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community of native bankers. The city has three colleges and several hospitals. Pop. (1901), 160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur was Amber.

The STATE OF JAIPUR, which takes its name from the city, has a total area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,658,666, showing a decrease of 6% in the decade. The estimated revenue is £430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert of Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more or less covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fuel. Towards the S. and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is largely manufactured and exported from the Sambhar lake, which is worked by the government of India under an arrangement with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It yields salt of a very high quality. The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi.

The maharaja of Jaipur belongs to the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs, claiming descent from Rama, king of Ajodhya. The state is said to have been founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from Gwalior, who with his Kachwahas is said to have absorbed or driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house furnished to the Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among them were Man Singh, who fought in Orissa and Assam; Jai Singh, commonly known by his imperial title of Mirza Raja, whose name appears in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan; and Jai Singh II., or Sawai Jai Singh, the famous mathematician and astronomer, and the founder of Jaipur city. Towards the end of the 18th century the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of Jaipur. By the end of the century the state was in great confusion, distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions of the Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur and Jodhpur had brought both states to the verge of ruin, and Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting the country. By a treaty in 1818 the protection of the British was extended to Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In 1835 there was a serious disturbance in the city, after which the British government took measures to insist upon order and to reform the administration as well as to support its effective action; and the state has gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the Mutiny of 1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way that lay in his power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C.V.O., was born in 1861, and succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art. He was one of the princes who visited England at the time of King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was he who started and endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to 20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the "Indian People's Famine Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns.

JAISALMER, or JEYSULMERE, a town and native state of India in the Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge of yellowish sandstone, crowned by a fort, which contains the palace and several ornate Jain temples. Many of the houses and temples are finely sculptured. Pop. (1901), 7137. The area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 73,370, showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a consequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000; there is no tribute. Jaisalmer is almost entirely a sandy waste, forming a part of the great Indian desert. The general aspect of the country is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 ft. Those in the west are covered with _phog_ bushes, those in the east with tufts of long grass. Water is scarce, and generally brackish; the average depth of the wells is said to be about 250 ft. There are no perennial streams, and only one small river, the Kakni, which, after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large surface of flat ground, and forms a lake or _jhil_ called the Bhuj-Jhil. The climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain-crops, such as _bajra_, _joar_, _moth_, _til_, &c., are grown; spring crops of wheat, barley, &c., are very rare. Owing to the scant rainfall, irrigation is almost unknown.

The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing their
flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep and
goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, _ghi_, camels, cattle
and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth,
piece-goods, &c. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the chief
schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of
Jaisalmer is styled _maharawal_. The state suffered from famine in
1897, 1900 and other years, to such an extent that it has had to incur
a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no railways.

The majority of the inhabitants are Bhatti Rajputs, who take their
name from an ancestor named Bhatti, renowned as a warrior when the
tribe were located in the Punjab. Shortly after this the clan was
driven southwards, and found a refuge in the Indian desert, which was
thenceforth its home. Deoraj, a famous prince of the Bhatti family, is
esteemed the real founder of the present Jaisalmer dynasty, and with
him the title of _rawal_ commenced. In 1156 Jaisal, the sixth in
succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmer, and
made it his capital. In 1294 the Bhattis so enraged the emperor
Ala-ud-din that his army captured and sacked the fort and city of
Jaisalmer, so that for some time it was quite deserted. After this
there is nothing to record till the time of Rawal Sabal Singh, whose
reign marks an epoch in Bhatti history in that he acknowledged the
supremacy of the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan. The Jaisalmer princes had
now arrived at the height of their power, but from this time till the
accession of Rawal Mulraj in 1762 the fortunes of the state rapidly
declined, and most of its outlying provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulraj
entered into political relations with the British. Maharawal
Salivahan, born in 1887, succeeded to the chief ship in 1891.

JAJCE (pronounced _Yaïtse_), a town of Bosnia, situated on the Pliva and Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway from Serajevo, 62 m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce occupies a conical hill, overlooking one of the finest waterfalls in Europe, where the Pliva rushes down into the Vrbas, 100 ft. below. The 14th century citadel which crowns this hill is said to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of Spalato, on the model of the Castel del' Uovo at Naples; but the resemblance is very slight, and although both _jajce_ and _uovo_ signify "an egg," the town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill. The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evangelist's burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the 15th century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish fort of Djöl-Hissar, or "the Lake-Fort." In this neighbourhood a line of waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches for several miles, enclosed by steep rocks and forest-clad mountains. The power supplied by the main fall, at Jajce, is used for industrial purposes, but the beauty of the town remains unimpaired.

From 1463 to 1528 Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern Christendom against the Turks. Venice contributed money for its defence, and Hungary provided armies; while the pope entreated all Christian monarchs to avert its fall. In 1463 Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian fortresses, including Jajce itself; and the last independent king of Bosnia, Stephen Tomasevic, had been beheaded, or, according to one tradition, flayed alive, before the walls of Jajce, on a spot still called _Kraljeva Polje_, the "King's Field." His coffin and skeleton are still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under King Matthias I., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater part of Bosnia during the same year; and, although Mahomet returned in 1464, he was again defeated at Jajce, and compelled to flee before another Hungarian advance. In 1467 Hungarian bans, or military governors, were appointed to rule in north-west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus Ujlaki king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in 1492, its rulers only bore the title of _ban_, and of _vojvod_. In 1500 the Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the Hungarians under John Corvinus; and several other attacks were repelled between 1520 and 1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian power was destroyed at Mohács; and in 1528 Jajce was forced to surrender.

See Bräss, "Jajce, die alte Königstadt Bosniens," in _Deutsche geog.
Blätter_, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).

JAJPUR, or JAJPORE, a town of British India, in Cuttack district, Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river. Pop. (1901), 12,111. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari dynasty until the 11th century, when it was superseded by Cuttack. In Jajpur are numerous ruins of temples, sculptures, &c., and a large and beautiful sun pillar.

JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759-1827), German economist, was born at Wettin on the 26th of February 1759. In 1777 he entered the university of Halle. In 1780 he was appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791 professor of philosophy at the university. The suppression of the university of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook himself to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government commission to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the following year he became president of the commission for the revision of criminal law, and he at the same time obtained an important office in the finance department, with the rank of counsellor of state; but in 1816 he returned to Halle to occupy the chair of political economy. He died at Lauchstädt on the 22nd of July 1827.

Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle Jakob
had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical than the
speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at Halle
_Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie_, in which he was the first to
advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing
specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other
works are _Grundriss der allgemeinen Logik_ (Halle, 1788); _Grundsätze
der Polizeigesetzgebung und Polizeianstalten_ (Leipzig, 1809);
_Einleitung in das Studium der Staatswissenschaften_ (Halle, 1819);
_Entwurf eines Criminalgesetzbuchs für das russische Reich_ (Halle,
1818) and _Staatsfinanzwissenschaft_ (2 vols., Halle, 1821).

JAKOVA (also written DIAKOVA, GYAKOVO and GJAKOVICA), a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a right-hand tributary of the White Drin. Pop. (1905) about 12,000. Jakova is the chief town of the Alpine region which extends from the Montenegrin frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish rule, on account of the inaccessible character of its mountains and forests, and the lawlessness of its inhabitants--a group of two Roman Catholic and three Moslem tribes, known collectively as the Malsia Jakovs, whose official representative resides in Jakova.

JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They have become much mixed with other tribes, and are found throughout the south of the peninsula and along the coasts. The purest types are straight-haired, exhibit marked Mongolian characteristics and are closely related to the Malays. They are probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the "savage Malays" of A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups: (1) Jakuns of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter set of tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or "sea-gipsies" of the Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be studied in conjunction with the other aboriginal peoples of the Malay Peninsula, the Semangs and the Sakais, are not so dwarfish as those. The head is round; the skin varies from olive-brown to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw square. The nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The cheekbones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint, eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild forest life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakai, being but little in advance of the latter in social conditions except where they come into close contact with the Malay peoples.

JALALABAD, or JELLALABAD, a town and province of Afghanistan. The town lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plain on the south side of the Kabul river, 96 m. from Kabul and 76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000. Between it and Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and Kabul the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen by the emperor Baber, and he laid out some gardens here; but the town itself was built by his grandson Akbar in A.D. 1560. It resembles the city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one central bazaar, the streets generally being very narrow. The most notable episode in the history of the place is the famous defence by Sir Robert Sale during the first Afghan war, when he held the town from November 1841 to April 1842. On its evacuation in 1842 General Pollock destroyed the defences, but they were rebuilt in 1878. The town is now fortified, surrounded by a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of Jalalabad is about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, and includes the large district of Laghman north of the Kabul river, as well as that on the south called Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad is similar to that of Peshawar. As a strategical centre Jalalabad is one of the most important positions in Afghanistan, for it dominates the entrances to the Laghman and the Kunar valleys; commanding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as well as the Kabul-Peshawar road.

JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of _Ipomaea Purga_, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern declivities of the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea, more especially about the neighbourhood of Chiconquiaco, and near San Salvador on the eastern slope of the Cofre de Perote. Jalap has been known in Europe since the beginning of the 17th century, and derives its name from the city of Jalapa in Mexico, near which it grows, but its botanical source was not accurately determined until 1829, when Dr. J. R. Coxe of Philadelphia published a description and coloured figure taken from living plants sent him two years previously from Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous twining stems, with alternately placed heart-shaped pointed leaves and salver-shaped deep purplish-pink flowers. The underground stems are slender and creeping; their vertical roots enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots are dug up in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry in a net over the hearth of the Indians' huts, and hence acquire a smoky odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them to dry more quickly. In their form they vary from spindle-shaped to ovoid or globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a man's fist. Externally they are brown and marked with small transverse paler scars, and internally they present a dirty white resinous or starchy fracture. The ordinary drug is distinguished in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the name of the port whence it is shipped.

Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing clusters of tubers weighing over 9 lb.; but these, as they differ in appearance from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained a place in the English market. They are found, however, to be rich in resin, containing 18%. In Jamaica also the plant has been grown, at first amongst the cinchona trees, but more recently in new ground, as it was found to exhaust the soil.

Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico jalap has been imported for some years in considerable quantity. It has a much more shrivelled appearance and paler colour than ordinary jalap, and lacks the small transverse scars present in the true drug. This kind of jalap, the Purga de Sierra Gorda of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to _Ipomaea simulans_. It grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the Sierra Gorda in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Paz, from which district it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba root, or by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from _Ipomaea orizabensis_, a plant of Orizaba. The root occurs in fibrous pieces, which are usually rectangular blocks of irregular shape, 2 in. or more in diameter, and are evidently portions of a large root. It is only occasionally met with in commerce.

The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British
Pharmacopeia directing that it must contain from 9 to 11% of the resin,
which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation of this
drug is in common use, the _Pulvis Jalapae Compositus_, which consists
of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and 1 of ginger. The dose is
from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the maximum dose which
causes the minimum of irritation.

The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosides--_convolvulin_
and _jalapin_--sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulin constitutes nearly
20% of the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active than
jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. Jalapin is present in
about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether, and has a
soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain doses. It is
the active principle of the allied drug _scammony_. According to Mayer,
the formula of convolvulin is C34H50O16, and that of jalapin C31H50O16.

Jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of more
fluid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the muscular
wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to scammony. It
was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh to be a powerful
secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few hydragogue purgatives.
The stimulation of the liver is said to depend upon the solution of the
resin by the intestinal secretion. The drug is largely employed in
cases of Bright's disease and dropsy from any cause, being especially
useful when the liver shares in the general venous congestion. It is
not much used in ordinary constipation.