Chapter VII: Part 7

The _Geschichte_, which has passed through numerous editions, has been
continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part of it
has been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie
(London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most important
are: the editing of _Frankfurts Reichskorrespondenz, 1376-1519_
(Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the _Leben, Briefe und kleinere
Schriften_ of his friend J. F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph,
_Schiller als Historiker_ (Freiburg, 1863); and _Zeit- und
Lebensbilder_ (Freiburg, 1875).

See L. Pastor, _Johannes Janssen_ (Freiburg, 1893); F. Meister,
_Erinnerung an Johannes Janssen_ (Frankfort, 1896); Schwann, _Johannes
Janssen und die Geschichte der deutschen Reformation_ (Munich, 1892).

JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CÉSAR (1824-1907), French astronomer, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1824, and studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences. He taught at the lycée Charlemagne in 1853, and in the school of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were mainly devoted to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857 he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator; in 1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of 1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he took part in a long series of solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntoor (1868), Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to Alcosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1870 he escaped from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian eclipse of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red prominences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic inquiries was to answer the question whether the sun contains oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual elimination of oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere, and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which observations have to be made. This observatory, the foundations of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893, and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent and spent four days taking observations. In 1875 he was appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory established by the French government at Meudon, and set on foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs collected in his great _Atlas de photographies solaires_ (1904). The first volume of the _Annales de l'observatoire de Meudon_ was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December 1907.

See A. M. Clerke, _Hist. of Astr. during the 19th Century_ (1903); H.
Macpherson, _Astronomers of To-Day_ (1905).

JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664-1739), Flemish painter, was born at Brussels. After seven years in the studio of an obscure painter named Volders, he spent four years in the household of the duke of Holstein. The next eleven years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took eager advantage of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an intimacy with Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted figures. Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of his increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger and more lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the churches and palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In 1718 Janssens was invited to Vienna, where he stayed three years, and was made painter to the emperor. The statement that he visited England is based only upon the fact that certain fashionable interiors of the time in that country have been attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch delicate and his taste refined.

JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567-1632), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp in 1567. He studied under Jan Snellinck, was a "master" in 1602, and in 1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the appearance of Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical painter of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary; in bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled him; but in faculty of colour and in general freedom of disposition and touch he fell far short. A master of chiaroscuro, he gratified his taste for strong contrasts of light and shade in his torchlights and similar effects. Good examples of this master are to be seen in the Antwerp museum and the Vienna gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens and of his dissolute life are quite unfounded. He died at Antwerp in 1632.

JANUARIUS, ST, or SAN GENNARO, the patron saint of Naples. According to the legend, he was bishop of Benevento, and flourished towards the close of the 3rd century. On the outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and Maximian, he was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion. After various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to be cast into the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly unharmed. On the following day, along with a number of fellow martyrs, he was exposed to the fury of wild beasts, which, however, laid themselves down in tame submission at his feet. Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death, was struck with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful intercession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused to further fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of Januarius by the sword to be forthwith carried out. The body was ultimately removed by the inhabitants of Naples to that city, where the relic became very famous for its miracles, especially in counteracting the more dangerous eruptions of Vesuvius. Whatever the difficulties raised by his _Acta_, the cult of St Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at Naples as early as the 5th century (_Biblioth. hagiog. latina_, No. 6558). Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year--in May and September. On these occasions the substance contained in the phial liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon a supernatural manifestation. The "miracle of St Januarius" did not occur before the middle of the 15th century.

A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are mentioned in the martyrologies. The best-known are the Roman martyr (festival, the 10th of July), whose epitaph was written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi, _Bullettino_, p. 17, 1863), and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along with Faustus and Martialis the group designated by Prudentius (_Peristephanon_, iv. 20) by the name of _tres coronae_. The festival of these martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October.

See _Acta sanctorum_, September, vi. 761-891; G. Scherillo, _Esame di
un codice greco pubblicato nel tomo secondo della bibliotheca
casinensis_ (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, _Memorie storico-critiche
del culto del sangue di S. Gennaro_ (Naples, 1893), which contains
many facts, but little criticism; G. Albini, _Sulla mobilità dei
liquidi viscosi non omogenei_ (_Società reale di Napoli, Rendiconti_,
2nd series, vol. iv., 1890); _Acta sanctorum_, October, vi. 187-193.
(H. De.)

JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting of thirty-one days. The name (Lat. _Januarius_) is derived from the two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was dedicated. As doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the past and the future, and as being essentially the deity who busied himself with the beginnings of all enterprises, he was appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of the new year. The consecration of the month took place by an offering of meal, salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The Anglo-Saxons called January _Wulfmonath_, in allusion to the fact that hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into the villages. The principal festivals of the month are: New Year's Day; Feast of the Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth-Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see CALENDAR).

JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian deities. The name is generally explained as the masculine form of Diana (Jana), and Janus as originally a god of light and day, who gradually became the god of the beginning and origin of all things. According to some, however, he is simply the god of doorways (_januae_) and in this connexion is the patron of all entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was "the spirit of opening," and the double-head was connected with the gate that opened both ways. Others, attributing to him an Etruscan origin, regard him as the god of the vault of heaven, which the Etruscan arch is supposed to resemble. The rationalists explained him as an old king of Latium, who built a citadel for himself on the Janiculum. It was believed that his worship, which was said to have existed as a local cult before the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus, and that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple, in reality only an arch or gateway (_Janus geminus_) facing east and west, stood at the north-east end of the forum. It was open during war and closed during peace (Livy i. 19); it was shut only four times before the Christian era. A possible explanation is, that it was considered a bad omen to shut the city gates while the citizens were outside fighting for the state; it was necessary that they should have free access to the city, whether they returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a private house was kept open while the members of the family were away, but when all were at home it was closed to keep out intruders. There was also a temple of Janus near the theatre of Marcellus, in the forum olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius (Tacitus, _Ann._ ii. 49), if not earlier.

The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of the month, and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on the 9th of January the festival called Agonia was celebrated in his honour. He was invoked before any other god at the beginning of any important undertaking; his priest was the Rex Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in his capacity as religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors and entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the inventor of agriculture (hence Consivius, "he who sows or plants"), of civil laws, of the coining of money and of religious worship. He was worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector of trade and shipping; his head is found on the as, together with the prow of a ship. He is usually represented on the earliest coins with two bearded faces, looking in opposite directions; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is increased to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he holds a staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as such he is called Patulcius (opener) and Clusius (closer). His titles Curiatius, Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in the gentes, the curiae and the state, and have no reference to any special functions or characteristics. In late times, he is both bearded and unbearded; in place of the staff and keys, the fingers of his right hand show the number 300 (CCC.), those of his left the number of the remaining days of the year (LXV.). According to A. B. Cook (_Classical Review_, xviii. 367), Janus is only another form of Jupiter, the name under which he was worshipped by the pre-Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome; after their conquest by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their place as independent divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter and Juno. He considers it probable that the three-headed Janus was a triple oak-god worshipped in the form of two vertical beams and a cross-bar (such as the _tigillum sororium_, for which see HORATII); hence also the door, consisting of two lintels and side-posts, was sacred to Janus. The three-headed type may have been the original, from which the two-headed and four-headed types were developed. J. G. Frazer (_The Early History of the Kingship_, pp. 214, 285), who also identifies Janus with Jupiter, is of opinion that Janus was not originally a doorkeeper, but that the door was called after him, not vice versa. _Janua_ may be an adjective, _janua foris_ meaning a door with a symbol of Janus close by the chief entrance, to serve as a protection for the house; then _janua_ alone came to mean a door generally, with or without the symbol of Janus. The double head may have been due to the desire to make the god look both ways for greater protection. By J. Rhys (_Hibbert Lectures_, 1886, pp. 82, 94) Janus is identified with the three-faced (sometimes three-headed) Celtic god Cernunnus, a chthonian divinity, compared by Rhys with the Teutonic Heimdal, the warder of the gods of the under-world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Heimdal were considered to be the fons et origo of all things.

See S. Linde, _De Jano summo romanorum deo_ (Lund, 1891); J. S.
Speÿer, "Le Dieu romain Janus," in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_
(xxvi., 1892); G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der Römer_ (1902); W.
Deecke, _Etruskische Forschungen_, vol. ii.; W. Warde Fowler, _The
Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (1899), pp. 282-290;
articles in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and Daremberg and
Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_; J. Toutain, _Études de
Mythologie_ (1909). On other jani (arched passages) in Rome,
frequented by business men and money changers, see O. Richter,
_Topographie der Stadt Rom_ (1901). (J. H. F.)

JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency. It consists of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neemuch Area, with the dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplauda, 568 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 84,202. The estimated revenue is £57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The state was confirmed by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur. Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary major in the British army. His son, Iftikhar Ali Khan, a minor at his accession, was educated in the Daly College at Indore, with a British officer for his tutor, and received powers of administration in 1906. The chief crops are millets, cotton, maize and poppy. The last supplies a large part of the Malwa opium of commerce. The town of JAORA is on the Rajputana-Malwa railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (1901), 23,854. It is well laid out, with many good modern buildings, and has a high school and dispensary. To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, the Victoria Institute and a zenana dispensary were opened in 1898.

JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers of the world. The following article is divided for convenience into ten sections:--I. GEOGRAPHY; II. THE PEOPLE; III. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; IV. ART; V. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS; VI. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION; VII. RELIGION; VIII. FOREIGN INTERCOURSE; IX. DOMESTIC HISTORY; X. THE CLAIM OF JAPAN.

I.--GEOGRAPHY

Position and Extent.

The continent of Asia stretches two arms into the Pacific Ocean, Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south, between which lies a long cluster of islands constituting the Japanese empire, which covers 37° 14´ of longitude and 29° 11´ of latitude. On the extreme north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese _Chishima_, or the "myriad isles"), which extend to 156° 32´ E. and to 50° 56´ N.; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the Japanese _Taiwan_), which extends to 122° 6´ E., and to 21° 45´ N. There are six large islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the Japanese _Karafuto_); Yezo or Ezo (which with the Kuriles is designated _Hokkaido_, or the north-sea district); Nippon (the "origin of the sun"), which is the main island; Shikoku (the "four provinces"), which lies on the east of Nippon; Kiushiu or Kyushu (the "nine provinces"), which lies on the south of Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of the chain. Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan by China after the war of 1894-1895, and the southern half of Sakhalin--the part south of 50° N.--was added to Japan by cession from Russia in 1905. Korea, annexed in August 1910, is separately noticed.

_Coast-line._--The following table shows the numbers, the lengths of
coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of islands, only those
being indicated that have a coast-line of at least 1 _ri_ (2½ m.), or
that, though smaller, are inhabited; except in the case of Formosa and
the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given:--

Length of Area
Number. coast in in square
miles. miles.

Nippon 1 4,765.03 99,373.57
Isles adjacent to Nippon 167 1,275.09 470.30
Shikoku 1 1,100.85 6,461.39
Isles adjacent to Shikoku 75 548.12 175.40
Kiushiu 1 2,101.28 13,778.68
Isles adjacent to Kiushiu 150 2,405.06 1,821.85
Yezo 1 1,423.32 30,148.41
Isles adjacent to Yezo 13 110.24 30.51
Sakhalin (Karafuto) 1 Unsurveyed 12,487.64
Sado 1 130.05 335.92
Okishima 1 182.27 130.40
Isles adjacent to Okishima 1 3.09 0.06
Awaji 1 94.43 217.83
Isles adjacent to Awaji 1 5.32 0.83
Iki 1 86.47 50.96
Isles adjacent to Iki 1 4.41 0.47
Tsushima 1 409.23 261.72
Isles adjacent to Tsushima 5 118.80 4.58
Riukiu (or Luchu) Islands 55 768.74 935.18
Kuriles (Chishima) 31 1,496.23 6,159.42
Bonin (Ogasawara Islands) 20 174.65 26.82
Taiwan (Formosa) 1 731.31 13,429.31
Isles adjacent to Formosa 7 128.32 Not surveyed
Pescadores (Hoko-to) 12 98.67 85.50
--- --------- ----------
Totals 549 18,160.98 173,786.75

If the various smaller islands be included, a total of over 3000 is
reached, but there has not been any absolutely accurate enumeration.

It will be observed that the coast-line is very long in proportion to
the area, the ratio being 1 m. of coast to every 9.5 in. of area. The
Pacific Ocean, which washes the eastern shores, moulds their outline
into much greater diversity than does the Sea of Japan which washes
the western shores. Thus the Pacific sea-board measures 10,562 m.
against 2887 m. for that of the Japan Sea. In depth of water, too, the
advantage is on the Pacific side. There the bottom slopes very
abruptly, descending precipitously at a point not far from the
north-east coast of the main island, where soundings have shown 4655
fathoms. This, the deepest sea-bed in the world, is called the
Tuscarora Deep, after the name of the United States' man-of-war which
made the survey. The configuration seems to point to a colossal crater
under the ocean, and many of the earthquakes which visit Japan appear
to have their origin in this submarine region. On the other hand, the
average depth of the Japan Sea is only 1200 fathoms, and its maximum
depth is 3200. The east coast, from Cape Shiriya (Shiriyazaki) in the
north to Cape Inuboye (Inuboesaki) near Tokyo Bay, though abounding in
small indentations, has only two large bays, those of Sendai and
Matsushima; but southward from Tokyo Bay to Cape Satta (Satanomisaki)
in Kiushiu there are many capacious inlets which offer excellent
anchorage, as the Gulf of Sagami (Sagaminada), the Bays of Suruga
(Surugawan), Ise (Isenumi) and Osaka, the Kii Channel, the Gulf of
Tosa (Tosonada), &c. Opening into both the Pacific and the Sea of
Japan and separating Shikoku and Kiushiu from the main island as well
as from each other, is the celebrated Inland Sea, one of the most
picturesque sheets of water in the world. Its surface measures 1325
sq. m.; it has a length of 255 m. and a maximum width of 56 m.; its
coast-lines aggregate 700 m.; its depth is nowhere more than 65
fathoms, and it is studded with islands which present scenery of the
most diverse and beautiful character. There are four narrow avenues
connecting this remarkable body of water with the Pacific and the
Japan Sea; that on the west, called Shimonoseki Strait, has a width of
3000 yds., that on the south, known as Hayamoto Strait, is 8 m.
across; and the two on the north, Yura and Naruto Straits, measure
3000 and 1500 yds. respectively. It need scarcely be said that these
restricted approaches give little access to the storms which disturb
the seas outside. More broken into bays and inlets than any other part
of the coast is the western shore of Kiushiu. Here three
promontories--Nomo, Shimabara and Kizaki--enclose a large bay having
on its shores Nagasaki, the great naval port of Sasebo, and other
anchorages. On the south of Kiushiu the Bay of Kagoshima has
historical interest, and on the west are the bays of Ariakeno-ura and
Yatsushiro. To the north of Nagasaki are the bays of Hakata, Karatsu
and Imari. Between this coast and the southern extremity of the Korean
peninsula are situated the islands of Iki and Tsushima, the latter
being only 30 m. distant from the peninsula. Passing farther north,
the shoreline of the main island along the Japan Sea is found to be
comparatively straight and monotonous, there being only one noteworthy
indentation, that of Wakasa-wan, where are situated the naval port of
Maizuru and the harbour of Tsuruga, the Japanese point of
communication with the Vladivostok terminus of the Trans-Asian
railway. From this harbour to Osaka Japan's waist measures only 77 m.,
and as the great lake of Biwa and some minor sheets of water break the
interval, a canal may be dug to join the Pacific and the Sea of Japan.
Yezo is not rich in anchorages. Uchiura (Volcano Bay), Nemuro
(Walfisch) Bay and Ishikari Bay are the only remarkable inlets. As for
Formosa, the peculiarity of its outline is that the eastern coast
falls precipitously into deep water, while the western slopes slowly
to shelving bottoms and shoals. The Pescadores Islands afford the best
anchorage in this part of Japan.

_Mountains._--The Japanese islands are traversed from north to south
by a range of mountains which sends out various lateral branches.
Lofty summits are separated by comparatively low passes, which lie at
the level of crystalline rocks and schists constituting the original
uplands upon which the summits have been piled by volcanic action. The
scenery among the mountains is generally soft. Climatic agencies have
smoothed and modified everything rugged or abrupt, until an impression
of gentle undulation rather than of grandeur is suggested. Nowhere is
the region of eternal snow reached, and masses of foliage enhance the
gentle aspect of the scenery and glorify it in autumn with tints of
striking brilliancy. Mountain alternates with valley, so that not more
than one-eighth of the country's entire area is cultivable.

Fuji.

The king of Japanese mountains is Fuji-yama or Fuji-san (peerless
mount), of which the highest point (Ken-ga-mine) is 12,395 ft. above
sea-level. The remarkable grace of this mountain's curve--an inverted
catenary--makes it one of the most beautiful in the world, and has
obtained for it a prominent place in Japanese decorative art. Great
streams of lava flowed from the crater in ancient times. The course of
one is still visible to a distance of 15 m. from the summit, but the
rest are covered, for the most part, with deep deposits of ashes and
scoriae. On the south Fuji slopes unbroken to the sea, but on the
other three sides the plain from which it rises is surrounded by
mountains, among which, on the north and west, a series of most
picturesque lakes has been formed in consequence of the rivers having
been dammed by ashes ejected from Fuji's crater. To a height of some
1500 ft. the slopes of the mountain are cultivated; a grassy moorland
stretches up the next 2500 ft.; then follows a forest, the upper edge
of which climbs to an altitude of nearly 8000 ft., and finally there
is a wide area of ashes and scoriae. There is entire absence of the
Alpine plants found abundantly on the summits of other high mountains
in Japan, a fact due, doubtless, to the comparatively recent activity
of the volcano. The ascent of Fuji presents no difficulties. A
traveller can reach the usual point of departure, Gotemba, by rail
from Yokohama, and thence the ascent and descent may be made in one
day by a pedestrian.

The Japanese Alps.

The provinces of Hida and Etchiu are bounded on the east by a chain of
mountains including, or having in their immediate vicinity, the
highest peaks in Japan after Fuji. Six of these summits rise to a
height of 9000 ft. or upwards, and constitute the most imposing
assemblage of mountains in the country. The ridge runs due north and
south through 60 to 70 m., and has a width of 5 to 10 m. It is mostly
of granite, only two of the mountains--Norikura and Tateyama--showing
clear traces of volcanic origin. Its lower flanks are clothed with
forests of beech, conifers and oak. Farther south, in the same range,
stands Ontake (10,450 ft.), the second highest mountain in Japan
proper (as distinguished from Formosa); and other remarkable though
not so lofty peaks mark the same regions. This grand group of
mountains has been well called the "Alps of Japan," and a good account
of them may be found in The _Japanese Alps_ (1896) by the Rev. W.
Weston. On the summit of Ontake are eight large and several small
craters, and there also may be seen displays of trance and "divine
possession," such as are described by Mr Percival Lowell in _Occult
Japan_ (1895).

The Nikko Mountains.

Even more picturesque, though less lofty, than the Alps of Japan, are
the Nikko mountains, enclosing the mausolea of the two greatest of the
Tokugawa _shoguns_. The highest of these are Shirane-san (7422 ft.),
Nantai-san (8169 ft.), Nyohô-zan (8100 ft.), and Omanago (7546 ft.).
They are clothed with magnificent vegetation, and everywhere they echo
the voices of waterfalls and rivulets.

Mountains of the North.

In the north of the main island there are no peaks of remarkable
height. The best known are Chiokai-zan, called "Akita-Fuji" (the Fuji
of the Akita province), a volcano 7077 ft. high, which was active as
late as 1861; Ganju-san (6791 ft.), called also "Nambu-Fuji" or
Iwate-zan, remarkable for the beauty of its logarithmic curves;
Iwaki-san (5230 ft.), known as Tsugaru-Fuji, and said by some to be
even more imposing than Fuji itself; and the twin mountains Gassan
(6447 ft.) and Haguro-san (5600 ft.). A little farther south,
enclosing the fertile plain of Aizu (Aizu-taira, as it is called)
several important peaks are found, among them being Iide-san (6332
ft.); Azuma-yama (7733 ft.), which, after a long interval of
quiescence, has given many evidences of volcanic activity during
recent years; Nasu-dake (6296 ft.), an active volcano; and Bandai-san
(6037 ft.). A terrible interest attaches to the last-named mountain,
for, after having remained quiet so long as to lull the inhabitants of
the neighbouring district into complete security, it suddenly burst
into fierce activity on the 15th of July 1888, discharging a vast
avalanche of earth and rock, which dashed down its slopes like an
inundation, burying four hamlets, partially destroying seven villages,
killing 461 people and devastating an area of 27 sq. m.

Mountains of Kozuke, Kai and Shinano.

In the province of Kozuke, which belongs to the central part of the
main island, the noteworthy mountains are Asama-yama (8136 ft.), one
of the best known and most violently active volcanoes of Japan;
Akagi-san, a circular range of peaks surrounding the basin of an old
crater and rising to a height of 6210 ft.; the Haruna group,
celebrated for scenic beauties, and Myogi-san, a cluster of pinnacles
which, though not rising higher than 3880 ft., offer scenery which
dispels the delusion that nature as represented in the classical
pictures (_bunjingwa_) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's
imagination. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and
separating two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there
lies a range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese
Alps spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are
Shirane-san--with three summits, Nodori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,200
ft.) and Kaigane (10,330 ft.)--and Hoozan (9550 ft.). It will be
observed that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of
belt across the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west
with the Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with
Fuji-yama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this
belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ft.)
and Odai-gaharazan (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama (5951 ft.)
in Hoki.

Mountains of Shikoku.

The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable magnitude. The
highest is Ishizuchi-zan (7727 ft.), but there are several peaks
varying from 3000 to 6000 ft.

Mountains of Kiushiu.

Kiushiu, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or
connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of
Nagasaki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unzen-take (called also
Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865
ft. high. More notable is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumamoto; for,
though the highest of its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft.,
it boasts the largest crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft.
high and a basin from 10 to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an
active volcano, but its eruptions during recent years have been
confined to ashes and dust. Only two other mountains in Kiushiu need
be mentioned--a volcano (3743 ft.) on the island Sakura-jima, in the
extreme south; and Kirishima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of
Hiuga, a mountain specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its
eastern peak (Takachiho-dake) the god Ninigi descended as the
forerunner of the first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu.

Volcanoes.

Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges, namely,
that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima. Fuji is the
most remarkable volcanic peak. The Japanese regard it as a sacred
mountain, and numbers of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer. From
500 to 600 ft. is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are
neither sulphuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it
would seem that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But
experience in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater
may at any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period of
Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last having
been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks were
shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo
(Tokyo), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava.
Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known:--

Name of Volcano.
Height in feet. Remarks.

Tarumai (Yezo) 2969.
Forms southern wall of a large ancient crater now occupied by a lake
(Shikotsu). A little steam still issues from several smaller cones
on the summit of the ridge, as well as from one, called Eniwa, on
the northern side.

Noboribetsu (Yezo) 1148.
In a state of continuous activity, with frequent detonations and
rumblings. The crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall. The northern
part is occupied by a steaming lake, while the southern part
contains numerous solfataras and boiling springs.

Komagatake (Yezo) 3822.
The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty pinnacle on the western side,
contains a low new cone with numerous steaming rifts and vents. In a
serious eruption in 1856 the S.E. flank of the mountain and the
country side in that direction were denuded of trees.

Esan 2067.
A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end of the Tsugaru Strait: a
finely formed cone surrounded on three sides by the sea, the crater
breached on the land side. The central vent displays considerable
activity, while the rocky walls are stained with red, yellow and
white deposits from numerous minor vents.

Agatsuma (Iwaki) 5230.
Erupted in 1903 and killed two geologists.

Bandai-san (Iwashiro) 6037.
Erupted in 1888 after a long period of quiescence. The outbreak
was preceded by an earthquake of some severity, after which about 20
explosions took place. A huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried
the Nagase Valley with its villages and inhabitants, and devastated
an area of over 27 sq. m. The number of lives lost was 461; four
hamlets were completely entombed with their inhabitants and cattle;
seven villages were partially wrecked; forests were levelled or the
trees entirely denuded of bark; rivers were blocked up, and lakes
were formed. The lip of the fracture is now marked by a line of
steaming vents.

Azuma-yama (Fukushima) 7733.
Long considered extinct, but has erupted several times since 1893,
the last explosion having been in 1900, when 82 sulphur-diggers were
killed or injured; ashes were thrown to a distance of 5 m.,
accumulating in places to a depth of 5 ft.; and a crater 300 ft. in
diameter, and as many in depth, was formed on the E. side of the
mountain. This crater is still active. The summit-crater is occupied
by a beautiful lake. On the Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises
a large parasitic cone, extinct.

Nasu (Tochigi) 6296.
Has both a summit and a lateral crater, which are apparently
connected and perpetually emitting steam. At or about the main vents
are numerous solfataras. The whole of the upper part of the cone
consists of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a thermal
spring, where baths have existed since the 7th century.

Shirane (Nikko) 7422.
The only remaining active vent of the once highly volcanic Nikko
district. Eruption in 1889.

Shirane (Kai) 10,330.
Eruption in 1905, when the main crater was enlarged to a length of
3000 ft. It is divided into three parts, separated by walls, and
each containing a lake, of which the middle one emits steam and the
two others are cold. The central lake, during the periods of
eruption (which are frequent), displays a geyser-like activity.
These lakes contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron and alum.

Unzen (Hizen) 4865.
A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara stage, extinct at the
summit, but displaying considerable activity at its base in the form
of numerous fumaroles and boiling sulphur springs.

Aso-take (Higo) 5545.
Remarkable for the largest crater in the world. It measures 10 m. by
15, and rises almost symmetrically to a height of about 2000 ft.,
with only one break through which the river Shira flows. The centre
is occupied by a mass of peaks, on the W. flank of which lies the
modern active crater. Two of the five compartments into which it is
divided by walls of deeply striated volcanic ash are constantly
emitting steam, while a new vent displaying great activity has been
opened at the base of the cone on the south side. Eruptions have
been recorded since the earliest days of Japanese history. In 1884
the ejected dust and ashes devastated farmlands through large areas.
An outbreak in 1894 produced numerous rifts in the inner walls from
which steam and smoke have issued ever since.

Kaimon (Kagoshima Bay) 3041.
One of the most beautiful volcanoes of Japan, known as the
Satsuma-Fuji. The symmetry of the cone is marred by a convexity on
the seaward (S.) side. This volcano is all but extinct.

Sakura-jima (Kagomshima Bay) 3743.
An island-volcano, with several parasitic cones (extinct), on the N.
and E. sides. At the summit are two deep craters, the southern of
which emits steam. Grass grows, however, to the very edges of the
crater. The island is celebrated for thermal springs, oranges and
_daikon_ (radishes), which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 lb.

Kiri-shima (Kagoshima Bay) 5538.
A volcanic range of which Takachiho, the only active cone, forms the
terminal (S.E.) peak. The crater, situated on the S.W. side of the
volcano, lies some 500 ft. below the summit-peak. It is of
remarkably regular formation, and the floor is pierced by a number
of huge fumaroles whence issue immense volumes of steam.

Izuno Oshima (Vries Island) (Izu) 2461.
The volcano on this island is called Mihara. There is a double
crater, the outer being almost complete. The diameter of the outer
crater, within which rises the modern cone to a height of 500 ft.
above the surrounding floor, is about 2 m.; while the present
crater, which displays incessant activity, has itself a diameter of
¼ m.

Asama (Ise) 8136.
The largest active volcano in Japan. An eruption in 1783, with a
deluge of lava, destroyed an extensive forest and overwhelmed
several villages. The present cone is the third, portions of two
concentric crater rings remaining. The present crater is remarkable
for the absolute perpendicularity of its walls, and has an immense
depth--from 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, ¾ m. in circumference,
with sides honeycombed and burned to a red hue.

Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce-Mitford's
valuable work (see _Geog. Jour._, Feb. 1908, &c.).

_Earthquakes._--Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic
violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work, for
the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appreciably
rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding subsidence
is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of petty
vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instruments.
But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an exceptional
abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897--that is to say,
the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording
purposes was available--she was visited by no fewer than 17,750
shocks, being an average of something over 3½ daily. The frequency of
these phenomena is in some degree a source of security, for the minor
vibrations are believed to exercise a binding effect by removing weak
cleavages. Nevertheless the annals show that during the three
centuries before 1897 there were 108 earthquakes sufficiently
disastrous to merit historical mention. If the calculation be carried
farther back--as has been done by the seismic disaster investigation
committee of Japan, a body of scientists constantly engaged in
studying these phenomena under government auspices,--it is found that,
since the country's history began to be written in the 8th century
A.D., there have been 2006 major disturbances; but inasmuch as 1489 of
these occurred before the beginning of the Tokugawa administration
(early in the 17th century, and therefore in an era when methods of
recording were comparatively defective), exact details are naturally
lacking. The story, so far as it is known, may be gathered from the
following table:--

Date A.D. Region. Houses Deaths.
destroyed.
684 Southern part of Tosa -- -- (1)
869 Mutsu -- -- (2)
1361 Kioto -- --
1498 Tokaido -- 2,000(3)
1569 Bungo -- 700
1596 Kioto -- 2,000
1605 (31/1) Pacific Coast -- 5,000
1611 (27/9) Aizu -- 3,700
1614 (2/12) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,700
1662 (16/6) Kioto 5,500 500
1666 (2/2) Pacific Coast (N.E.) -- 1,500
1694 (19/12) Ugo 2,760 390
1703 (30/12) Tokyo 20,162 5,233
1707 (28/10) Pacific Coast of Kiushiu
and Shikoku 29,000 4,900
1751 (20/5) Echigo 9,100 1,700
1766 (8/3) Hirosaki 7,500 1,335
1792 (10/2) Hizen and Higo 12,000 15,000
1828 (18/2) Echigo 11,750 1,443
1844 (8/5) Echigo 34,000 12,000
1854 (6/7) Yamato, Iga, Ise 5,000 2,400
1854 (23/12) Tokaido (Shikoku) 60,000 3,000
1855 (11/11) Yedo, (Tokyo) 50,000 6,700
1891 (28/10) Mino, Owari 222,501 7,273
1894 (22/10) Shonai 8,403 726
1896 (15/6) Sanriku 13,073 27,122
1896 (31/8) Ugo, Rikuchu 8,996 209
1906 (12/2) Formosa 5,556 1,228

(1) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea.
(2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people.
(3) Hamana lagoon formed.

In the capital (Tokyo) the average yearly number of shocks throughout
the 26 years ending in 1906 was 96, exclusive of minor vibrations, but
during the 50 years then ending there were only two severe shocks
(1884 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible for any damage
to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese islands is more
liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a wide area.
Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks occurring in the
Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea--the Tuscarora
Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity--and they are
accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would seem that of late
years Tajima, Hida, Kozuke and some other regions in central Japan
have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi (in which province
Tokyo is situated) and Sagami have been most subject to disturbance.

_Plains._--Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive plains.
The northern island--Yezo--contains seven, and there are as many more
in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of flat lands of
minor dimensions. The principal are given in the following table:--

Name. Situation. Area. Remarks.

Tokachi plain Yezo. 744,000 acres. --
Ishikari " " 480,000 " --
Kushiro " " 1,229,000 " --
Nemuro " " 320,000 " --
Kitami " " 230,000 " --
Hidaka " " 200,000 " --
Teshio " " 180,000 " --
Echigo " Main Island. Unascertained. --
Sendai " " " --
Kwanto " " " In this plain lie the
capital, Tokyo, and the
town of Yokohama. It
supports about 6 millions
of people.
Mino-Owari " " " Has 1½ million inhabitants.
Kinai " " " Has the cities of Osaka,
Kioto and Kobe, and 2½
million people.
Tsukushi " Kiushiu. " The chief coalfield of
Japan.

_Rivers._--Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in the
world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by canals
and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards varies within
wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in summer and while
the snows of winter are melting in spring, great volumes of water
sweep down from the mountains, these broad rivers dwindle at other
times to petty rivulets trickling among a waste of pebbles and
boulders. Nor are there any long rivers, and all are so broken by
shallows and rapids that navigation is generally impossible except by
means of flat-bottomed boats drawing only a few inches. The chief
rivers are given in the following table:--

Length
in miles. Source. Mouth.

Ishikari-gawa 275 Ishikari-dake Otaru.
Shinano-gawa 215 Kimpu-san Niigata.
Teshio-gawa 192 Teshio-take Sea of Japan.
Tone-gawa 177 Monju-zan, Kozuke Choshi (Shimosa).
Mogami-gawa 151 Dainichi-dake(Uzen) Sakata.
Yoshino-gawa 149 Yahazu-yama (Tosa) Tokushima (Awa).
Kitakami-gawa 146 Nakayama-dake Ishinomaki
(Rikuchiu) (Rikuzen).
Tenriu-gawa 136 Suwako (Shinano) Totomi Bay.
Go-gawa or
Iwa-megawa 122 Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay.
Abukuma-gawa 122 Asahi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay.
Tokachi-gawa 120 Tokachi-dake Tokachi Bay.
Sendai-gawa 112 Kunimi-zan (Hiuga) Kumizaki (Satsuma).
Oi-gawa 112 Shirane-san (Kai) Suruga Bay.
Kiso-gawa 112 Kiso-zan (Shinano) Bay of Isenumi.
Arakawa 104 Chichibu-yama Tokyo Bay.
Naga-gawa 102 Nasu-yama (Shimotsuke) Naka-no-minato
(Huachi).

_Lakes and Waterfalls._--Japan has many lakes, remarkable for the
beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some are
contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys; others have
been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers until
exits were found over cliffs or through gorges. Some of these lakes
have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that category
belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shoji, of
Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake Chiuzenji,
which is 4375 ft. above sea-level, has a maximum depth of 93 fathoms,
and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft. high. The
Shoji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neighbourhood
abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height of 2428 ft.;
Inawashiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a height of 328 ft.
The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with eight views of special
loveliness (_Omi-no-hakkei_). Lake Suwa, in Shinano, which is emptied
by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height of 2624 ft. In the vicinity of many
of these mountain lakes thermal springs, with remarkable curative
properties, are to be found. (F. By.)

_Geology._--It is a popular belief that the islands of Japan consist
for the most part of volcanic rocks. But although this conception
might reasonably be suggested by the presence of many active and
extinct volcanoes, Professor J. Milne has pointed out that it is
literally true of the Kuriles alone, partially true for the northern
half of the Main Island and for Kiushiu, and quite incorrect as
applied to the southern half of the Main Island and to Shikoku. This
authority sums up the geology of Japan briefly and succinctly as
follows (in _Things Japanese_, by Professor Chamberlain): "The
backbone of the country consists of primitive gneiss and schists.
Amongst the latter, in Shikoku, there is an extremely interesting rock
consisting largely of piedmontite. Overlying these amongst the
Palaeozoic rocks, we meet in many parts of Japan with slates and other
rocks possibly of Cambrian or Silurian age. Trilobites have been
discovered in Rikuzen. Carboniferous rocks are represented by mountain
masses of _Fusulina_ and other limestones. There is also amongst the
Palaeozoic group an interesting series of red slates containing
Radiolaria. Mesozoic rocks are represented by slates containing
_Ammonites_ and _Monotis_, evidently of Triassic age, rocks containing
_Ammonites Bucklandi_ of Liassic age, a series of beds rich in plants
of Jurassic age, and beds of Cretaceous age containing _Trigonia_ and
many other fossils. The Cainozoic or Tertiary system forms a fringe
round the coasts of many portions of the empire. It chiefly consists
of stratified volcanic tuffs rich in coal, lignite, fossilized plants
and an invertebrate fauna. Diatomaceous earth exists at several places
in Yezo. In the alluvium which covers all, the remains have been
discovered of several species of elephant, which, according to Dr
Edmund Naumann, are of Indian origin. The most common eruptive rock is
andesite. Such rocks as basalt, diorite and trachyte are comparatively
rare. Quartz porphyry, quartzless porphyry, and granite are largely
developed." Drs von Richthofen and Rein discuss the subject in greater
detail. They have pointed out that in the mountain system of Japan
there are three main lines. One runs from S.W. to N.E.; another from
S.S.W. to N.N.E., and the third is meridional. These they call
respectively the "southern schist range," the "northern schist range,"
and the "snow range," the last consisting mainly of old crystalline
massive rocks. The rocks predominating in Japan fall also into three
groups. They are, first, plutonic rocks, especially granite; secondly,
volcanic rocks, chiefly trachyte and dolerite; and thirdly, palaeozoic
schists. On the other hand, limestone and sandstone, especially of the
Mesozoic strata, are strikingly deficient. The strike of the old
crystalline rocks follows, in general, the main direction of the
islands (S.W. to N.E.). They are often overlain by schists and
quartzites, or broken through by volcanic masses. "The basis of the
islands consist of granite, syenite, diorite, diabase and related
kinds of rock, porphyry appearing comparatively seldom. Now the
granite, continuing for long distances, forms the prevailing rock;
then, again, it forms the foundation for thick strata of schist and
sandstone, itself only appearing in valleys of erosion and river
boulders, in rocky projections on the coasts or in the ridges of the
mountains.... In the composition of many mountains in Hondo (the main
island) granite plays a prominent part.... It appears to form the
central mass which crops up in hundreds of places towards the coast
and in the interior. Old schists, free from fossils and rich in
quartz, overlie it in parallel chains through the whole length of the
peninsula, especially in the central and highest ridges, and bear the
ores of Chu-goku (the central provinces), principally copper pyrites
and magnetic pyrites. These schist ridges rich in quartz show, to a
depth of 20 metres, considerable disintegration. The resulting pebble
and quartz-sand is very unproductive, and supports chiefly a poor
underwood and crippled pines with widely spreading roots which seek
their nourishment afar. In the province of Settsu granite everywhere
predominates, which may be observed also in the railway cuttings
between Hiogo and Osaka, as well as in the temples and walls of these
towns. The waterfalls near Kobe descend over granite walls and the
_mikageishi_ (stone of Mikage), famous throughout Japan, is granite
from Settsu.... In the hill country on the borders of Ise, Owari,
Mikawa and Totomi, on the one side, and Omi, Mino and Shinano, on the
other, granite frequently forms dark grey and much disintegrated
rock-projections above schist and diluvial quartz pebbles. The
feldspar of a splendid pegmatite and its products of disintegration on
the borders of Owari, Mino and Mikawa form the raw material of the
very extensive ceramic industry of this district, with its chief
place, Seto. Of granite are chiefly formed the meridional mountains of
Shinano. Granite, diorite and other plutonic rocks hem in the winding
upper valleys of the Kiso-gawa, the Saigawa (Shinano river) and many
other rivers of this province, their clear water running over granite.
Also in the hills bordering on the plain of Kwanto these old
crystalline rocks are widely spread. Farther northwards they give way
again, as in the south, to schists and eruptive rocks. Yet even here
granite may be traced in many places. Of course it is not always a
pure granite; even hablit and granite-porphyry are found here and
there. Thus, for instance, near Nikko in the upper valley of the
Daiya-gawa, and in several other places in the neighbouring mountains,
a granite-porphyry appears with large, pale, flesh-coloured crystals
of orthoclase, dull triclinic felspar, quartz and hornblende." "From
the mine of Ichinokawa in Shikoku come the wonderful crystals of
antimonite, which form such conspicuous objects in the mineralogical
cabinets of Europe." (Rein's _Japan_ and Milne in _Things Japanese_.)
The above conditions suggest the presence of tertiary formations, yet
only the younger groups of that formation appear to be developed. Nor
is there any sign of moraines, glacier-scorings or other traces of the
ice-age.

The oldest beds which have yielded fossils in any abundance belong to
the Carboniferous System. The Trias proper is represented by truly
marine deposits, while the Rhaetic beds contain plant remains. The
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are also in part marine and in part
terrestrial. During the whole of the Mesozoic era Japan appears to
have lain on or near the margin of the Asiatic continent, and the
marine deposits are confined for the most part to the eastern side of
the islands.

The igneous rocks occur at several geological horizons, but the great
volcanic eruptions did not begin until the Tertiary period. The
existing volcanoes belong to four separate arcs or chains. On the
south is the arc of the Luchu islands, which penetrates into Kiu Shiu.
In the centre there is the arc of the Izu-no-Shichito islands, which
is continued into Hondo along the Fossa Magna. In North Hondo the
great Bandai arc forms the axis of the island and stretches into Yezo
(Hokkaido). Finally in the east of Yezo rise the most westerly
volcanoes of the Kurile chain. The lavas and ashes ejected by these
volcanoes consist of liparite, dacite, andesite and basalt.

Structurally Japan is divided into two regions by a depression (the
"Fossa Magna" of Naumann) which stretches across the island of Hondo
from Shimoda to Nagano. The depression is marked by a line of
volcanoes, including Fuji, and is in part buried beneath the products
of their eruptions. It is supposed to be due to a great fault along
its western margin. South and west of the Fossa Magna the beds are
thrown into folds which run approximately parallel to the general
direction of the coast, and two zones may be recognized--an outer,
consisting of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic beds, and an inner, consisting
of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks, with granitic intrusions. Nearly
along the boundary between the two zones lie the inland seas of south
Japan. Towards the Fossa Magna the folds bend northwards.

North and east of the Fossa Magna the structure is concealed, to a
very large extent, by the outpourings of the volcanoes which form so
marked a feature in the northern part of Hondo. But the foundation on
which the volcanoes rest is exposed along the east coast of Hondo (in
the Kwanto, Abukuma and Kitakami hills), and also in the island of
Yezo. This foundation consists of Archean, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
beds folded together, the direction of the folds being N. by W. to S.
by E., that is to say, slightly oblique to the general direction of
this part of the island. Towards the Fossa Magna the folds bend
sharply round until they are nearly parallel to the Fossa itself.
(P. La.)

Secular Movement