Chapter X: Part 10

MANDATE (_Mandatum_), a contract in Roman law constituted by one person (the _mandatarius_) promising to do something gratuitously at the request of another (the _mandator_), who undertakes to indemnify him against loss. The jurist distinguished the different cases of mandatum according as the object of the contract was the benefit of the mandator or a third person singly, or the mandator and a third person, the mandator and the mandatarius, or the mandatarius and a third person together. When the benefit was that of the mandatarius alone, the obligations of the contract were held not to arise, although the form of the contract might exist, the commission being held to be merely advice tendered to the mandatarius, and acted on by him at his own risk. Mandatum was classified as one of the contracts established by consent of the parties alone; but, as there was really no obligation of any kind until the mandatarius had acted on the mandate, it has with more propriety been referred to the contracts created by the supply of some fact (_re_). The obligations of the mandatarius under the contract were, briefly, to do what he had promised according to his instructions, observing ordinary diligence in taking care of any property entrusted to him, and handing over to his principal the results of his action, including the right to sue in his name. On the other hand, the principal was bound to recoup him his expenses and indemnify him against loss through obligations he might have incurred.

The essentials and the terminology of the contract are preserved in
most modern systems of law. But in English law mandate, under that
name, can hardly be said to exist as a separate form of contract. To
some extent the law of mandatum corresponds partly to the law of
principal and agent, partly to that of principal and surety. "Mandate"
is retained to signify the contract more generally known as gratuitous
bailment. It is restricted to personal property, and it implies the
delivery of something to the bailee, both of which conditions are
unknown in the mandatum of the civil law (see BAILMENT).

MANDAUE, a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast and E. coast road, about 4 m. N.E. of the town of Cebú, the capital. Pop. (1903), 11,078; in the same year the town of Consolación (pop. 5511) was merged with Mandaue. Its climate is very hot, but healthy. The principal industries are the raising of Indian corn and sugar-cane and the manufacture of salt from sea-water. Cebú-Visayan is the language.

MANDELIC ACID (Phenylglycollic Acid), C8H8O3 or C6H5·CH(OH)·COOH, an isomer of the cresotinic and the oxymethylbenzoic acids. Since the molecule contains an asymmetric carbon atom, the acid exists in three forms, one being an inactive "racemic" mixture, and the other two being optically active forms. The inactive variety is known as _paramandelic acid_. It may be prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on the addition compound of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid:--

C6H5CHO + HCN + HCl + 2H2O = C6H5·CHOH·COOH + NH4Cl,

(F. L. Winckler, _Ann._, 1836, 18, 310), by boiling phenylchlor-acetic acid with alkalis (A. Spiegel, _Ber._, 1881, 14, 239), by heating benzoylformaldehyde with alkalis (H. v. Pechmann, _Ber._, 1887, 20, 2905), and by the action of dilute alkalies on [omega]-dibromacetophenone (C. Engler, _Ber._, 1887, 20, 2202):--

C6H5COCHBr2 + 3KHO = 2KBr + H2O + C6H5·CHOH·CO2K.

It crystallizes from water in large rhombic crystals, which melt at 118° C. Oxidizing agents convert it into benzaldehyde. When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms phenylacetic acid; whilst concentrated hydrobromic acid and hydrochloric acid at moderate temperatures convert it into phenylbrom- and phenylchlor-acetic acids. The inactive mixture may be resolved into its active components by fractional crystallization of the cinchonine salt, when the salt of the _dextro_ modification separates first; or the ammonium salt may be fermented by _Penicillium glaucum_, when the _laevo_ form is destroyed and the _dextro_ form remains untouched; on the other hand, _Saccharomyces ellipsoïdeus_ destroys the _dextro_ form, but does not touch the _laevo_ form. A mixture of the two forms in equivalent quantities produces the inactive variety, which is also obtained when either form is heated for some hours to 160° C.

MANDER, CAREL VAN (1548-1606), Dutch painter, poet and biographer, was born of a noble family at Meulebeke. He studied under Lucas de Heere at Ghent, and in 1568-1569 under Pieter Vlerick at Kortryck. The next five years he devoted to the writing of religious plays for which he also painted the scenery. Then followed three years in Rome (1574-1577), where he is said to have been the first to discover the catacombs. On his return journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with the sculptor Hans Mont, he made the triumphal arch for the entry of the emperor Rudolph. After many vicissitudes caused by war, loss of fortune and plague, he settled at Haarlem where, in conjunction with Goltzius and Cornelisz, he founded a successful academy of painting. His fame is, however, principally based upon a voluminous biographical work on the paintings of various epochs--a book that has become for the northern countries what Vasari's _Lives of the Painters_ became for Italy. It was completed in 1603 and published in 1604, in which year Van Mander removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1606.

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733), English philosopher and satirist, was born at Dordrecht, where his father practised as a physician. On leaving the Erasmus school at Rotterdam he gave proof of his ability by an _Oratio scholastica de medicina_ (1685), and at Leiden University in 1689 he maintained a thesis _De brutorum operationibus_, in which he advocated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In 1691 he took his medical degree, pronouncing an "inaugural disputation," _De chylosi vitiata_. Afterwards he came to England "to learn the language," and succeeded so remarkably that many refused to believe he was a foreigner. As a physician he seems to have done little, and lived poorly on a pension given him by some Dutch merchants and money which he earned from distillers for advocating the use of spirits. His conversational abilities won him the friendship of Lord Macclesfield (chief justice 1710-1718) who introduced him to Addison, described by Mandeville as "a parson in a tye-wig." He died in January (19th or 21st) 1733/4 at Hackney.

The work by which he is known is the _Fable of the Bees_, published first in 1705 under the title of _The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn'd Honest_ (two hundred doggerel couplets). In 1714 it was republished anonymously with _Remarks_ and _An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue_. In 1723 a later edition appeared, including _An Essay on Charity and Charity Schools_, and _A Search into the Nature of Society_. The book was primarily written as a political satire on the state of England in 1705, when the Tories were accusing Marlborough and the ministry of advocating the French War for personal reasons. The edition of 1723 was presented as a nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, was denounced in the _London Journal_ by "Theophilus Philo-Britannus," and attacked by many writers, notably by Archibald Campbell (1691-1756) in his _Aretelogia_ (published as his own by Alexander Innes in 1728; afterwards by Campbell, under his own name, in 1733, as _Enquiry into the Original of Moral Virtue_). The _Fable_ was reprinted in 1729, a ninth edition appeared in 1755, and it has often been reprinted in more recent times. Berkeley attacked it in the second dialogue of the _Alciphron_ (1732) and John Brown criticized him in his _Essay upon Shaftesbury's Characteristics_ (1751).

Mandeville's philosophy gave great offence at the time, and has always been stigmatized as false, cynical and degrading. His main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The higher life of man is merely a fiction introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify government and the relations of society. In fact, virtue (which he defined as "every performance by which man, contrary to the impulse of nature, should endeavour the benefit of others, or the conquest of his own passions, out of a rational ambition of being good") is actually detrimental to the state in its commercial and intellectual progress, for it is the vices (i.e. the self-regarding actions of men) which alone, by means of inventions and the circulation of capital in connexion with luxurious living, stimulate society into action and progress. In the _Fable_ he shows a society possessed of all the virtues "blest with content and honesty," falling into apathy and utterly paralyzed. The absence of self-love (cf. Hobbes) is the death of progress. The so-called higher virtues are mere hypocrisy, and arise from the selfish desire to be superior to the brutes. "The moral virtues are the political offspring which flattery begot upon pride." Similarly he arrives at the great paradox that "private vices are public benefits." But his best work and that in which he approximates most nearly to modern views is his account of the origin of society. His _a priori_ theories should be compared with Maine's historical inquiries (_Ancient Law_, c. V.). He endeavours to show that all social laws are the crystallized results of selfish aggrandizement and protective alliances among the weak. Denying any form of moral sense or conscience, he regards all the social virtues as evolved from the instinct for self-preservation, the give-and-take arrangements between the partners in a defensive and offensive alliance, and the feelings of pride and vanity artificially fed by politicians, as an antidote to dissension and chaos. Mandeville's ironical paradoxes are interesting mainly as a criticism of the "amiable" idealism of Shaftesbury, and in comparison with the serious egoistic systems of Hobbes and Helvetius. It is mere prejudice to deny that Mandeville had considerable philosophic insight; at the same time he was mainly negative or critical, and, as he himself said, he was writing for "the entertainment of people of knowledge and education." He may be said to have cleared the ground for the coming utilitarianism.

WORKS.--_Typhon: a Burlesque Poem_ (1704); _Aesop Dress'd, or a
Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse_ (1704); _The Planter's
Charity_ (1704); _The Virgin Unmasked_ (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), a
work in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent; _Treatise
of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions_ (1711, 1715, 1730)
admired by Johnson (Mandeville here protests against merely
speculative therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own
about animal spirits in connexion with "stomachic ferment": he shows a
knowledge of Locke's methods, and an admiration for Sydenham); _Free
Thoughts on Religion_ (1720); _A Conference about Whoring_ (1725); _An
Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at Tyburn_ (1725);
_The Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity in War_
(1732). Other works attributed, wrongly, to him are _A Modest Defence
of Public Stews_ (1724); _The World Unmasked_ (1736) and _Zoologia
medicinalis hibernica_ (1744).

See Hill's _Boswell_, iii. 291-293; L. Stephen's _English Thought in
the Eighteenth Century_, A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (593-598);
Windelband's _History of Ethics_ (Eng. trans. Tufts); J. M. Robertson,
_Pioneer Humanists_ (1907); P. Sakmann, _Bernard de Mandeville und die
Bienenfabel-Controverse_ (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare articles
ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES. (J. M. M.).

MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE (d. 1144), earl of Essex, succeeded his father, William, as constable of the Tower of London in or shortly before 1130. Though a great Essex landowner, he played no conspicuous part in history till 1140, when Stephen created him earl of Essex in reward for his services against the empress Matilda. After the defeat and capture of Stephen at Lincoln (1141) the earl deserted to Matilda, but before the end of the year, learning that Stephen's release was imminent, returned to his original allegiance. In 1142 he was again intriguing with the empress; but before he could openly join her cause he was detected and deprived of his castles by the king. In 1143-1144 Geoffrey maintained himself as a rebel and a bandit in the fen-country, using the Isle of Ely and Ramsey Abbey as his headquarters. He was besieged by Stephen in the fens, and met his death in September 1144 in consequence of a wound received in a skirmish. His career is interesting for two reasons. The charters which he extorted from Stephen and Matilda illustrate the peculiar form taken by the ambitions of English feudatories. The most important concessions are grants of offices and jurisdictions which had the effect of making Mandeville a viceroy with full powers in Essex, Middlesex and London, and Hertfordshire. His career as an outlaw exemplifies the worst excesses of the anarchy which prevailed in some parts of England during the civil wars of 1140-1147, and it is probable that the deeds of Mandeville inspired the rhetorical description, in the Peterborough Chronicle of this period, when "men said openly that Christ and his saints were asleep."

See J. H. Round, _Geoffrey de Mandeville, a Study of the Anarchy_
(London, 1892). (H. W. C. D.)

MANDEVILLE, JEHAN DE ("Sir John Mandeville"), the name claimed by the compiler of a singular book of travels, written in French, and published between 1357 and 1371. By aid of translations into many other languages it acquired extraordinary popularity, while a few interpolated words in a particular edition of an English version gained for Mandeville in modern times the spurious credit of being "the father of English prose."

In his preface the compiler calls himself a knight, and states that he was born and bred in England, of the town of St Albans; had crossed the sea on Michaelmas Day 1322; had travelled by way of Turkey (Asia Minor), Armenia the little (Cilicia) and the great, Tartary, Persia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt upper and lower, Libya, great part of Ethiopia, Chaldaea, Amazonia, India the less, the greater and the middle, and many countries about India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance as more generally understood than Latin. In the body of the work we hear that he had been at Paris and Constantinople; had served the sultan of Egypt a long time in his wars against the Bedawin, had been vainly offered by him a princely marriage and a great estate on condition of renouncing Christianity, and had left Egypt under sultan Melech Madabron, i.e. Muzaffar or Mudhaffar[1] (who reigned in 1346-1347); had been at Mount Sinai, and had visited the Holy Land with letters under the great seal of the sultan, which gave him extraordinary facilities; had been in Russia, Livonia, Cracow, Lithuania, "en roialme daresten" (? de Daresten or Silistria), and many other parts near Tartary, but not in Tartary itself; had drunk of the well of youth at Polombe (Quilon on the Malabar coast), and still seemed to feel the better; had taken astronomical observations on the way to Lamory (Sumatra), as well as in Brabant, Germany, Bohemia and still farther north; had been at an isle called Pathen in the Indian Ocean; had been at Cansay (Hangchow-fu) in China, and had served the emperor of China fifteen months against the king of Manzi; had been among rocks of adamant in the Indian Ocean; had been through a haunted valley, which he places near "Milstorak" (i.e. Malasgird in Armenia); had been driven home against his will in 1357 by arthritic gout; and had written his book as a consolation for his "wretched rest." The paragraph which states that he had had his book confirmed at Rome by the pope is an interpolation of the English version.

Part at least of the personal history of Mandeville is mere invention. Nor is any contemporary corroboration of the existence of such a Jehan de Mandeville known. Some French MSS., not contemporary, give a Latin letter of presentation from him to Edward III., but so vague that it might have been penned by any writer on any subject. It is in fact beyond reasonable doubt that the travels were in large part compiled by a Liége physician, known as Johains à le Barbe or Jehan à la Barbe, otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne.

The evidence of this is in a modernized extract quoted by the Liége herald, Louis Abry[2] (1643-1720), from the lost fourth book of the _Myreur des Hystors_ of Johans des Preis, styled d'Oultremouse. In this "Jean de Bourgogne, dit à la Barbe," is said to have revealed himself on his deathbed to d'Oultremouse, whom he made his executor, and to have described himself in his will as "messire Jean de Mandeville, chevalier, comte de Montfort en Angleterre et seigneur de l'isle de Campdi et du château Pérouse." It is added that, having had the misfortune to kill an unnamed count in his own country, he engaged himself to travel through the three parts of the world, arrived at Liége in 1343, was a great naturalist, profound philosopher and astrologer, and had a remarkable knowledge of physic. And the identification is confirmed by the fact that in the now destroyed church of the Guillelmins was a tombstone of Mandeville, with a Latin inscription stating that he was otherwise named "ad Barbam," was a professor of medicine, and died at Liége on the 17th of November 1372: this inscription is quoted as far back as 1462.

Even before his death the Liége physician seems to have confessed to a share in the composition of the work. In the common Latin abridged version of it, at the end of c. vii., the author says that when stopping in the sultan's court at Cairo he met a venerable and expert physician of "our" parts, that they rarely came into conversation because their duties were of a different kind, but that long afterwards at Liége he composed this treatise at the exhortation and with the help (_hortatu et adiutorio_) of the same venerable man, as he will narrate at the end of it. And in the last chapter he says that in 1355, in returning home, he came to Liége, and being laid up with old age and arthritic gout in the street called Bassesauenyr, i.e. Basse Savenir, consulted the physicians. That one came in who was more venerable than the others by reason of his age and white hairs, was evidently expert in his art, and was commonly called Magister Iohannes ad Barbam. That a chance remark of the latter caused the renewal of their old Cairo acquaintance, and that Ad Barbam, after showing his medical skill on Mandeville, urgently begged him to write his travels; "and so at length, by his advice and help, _monitu et adiutorio_, was composed this treatise, of which I had certainly proposed to write nothing until at least I had reached my own parts in England." He goes on to speak of himself as being now lodged in Liége, "which is only two days distant from the sea of England"; and it is stated in the colophon (and in the MSS.) that the book was first published in French by Mandeville, its author, in 1355, at Liége, and soon after in the same city translated into "the said" Latin form. Moreover, a MS. of the French text extant at Liége about 1860[3] contained a similar statement, and added that the author lodged at a hostel called "al hoste Henkin Levo": this MS. gave the physician's name as "Johains de Bourgogne dit ale barbe," which doubtless conveys its local form.

There is no contemporary English mention of any English knight named Jehan de Mandeville, nor are the arms said to have been on the Liége tomb like any known Mandeville arms. But Dr G. F. Warner has ingeniously suggested that de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgoyne, who was pardoned by parliament on the 20th of August 1321 for having taken part in the attack on the Despensers, but whose pardon was revoked in May 1322, the year in which "Mandeville" professes to have left England. And it should now be added that among the persons similarly pardoned _on the recommendation of the same nobleman_ was a Joh^an Mangevilayn, whose name appears closely related to that of "de Mandeville"[4]--which is merely a later form of "de Magneville."

Mangeuilain occurs in Yorkshire as early as 16 Hen. I. (_Pipe Roll Soc._, xv. 40), but is very rare, and (failing evidence of any place named Mangeville) seems to be merely a variant spelling of Magnevillain. The meaning may be simply "of Magneville," _de_ Magneville; but the family of a 14th century bishop of Nevers were called both "Mandevilain" and "de Mandevilain"--where Mandevilain seems a derivative place-name, meaning the Magneville or Mandeville district. In any case it is clear that the name "de Mandeville" might be suggested to de Bourgogne by that of his fellow-culprit Mangevilayn, and it is even possible that the two fled to England together, were in Egypt together, met again at Liége, and shared in the compilation of the _Travels_.

Whether after the appearance of the _Travels_ either de Bourgogne or "Mangevilayn" visited England is very doubtful. St Albans Abbey had a sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb, said to have been given by Mandeville; but these might have been sent from Liége, and it will appear later that the Liége physician possessed and wrote about precious stones. St Albans also had a legend that a ruined marble tomb of Mandeville (represented cross-legged and in armour, with sword and shield) once stood in the abbey; this may be true of "Mangevilayn" or it may be a mere myth.

It is a little curious that the name preceding Mangevilayn in the list of persons pardoned is "Johan le Barber." Did this suggest to de Bourgogne the _alias_ "à le Barbe," or was that only a Liége nickname? Note also that the arms on Mandeville's tomb were borne by the Tyrrells of Hertfordshire (the county in which St Albans lies); for of course the crescent on the lion's breast is only the "difference" indicating a second son.

Leaving this question, there remains the equally complex one whether the book contains any facts and knowledge acquired by actual travels and residence in the East. Possibly it may, but only as a small portion of the section which treats of the Holy Land and the ways of getting thither, of Egypt, and in general of the Levant. The prologue, indeed, points almost exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. The mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end of this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought.

By far the greater part of these more distant travels, extending in fact from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago, and China, and back again to western Asia, has been appropriated from the narrative of Friar Odoric (written in 1330). These passages, as served up by Mandeville, are almost always, indeed, swollen with interpolated particulars, usually of an extravagant kind, whilst in no few cases the writer has failed to understand the passages which he adopts from Odoric and professes to give as his own experiences. Thus (p. 209),[5] where Odoric has given a most curious and veracious account of the Chinese custom of employing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are converted by Mandeville into "little beasts called _loyres_ (_layre_, B), which are taught to go into the water" (the word _loyre_ being apparently used here for "otter," _lutra_, for which the Provençal is _luria_ or _loiria_).

At a very early date the coincidence of Mandeville's stories with those of Odoric was recognized, insomuch that a MS. of Odoric which is or was in the chapter library at Mainz begins with the words: _Incipit Itinerarius fidelis fratris Odorici socii Militis Mendavil per Indian; licet hic [read ille] prius el alter posterius peregrinationem suam descripsit._ At a later day Sir T. Herbert calls Odoric "travelling companion of our Sir John"; and Purchas, with most perverse injustice, whilst calling Mandeville, next to Polo, "if next ... the greatest Asian traveller that ever the world had," insinuates that Odoric's story was stolen from Mandeville's. Mandeville himself is crafty enough, at least in one passage, to anticipate criticism by suggesting the probability of his having travelled with Odoric (see p. 282 and below).

Much, again, of Mandeville's matter, particularly in Asiatic geography and history, is taken bodily from the _Historiae Orientis_ of Hetoum, an Armenian of princely family, who became a monk of the Praemonstrant order, and in 1307 dictated this work on the East, in the French tongue at Poitiers, out of his own extraordinary acquaintance with Asia and its history in his own time.

It is curious that no passage in Mandeville can be plausibly traced to Marco Polo, with one exception. This is (p. 163) where he states that at Hormuz the people during the great heat lie in water--a circumstance mentioned by Polo, though not by Odoric. We should suppose it most likely that this fact had been interpolated in the copy of Odoric used by Mandeville, for if he had borrowed it direct from Polo he would have borrowed more.

A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is demonstrably derived from the famous work of the Franciscan Ioannes de Plano Carpini, who went as the pope's ambassador to the Tatars in 1245-1247; but Dr Warner considers that the immediate source for Mandeville was the _Speculum historiale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. Though the passages in question are all to be found in Plano Carpini more or less exactly, the expression is condensed and the order changed. For examples compare Mandeville, p. 250, on the tasks done by Tatar women, with Plano Carpini, p. 643;[6] Mandeville, p. 250, on Tatar habits of eating, with Plano Carpini, pp. 639-640; Mandeville, p. 231, on the titles borne on the seals of the Great Khan, with Plano Carpini, p. 715, &c.

The account of Prester John is taken from the famous _Epistle_ of that imaginary potentate, which was so widely diffused in the 13th century, and created that renown which made it incumbent on every traveller in Asia to find some new tale to tell of him. Many fabulous stories, again, of monsters, such as cyclopes, sciapodes, hippopodes, monoscelides, anthropophagi, and men whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders, of the phoenix and the weeping crocodile, such as Pliny has collected, are introduced here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the bestiaries, or the _Speculum naturale_ of Vincent de Beauvais. And interspersed, especially in the chapters about the Levant, are the stories and legends that were retailed to every pilgrim, such as the legend of Seth and the grains of paradise from which grew the wood of the cross, that of the shooting of old Cain by Lamech, that of the castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears in the tale of Melusina), those of the origin of the balsam plants at Matariya, of the dragon of Cos, of the river Sabbation, &c.

Even in that part of the book which might be supposed to represent some genuine experience there are the plainest traces that another work has been made use of, more or less--we might almost say as a framework to fill up. This is the itinerary of the German knight Wilhelm von Boldensele, written in 1336 at the desire of Cardinal Talleyrand de Perigord.[7] A cursory comparison of this with Mandeville leaves no doubt that the latter has followed its thread, though digressing on every side, and too often eliminating the singular good sense of the German traveller. We may indicate as examples Boldensele's account of Cyprus (Mandeville, p. 28 and p. 10), of Tyre and the coast of Palestine (Mandeville, 29, 30, 33, 34), of the journey from Gaza to Egypt (34), passages about Babylon of Egypt (40), about Mecca (42), the general account of Egypt (45), the pyramids (52), some of the wonders of Cairo, such as the slave-market, the chicken-hatching stoves, and the apples of paradise, i.e. plantains (49), the Red Sea (57), the convent on Sinai (58, 60), the account of the church of the Holy Sepulchre (74-76), &c. There is, indeed, only a small residuum of the book to which genuine character, as containing the experiences of the author, can possibly be attributed. Yet, as has been intimated, the borrowed stories are frequently claimed as such experiences. In addition to those already mentioned, he alleges that he had witnessed the curious exhibition of the garden of transmigrated souls (described by Odoric) at Cansay, i.e. Hangchow-fu (211). He and his fellows with their valets had remained fifteen months in service with the emperor of Cathay in his wars against the king of Manzi--Manzi, or Southern China, having ceased to be a separate kingdom some seventy years before the time referred to. But the most notable of these false statements occurs in his adoption from Odoric of the story of the Valley Perilous (282). This is, in its original form, apparently founded on real experiences of Odoric viewed through a haze of excitement and superstition. Mandeville, whilst swelling the wonders of the tale with a variety of extravagant touches, appears to safeguard himself from the reader's possible discovery that it was stolen by the interpolation: "And some of our fellows accorded to enter, and some not. So there were with us two worthy men, Friars Minor, that were of Lombardy, who said that if any man would enter they would go in with us. And when they had said so, upon the gracious trust of God and of them, we caused mass to be sung, and made every man to be shriven and houselled; and then we entered, fourteen persons; but at our going out we were but nine," &c.

In referring to this passage it is only fair to recognize that the description (though the suggestion of the greatest part exists in Odoric) displays a good deal of imaginative power; and there is much in the account of Christian's passage through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, in Bunyan's famous allegory, which indicates a possibility that John Bunyan may have read and remembered this episode either in Mandeville or in Hakluyt's Odoric.

Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious. Even the great Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, accurate and veracious in the main, seems--in one part at least of his narrative--to invent experiences; and in such works as those of Jan van Hees and Arnold von Harff we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy Land whose narratives begin apparently in sober truth, and gradually pass into flourishes of fiction and extravagance. So in Mandeville also we find particulars not yet traced to other writers, and which may therefore be provisionally assigned either to the writer's own experience or to knowledge acquired by colloquial intercourse in the East.

It is difficult to decide on the character of his statements as to recent Egyptian history. In his account of that country (pp. 37, 38) though the series of the Comanian (i.e. of the Bahri Mameluke) sultans is borrowed from Hetoum down to the accession of _Melechnasser_, i.e. Malik al-Nasir (Nasir ud-din Mahommed), who came first to the throne in 1293, Mandeville appears to speak from his own knowledge when he adds that this "_Melechnasser_ reigned long and governed wisely." In fact, though twice displaced in the early part of his life, Malik Nasir reigned till 1341, a duration unparalleled in Mahommedan Egypt, whilst we are told that during the last thirty years of his reign Egypt rose to a high pitch of wealth and prosperity. Mandeville, however, then goes on to say that his eldest son, _Melechemader_, was chosen to succeed; but this prince was caused privily to be slain by his brother, who took the kingdom under the name of _Melechmadabron_. "And he was Soldan when I departed from those countries." Now Malik Nasir Mahommed was followed in succession by no less than eight of his sons in thirteen years, the first three of whom reigned in aggregate only a few months. The names mentioned by Mandeville appear to represent those of the fourth and sixth of the eight, viz. Salih 'Imad ud-din Isma'il, and Mozaffar (Saif ud-din Hajji); and these the statements of Mandeville do not fit.

On several occasions Arabic words are given, but are not always recognizable, owing perhaps to the carelessness of copyists in such matters. Thus, we find (p. 50) the names (not satisfactorily identified) of the wood, fruit and sap of the balsam plant; (p. 99) of bitumen, "alkatran" (_al-Katran_); (p. 168) of the three different kinds of pepper (long pepper, black pepper and white pepper) as _sorbotin_, _fulful_ and _bano_ or _bauo_ (_fulful_ is the common Arabic word for pepper; the others have not been satisfactorily explained). But these, and the particulars of his narrative for which no literary sources have yet been found, are too few to constitute a proof of personal experience.

Mandeville, again, in some passages shows a correct idea of the form of the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the pole star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he tells a curious story, which he had heard in his youth, how a worthy man did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again (p. 183). But he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the centre of the world (79, 183), and maintains in proof of this that at the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon, which, if true, would equally consist with the sphericity of the earth, provided that the city were on the equator.

The sources of the book, which include various authors besides those whom we have specified, have been laboriously investigated by Dr Albert Bovenschen[8] and Dr G. F. Warner,[9] and to them the reader must be referred for more detailed information on the subject.

The oldest known MS. of the original--once Barrois's, afterwards the
earl of Ashburnham's, now Nouv. Acq. Franç. 4515 in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris--is dated 1371, but is nevertheless very inaccurate
in proper names. An early printed Latin translation made from the
French has been already quoted, but four others, unprinted, have been
discovered by Dr J. Vogels.[10] They exist in eight MSS., of which
seven are in Great Britain, while the eighth was copied by a monk of
Abingdon; probably, therefore, all these unprinted translations were
executed in this country. From one of them, according to Dr
Vogels,[11] an English version was made which has never been printed
and is now extant only in free abbreviations, contained in two 15th
century MSS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford--MS. e Museo 116, and MS.
Rawlinson D. 99: the former, which is the better, is in Midland
dialect, and may possibly have belonged to the Augustinian priory of
St Osyth in Essex, while the latter is in Southern dialect.

The first English translation direct from the French was made (at
least as early as the beginning of the 15th century) from a MS. of
which many pages were lost.[12] Writing of the name Califfes
(Khalif), the author says (_Roxburghe Club ed._, p. 18) that it is
_tant a dire come roi(s). Il y soleit auoir v. soudans_--"as much as
to say king. There used to be 5 sultans." In the defective French MS.
a page ended with _Il y so_; then came a gap, and the next page went
on with part of the description of Mount Sinai, _Et est celle vallee
mult froide_ (ibid. p. 32). Consequently the corresponding English
version has "That ys to say amonge hem _Roys Ils_ and this vale ys ful
colde"! All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton's 1887
edition, follow these defective copies, and in only two known MSS. has
the lacuna been detected and filled up.

One of them is the British Museum MS. Egerton 1982 (Northern dialect,
about 1410-1420?), in which, according to Dr Vogels, the corresponding
portion has been borrowed from that English version which had already
been made from the Latin. The other is in the British Museum MS.
Cotton Titus C. xvi. (Midland dialect, about 1410-1420?), representing
a text completed, and revised throughout, from the French, though not
by a competent hand. The Egerton text, edited by Dr G. F. Warner, has
been printed by the Roxburghe Club, while the Cotton text, first
printed in 1725 and 1727, is in modern reprints the current English
version.

That none of the forms of the English version can be from the same
hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring errors
of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that it was
made by Mandeville himself, and this assertion was till lately taken
on trust by almost all modern historians of English literature. The
words of the original "je eusse cest livret mis en latin ... mais ...
je l'ay mis en romant" were mistranslated as if "je eusse" meant "I
had" instead of "I should have," and then (whether of fraudulent
intent or by the error of a copyist thinking to supply an accidental
omission) the words were added "and translated it agen out of Frensche
into Englyssche." Matzner (_Altenglische Sprachproben_, I., ii.,
154-155) seems to have been the first to show that the current English
text cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Of the
original French there is no satisfactory edition, but Dr Vogels has
undertaken a critical text, and Dr Warner has added to his Egerton
English text the French of a British Museum MS. with variants from
three others.

It remains to mention certain other works bearing the name of
Mandeville or de Bourgogne.

MS. Add. C. 280 in the Bodleian appends to the "Travels" a short
French life of St Alban of _Germany_, the author of which calls
himself Joh^an Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St Alban,
and says he writes to correct an impression prevalent among his
countrymen that there was no other saint of the name: this life is
followed by part of a French herbal.

To Mandeville (by whom de Bourgogne is clearly meant)
d'Oultremouse[13] ascribes a Latin "lappidaire selon l'oppinion des
Indois," from which he quotes twelve passages, stating that the author
(whom he calls knight, lord of Montfort, of Castelperouse, and of the
isle of Campdi) had been "baillez en Alexandrie" seven years, and had
been presented by a Saracen friend with some fine jewels which had
passed into d'Oultremouse's own possession: of this _Lapidaire_, a
French version, which seems to have been completed after 1479, has
been several times printed.[14] A MS. of Mandeville's travels offered
for sale in 1862[15] is said to have been divided into five books: (1)
the travels, (2) _de là forme de la terre et comment et par quelle
manière elle fut faite_, (3) _de la forme del ciel_, (4) _des herbes
selon les yndois et les philosophes par de là_, and (5) _ly
lapidaire_--while the cataloguer supposed Mandeville to have been the
author of a concluding piece entitled _La Venianche de nostre Signeur
Ihesu-Crist fayte par Vespasian fil del empereur de Romme et comment
Iozeph daramathye fu deliures de la prizon_. From the treatise on
herbs a passage is quoted asserting it to have been composed in 1357
in honour of the author's natural lord, Edward, king of England. This
date is corroborated by the title of king of Scotland given to Edward,
who had received from Baliol the surrender of the crown and kingly
dignity on the 20th of January 1356, but on the 3rd of October 1357
released King David and made peace with Scotland: unfortunately we are
not told whether the treatise contains the author's name, and, if so,
_what_ name. Tanner (_Bibliotheca_) alleges that Mandeville wrote
several books on medicine, and among the Ashmolean MSS. in the
Bodleian are a medical receipt by John de Magna Villa (No. 1479), an
alchemical receipt by him (No. 1407), and another alchemical receipt
by Johannes de Villa Magna (No. 1441).

Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the
plague,[16] extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin
and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes de
Burgundia, otherwise called _cum Barba_, citizen of Liége and
professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty
years and had been in Liége in the plague of 1365; and adds that he
had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague,
according to the indications of astrology (beginning _Deus deorum_),
and another on distinguishing pestilential diseases (beginning _Cum
nimium propter instans tempus epidimiale_). "Burgundia" is sometimes
corrupted into "Burdegalia," and in English translations of the
abridgment almost always appears as "Burdews" (Bordeaux) or the like.
MS. Rawlinson D. 251 (15th century) in the Bodleian also contains a
large number of English medical receipts, headed "P_r_actica
phisicalia M_agist_ri Joh_ann_is de Burgu_n_dia."

See further Dr G. F. Warner's article in the _Dictionary of National
Biography_ for a comprehensive account, and for bibliographical
references; Ulysse Chevalier's _Répertoire des sources historiques du
moyen age_ for references generally; and the _Zeitschr. f. celt.
Philologie_ II., i. 126, for an edition and translation, by Dr Whitley
Stokes, of Fingin O'Mahony's Irish version of the _Travels_.
(E. W. B. N.; H. Y.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The _on_ in Madabron apparently represents the Arabic nunation,
though its use in such a case is very odd.

[2] Quoted again from him by the contemporary Liége herald, Lefort,
and from Lefort in 1866 by Dr S. Bormans. Dr J. Vogels communicated
it in 1884 to Mr E. W. B. Nicholson, who wrote on it in the _Academy_
of April 12, 1884.

[3] See Dr G. F. Warner's edition (Roxburghe Club), p. 38. In the
_Bull. de l'Institut archéologique Liégeois_, iv. (1860), p. 171, M.
Ferd. Henaux quotes the passage from "MSS. de la Bibliothèque
publique de Liége, à l'Université, no. 360, fol. 118," but the MS. is
not in the 1875 printed catalogue of the University Library, which
has no Old French MS. of Mandeville at present. It was probably lent
out and not returned.

[4] The de Mandevilles, earls of Essex, were originally styled de
Magneville, and Leland, in his _Comm. de Script. Britt._ (CDV), calls
our Mandeville himself "Joannes Magnovillanus, alias Mandeville."

[5] Page indications like this refer to passages in the 1866 reissue
of Halliwell's edition, as being probably the most ready of access.
But all these passages have also been verified as substantially
occurring in Barrois's French MS. Nouv. Acq. Franç. 4515 in the
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, mentioned below (of A.D. 1371), cited
B, and in that numbered xxxix. of the Grenville collection (British
Museum), which dates probably from the early part of the 15th
century, cited G.

[6] Viz. in D'Avezac's ed. in tom. iv. of _Rec. de voyages et de
mémoires_ pub. by the Soc. de Géog., 1839.

[7] It is found in the _Thesaurus_ of Canisius (1604), v. pt. ii. p.
95, and in the ed. of the same by Basnage (1725), iv. 337.

[8] _Die Quellen für die Reisebeschreibung des Johann von Mandeville,
Inaugural-Dissertation ... Leipzig_ (Berlin, 1888). This was revised
and enlarged as "Untersuchungen über Johann von Mandeville und die
Quellen seiner Reisebeschreibung," in the _Zeitschrift der
Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, Bd. 23, Heft 3 u. 4 (No. 135,
136).

[9] In his edition (Roxburghe Club).

[10] _Die ungedruckten lateinischen Versionen Mandeville's_ (Crefeld,
1886).

[11] _Handschriftliche Untersuchungen über die englische Version
Mandeville's_ (Crefeld, 1891), p. 46.

[12] Dr Vogels controverts these positions, arguing that the first
English version from the French was the complete Cotton text, and
that the defective English copies were made from a defective English
MS. His supposed evidences of the priority of the Cotton text equally
consist with its being a later revision, and for _Roys Ils_ in the
defective English MSS. he has only offered a laboured and improbable
explanation.

[13] Stanislas Bormans, Introduction to d'Oultremouse's Chronicle,
pp. lxxxix., xc.; see also Warner's edition of the Travels, p. xxxv.
The ascription is on ff. 5 and 6 of _Le Tresorier de philosophie
naturele des pierres precieuses_, an unprinted work by d'Oultremouse
in MS. Fonds français 12326 of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. The
passage about Alexandria is on f. 81.

[14] See L. Pannier, _Les Lapidaires français_, pp. 189-204: not
knowing d'Oultremouse's evidence, he has discredited the attribution
to Mandeville and doubted the existence of a Latin original.

[15] _Description ... d'une collection ... d'anciens manuscrits ...
réunis par les soins de M. J. Techener_, pt. i. (Paris, 1862), p. 159
(referred to by Pannier, pp. 193-194).

[16] Respecting this, see David Murray, _The Black Book of Paisley_,
&c. (1885), and _John de Burdeus_, &c. (1891).

MANDHATA, a village with temples in India, in Nimar district of the Central Provinces, on the south bank of the Narbada. Pop. (1901), 832. It is a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage, as containing one of the twelve great _lingas_ of Siva; and as late as the beginning of the 19th century it was the scene of the self-immolation of devotees who threw themselves from the cliffs into the river.

MANDI, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as the most important of the hill states to which British influence extended in 1846 after the first Sikh War. The territory lies among the lower ranges of the Himalaya, between Kangra and Kulu. The country is mountainous, being intersected by two great parallel ranges, reaching to an average height of 5000 to 7000 ft. above sea-level. The valleys between the hill ranges are fertile, and produce all the ordinary grains, besides more valuable crops of rice, maize, sugar-cane, poppy and tobacco. Iron is found in places, and also gold in small quantities. Area, 1200 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 174,045; estimated revenue, £28,000; tribute, £6666. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of old family. Considerable sums have been expended on roads and bridges. An important product of the state is salt, which is mined in two places.

The town of Mandi is on the Beas, which is here a mountain torrent, crossed by a fine iron bridge; 2991 ft. above sea-level; 88 m. from Simla. Pop. (1901), 8144. It was founded in 1527, and contains a palace of the 17th century and other buildings of interest. It is a mart for transfrontier trade with Tibet and Yarkand.

See _Mandi State Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1908).

MANDINGO, the name currently given to a very important division of negro peoples in West Africa. It is seemingly a corruption of a term applied to an important section of this group, the Mande-nka or Mande-nga. The present writer has usually heard this word pronounced by the Mandingo themselves "Mandiña," or even "Madiña." It seems to be derived from the racial name _Mande_, coupled with the suffix _nka_ or _nke_, meaning "people," the people of Mande. Then again this word Mande seems to take the varying forms of _Male_, _Meli_, _Mane_, _Madi_, and, according to such authorities as Binger, Delafosse and Desplagnes, it is connected with a word _Mali_, which means "hippopotamus" or else "manati"--probably the latter. According to Desplagnes, the word is further divisible into _ma_, which would have meant "fish," and _nde_, a syllable to which he ascribes the meaning of "father." In no Mandingo dialect known to the present writer (or in any other known African language) does the vocable _ma_ apply to "fish," and in only one very doubtful far eastern Mandingo dialect is the root _nde_ or any other similar sound applied to "father." This etymology must be abandoned, probably in favour of _Mani_, _Mali_, _Madi_, _Mande_, meaning "hippopotamus," and in some cases the other big water mammal, the manati.[1]

The West African tribes speaking Mandingo languages vary very much in outward appearance. Some of them may be West African negroes of the forest type with little or no intermixture with the Caucasian; others, such as the typical Mandingos or the Susus, obviously contain a non-negro element in their physique. This last type resembles very strongly the Swahilis of the Zanzibar littoral or other crosses between the Arab and the negro; and though nearly always black-skinned, often has a well-shaped nose and a fairly full beard. The tribes dwelling in the West African forest, but speaking languages of Mandingo type, do not perhaps exhibit the very prognathous, short-limbed, "ugly" development of West African negro, but are of rather a refined type, and some of them are lighter in skin colour than the more Arab-looking Mandingos of the north. But in these forest Mandingos the beard is scanty. Occasionally the Mandingo physical type appears in eastern Liberia and on the Ivory Coast amongst people speaking Kru languages. In other cases it is associated with the Senufo speech-family.

Delafosse divides the Mandingo group linguistically into three main sections: (1) the _Mande-tamu_, (2) the _Mande-fu_, and (3) the _Mande-tã_, according as they use for the numeral 10 the root _tamu_, _tã_ or _fu_. Of the first group are the important tribes of the Soni-nké (called Sarakulle by the Fula, and Sarakolé by the French); the Swaninki people of Azer, and the oases of Tishitt, Wadan and Walata in the south-west Sahara; and the Bozo, who are the fishermen along the banks of the Upper Niger and the Bani from Jenné to Timbuktu. The Soni-nké are also known as Marka, and they include (according to Binger) the Samogho and even the Kurtei along the banks of the Niger east of Timbuktu as far as Say.

The group of Mande-tã would include the Bamana (incorrectly called Bambara) of the upper Senegal and of Segu on the Upper Niger, the Toronke, the Mandenga, the Numu of the district west of the Black Volta, the Vai of south-western Liberia, and the Dyula or Gyula of the region at the back of the Ivory Coast.

The group of the Mande-fu includes a great many different languages and dialects, chiefly in the forest region of Sierra Leone and Liberia, and also the dialects of the celebrated Susu or Soso tribe, and the Mandingo tribes of Futa Jallon, of the Grand Scarcies River and of the interior of the Ivory Coast, and of the regions between the eastern affluents of the Upper Niger and the Black Volta. To this group Delafosse joins the Boko dialect spoken by people dwelling to the west of the Lower Niger at Bussa--between Bussa and Borgu. If this hypothesis be correct it gives a curious eastern extension to the range of the Mandingo family at the present day; or it may be a vestige left by the Mandingo invasion which, according to legend, came in prehistoric times from the Hausa countries across the Niger to Senegambia. It is remarkable that this Boko dialect as recorded by the missionary Koelle most resembles certain dialects in central Liberia and in the Ivory Coast hinterland.

The Mandingos, coming from the East and riding on horses (according to tradition), seem to have invaded western Nigeria about A.D. 1000 (if not earlier), and to have gradually displaced and absorbed the Songhai or Fula (in other words, Negroid, "White") rulers of the countries in the basin of the Upper Niger or along its navigable course as far as the Bussa Rapids and the forest region. On the ruins of these Songhai, Berber, or Fula kingdoms rose the empire of Mali (Melle). Considerable sections of the Mandingo invaders had adopted Mahommedanism, and extended a great Mahommedan empire of western Nigeria far northwards into the Sahara Desert. In the 16th century the Songhai regained supreme power. See _infra_, § _The Melle Empire_.