Chapter XI: Part 11

Although the Mandingos, and especially the Susu section, may have come as conquerors, they devoted themselves through the succeeding centuries more and more to commerce. They became to the extreme west of Africa what the Hausa are in the west-central regions. Some of the Mandingo invasions, especially in the forest region, left little more than the imposition of their language; but where there was any element of Caucasian blood (for the original Mandingo invaders were evidently dashed with the Caucasian by intermingling with some of the negroid races of north-central Africa), they imposed a degree of civilization which excluded cannibalism (still rampant in much of the forest region of West Africa), introduced working in leather and in metals, and was everywhere signalized by a passionate love of music, a characteristic of all true Mandingo tribes at the present day. It is noteworthy that many of the instruments affected by the Mandingos are found again in the more civilized regions of Bantu Africa, as well as in the central Sudan. Many of these types of musical instruments can also be traced originally to ancient Egypt. The Mandingos also seem to have brought with them in their westward march the Egyptian type of ox, with the long, erect horns. It would almost seem as if this breed had been preceded by the zebu or humped ox; though these two types are evidently of common origin so far as derivation from one wild species is concerned. The Mandingos maintain the system of totems or clans, and each section or tribe identifies itself with a symbol, which is usually an animal or a plant. The Mandenga are supposed to have either the manati or the hippopotamus as _tanna_. (Binger states that the manati was the totem of the Mande group, to which perhaps belonged originally the Susu and the Dyula.) The Bamana are the people of the crocodile; the Samanke are the people of the elephant; the Samokho of the snake. Other totems or symbols of special families or castes are the dog, the calabash or gourd, the lion, the green monkey, the leopard, the monitor lizard, a certain spice called bandugu, certain rats, the python, the puff-adder, &c.

AUTHORITIES.--The bibliography dealing with the Mandingo peoples is
very extensive, but only the following works need be cited: Captain L.
G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée_, &c. (1892); Maurice
Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues et
dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire_, &c. (1904); Lieut. Desplagnes,
_Le Plateau central nigérien_ (1907); Lady Lugard, _A Tropical
Dependency_ (1905); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (1906). Most of
these works contain extensive bibliographies. (H. H. J.)

_The Melle Empire._--The tradition which ascribes the arrival of the Mandingo in the western Sudan to the 10th or 11th century is referred to in the previous section. It is not known by whom the Melle (Mali) state was founded. Neither is there certainty as to the site of the capital, also called Melle. Idrisi in the 12th century describes the Wangara (a Hausa name for the Mandingo) as a powerful people, and El Bakri writes in similar terms. But the first king whose name is preserved was Baramindana, believed to have reigned from 1213 to 1235. His territory lay south of that of Jenné, partly within the bend of the Niger and partly west of that river. The people were already Moslem, and the capital was a rendezvous for merchants from all parts of the western Sudan and the Barbary States. Mari Jatah (or Diara), Baramindana's successor, about the middle of the 13th century conquered the Susu, then masters of Ghanata (Ghana). Early in the 14th century Mansa, i.e. Sultan, Kunkur Musa, extended the empire, known as the Mellistine, to its greatest limits, making himself master of Timbuktu, Gao and all the Songhoi dominions. His authority extended northward over the Sahara to the Tuat oases. Mansa Suleiman was on the throne when in 1352-1353 Melle was visited by Ibn Batuta. By this monarch the empire was divided into three great provinces, ruled by viceroys. For a century afterwards Melle appears to have been the dominant Sudan state west of the Lower Niger, but it had to meet the hostility of the growing power of the pagan Mossi, of the Tuareg in the north and of the Songhoi, who under Sunni Ali (c. 1325) had already regained a measure of independence. Cadamosto nevertheless describes Melle in 1454 as being still the most powerful of the negro-land kingdoms and the most important for its traffic in gold and slaves. The Songhoi sovereign Askia is said to have completed the conquest of Melle at the beginning of the 16th century. It nevertheless retained some sort of national existence--though with the advent of the Moors in the Niger countries (end of the 16th century) native civilization suffered a blow from which it never recovered. Civil war is said to have finally wrought the ruin of Melle about the middle of the 17th century.[2] The Portuguese, from their first appearance on the Senegal and Gambia, entered into friendly relations with the rulers of Melle. Barros relates (_Da Asia_, Decade I.) that John II. of Portugal sent embassies to the court of Melle by way of the Gambia (end of the 15th century). At that time the authority of Melle was said to extend westward to the coast. The king, pressed by the Mossi, the Songhoi and the Fula, solicited the help of his "friends and allies" the Portuguese--with what result does not appear; but in 1534 Barros himself despatched an ambassador to the king of Melle concerning the trade of the Gambia. By way of that river the Portuguese themselves penetrated as far as Bambuk, a country conquered by the Mandingo in the 12th century. By Barros the name of the Melle ruler is given as Mandi Mansa, which may be the native form for "Sultan of the Mandi" (Mandingo).

See further TIMBUKTU and the authorities there cited; cf. also L.
Marc, _Le Pays Mossi_ (Paris, 1909). Lists of Mandingo sovereigns are
given in Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. (Leiden, 1888).
(F. R. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Indeed it is possible that the European name for this
Sirenian--manati--derived from the West Indies, is the corruption of
a West African word _manti_, applied very naturally to the animal by
the West African slaves, who at once recognized it as similar to the
creature found on the West African coast in their own rivers, and
also on the Upper Niger.

[2] On the ruins of the old Melle dominions arose five smaller
kingdoms, representing different sections of the Mandingo peoples.

MANDLA, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore division of the Central Provinces. The town is on the river Nerbudda, 1787 ft. above the sea. It has a manufacture of bell-metal vessels. Pop. (1901), 5054. The district of Mandla, among the Satpura hills, has an area of 5054 sq. m. It consists of a wild highland region, broken up by the valleys of numerous rivers and streams. The Nerbudda flows through the centre of the district, receiving several tributaries which take their rise in the Maikal hills, a range densely clothed with _sal_ forest, and forming part of the great watershed between eastern and western India. The loftiest mountain is Chauradadar, about 3400 ft. high. Tigers abound, and the proportion of deaths caused by wild animals is greater than in any other district of the Central Provinces. The magnificent _sal_ forests which formerly clothed the highlands have suffered greatly from the nomadic system of cultivation practised by the hill tribes, who burned the wood and sowed their crops in the ashes; but measures have been taken to prevent further damage. The population in 1901 was 318,400, showing a decrease of 6.5% in the decade, due to famine. The aboriginal or hill tribes are more numerous in Mandla than in any other district of the Central Provinces, particularly the Gonds. The principal crops are rice, wheat, other food grains, pulse and oilseeds. There is a little manufacture of country cloth. A branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway touches the south-western border of the district. Mandla suffered most severely from the famine of 1896-1897, partly owing to its inaccessibility, and partly from the shy habits of the aboriginal tribes. The registered death-rate in 1907 was as high as 96 per thousand.

MANDOLINE (Fr. _mandoline_; Ger. _Mandoline_; It. _mandolina_), the treble member of the lute family, and therefore a stringed instrument of great antiquity. The mandoline is classified amongst the stringed instruments having a vaulted back, which is more accentuated than even that of the lute. The mandoline is strung with steel and brass wire strings. There are two varieties of mandolines, both Italian: (1) the _Neapolitan_, 2 ft. long, which is the best known, and has four courses of pairs of unisons tuned like the violin in fifths; (2) the _Milanese_, which is slightly larger and has five or six courses of pairs of unisons. The neck is covered by a finger-board, on which are distributed the twelve or more frets which form nuts at the correct points under the strings on which the fingers must press to obtain the chromatic semitones of the scale. The strings are twanged by means of a plectrum or pick, held between the thumb and first finger of the right hand. In order to strike a string the pick is given a gliding motion over the string combined with a _down_ or an _up_ movement, respectively indicated by signs over the notes. In order to sustain notes on the mandoline the effect known as _tremolo_ is employed; it is produced by means of a double movement of the pick up and down over a pair of strings.

The mandoline is a derivative of the mandola or mandore, which was
smaller than the lute but larger than either of the mandolines
described above. It had from four to eight courses of strings, the
_chanterelle_ or melody string being single and the others in pairs of
unisons. The mandore is mentioned in Robert de Calenson (12th cent.),
and elsewhere; it may be identified with the pandura.

The Neapolitan mandoline was scored for by Mozart as an accompaniment
to the celebrated serenade in _Don Juan_. Beethoven wrote for it a
_Sonatina per il mandolino_, dedicated to his friend Krumpholz. Grétry
and Paisiello also introduced it into their operas as an accompaniment
to serenades.

The earliest method for the mandoline was published by Fouchette in
Paris in 1770. The earliest mention of the instrument in England, in
1707, is quoted in Ashton's _Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne_:
"Signior Conti will play ... on the mandoline, an instrument not known
yet." (K. S.)

MANDRAKE (_Mandragora officinarum_), a plant of the potato family, order Solanaceae, a native of the Mediterranean region. It has a short stem bearing a tuft of ovate leaves, with a thick fleshy and often forked root. The flowers are solitary, with a purple bell-shaped corolla; the fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured berry. The mandrake has been long known for its poisonous properties and supposed virtues. It acts as an emetic, purgative and narcotic, and was much esteemed in old times; but, except in Africa and the East, where it is used as a narcotic and anti-spasmodic, it has fallen into well-earned disrepute. In ancient times, according to Isidorus and Serapion, it was used as a narcotic to diminish sensibility under surgical operations, and the same use is mentioned by Kazwini, i. 297, s.v. "Luffah" Shakespeare more than once alludes to this plant, as in _Antony and Cleopatra_: "Give me to drink mandragora." The notion that the plant shrieked when touched is alluded to in _Romeo and Juliet_: "And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth, that living mortals, hearing them, run mad." The mandrake, often growing like the lower limbs of a man, was supposed to have other virtues, and was much used for love philtres, while the fruit was supposed, and in the East is still supposed, to facilitate pregnancy (Aug., _C. Faust_. xxii. 56; cf. Gen. xxx. 14, where the Hebrew [Hebrew: dadarom] is undoubtedly the mandrake). Like the mallow, the mandrake was potent in all kinds of enchantment (see Maimonides in Chwolson, _Ssabier_, ii. 459). Dioscorides identifies it with the [Greek: kirkaia], the root named after the enchantress Circe. To it appears to apply the fable of the magical herb Baaras, which cured demoniacs, and was procured at great risk or by the death of a dog employed to drag it up, in Josephus (_B. J._ vii. 6, § 3). The German name of the plant (_Alraune_; O. H. G. _Alrûna_) indicates the prophetic power supposed to be in little images (homunculi, Goldmännchen, Galgenmännchen) made of this root which were cherished as oracles. The possession of such roots was thought to ensure prosperity. (See Du Cange, s.vv. "Mandragora" and Littré.)

Gerard in 1597 (_Herball_, p. 280) described male and female
mandrakes, and Dioscorides also recognizes two such plants
corresponding to the spring and autumn species (_M. vernalis_ and _M.
officinarum_ respectively), differing in the colour of the foliage and
shape of fruit.

MANDRILL (a name formed by the prefix "man" to the word "drill," which was used in ancient literature to denote an ape, and is probably of West African origin), the common title of the most hideous and most brilliantly coloured of all the African monkeys collectively denominated baboons and constituting the genus _Papio_. Together with the _drill_ (q.v.), the mandrill, _Papio maimon_, constitutes the subgenus _Maimon_, which is exclusively West African in distribution, and characterized, among other peculiarities, by the extreme shortness of the tail, and the great development of the longitudinal bony swellings, covered during life with naked skin, on the sides of the muzzle. As a whole, the mandrill is characterized by heaviness of body, stoutness and strength of limb, and exceeding shortness of tail, which is a mere stump, not 2 in. long, and usually carried erect. It is, moreover, remarkable for the prominence of its brow-ridges, beneath which the small and closely approximated eyes are deeply sunk; the immense size of the canine teeth; and more especially for the extraordinarily vivid colouring of some parts of the skin. The body generally is covered with soft hair--light olive-brown above and silvery grey beneath--and the chin is furnished underneath with a small pointed yellow beard. The hair of the forehead and temples is directed upwards so as to meet in a point on the crown, which gives the head a triangular appearance. The ears are naked, and bluish black. The hands and feet are naked, and black. A large space around the greatly developed callosities on the buttocks, as well as the upper part of the insides of the thighs, is naked and of a crimson colour, shading off on the sides to lilac or blue, which, depending upon injection of the superficial blood-vessels, varies in intensity according to the condition of the animal--increasing under excitement, fading during sickness, and disappearing after death. It is, however, in the face that the most remarkable disposition of vivid hues occurs, more resembling those of a brilliantly coloured flower than what might be expected in a mammal. The cheek-prominences are of an intense blue, the effect of which is heightened by deeply sunk longitudinal furrows of a darker tint, while the central line and termination of the nose are bright scarlet. It is only to fully adult males that this description applies. The female is of much smaller size, and more slender; and, though the general tone of the hairy parts of the body is the same, the prominences, furrows, and colouring of the face are much less marked. The young males have black faces.

Old males are remarkable for the ferocity of their disposition, as well as for other disagreeable qualities; but when young they can easily be tamed. Like baboons, mandrills appear to be indiscriminate eaters, feeding on fruit, roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, &c., and inhabit open rocky ground rather than forests. Not much is known of the mandrill's habits in the wild state, nor of the exact limits of its geographical distribution; the specimens brought to Europe coming from the west coast of tropical Africa, from Guinea to the Gaboon. (See also PRIMATES.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*)

MANDU, or MANDOGARH, a ruined city in the Dhar state of Central India, the ancient capital of the Mahommedan kingdom of Malwa. The city is situated at an elevation of 2079 ft. and extends for 8 m. along the crest of the Vindhyan mountains. It reached its greatest splendour in the 15th century under Hoshang Shah (1405-1434). The circuit of the battlemented wall is nearly 23 m., enclosing a large number of palaces, mosques and other buildings. The oldest mosque dates from 1405; the finest is the Jama Masjid or great mosque, a notable example of Pathan architecture, founded by Hoshang Shah. The marble-domed tomb of this ruler is also magnificent.

For a description and history of Mandu, see Sir James Campbell's
_Gazetteer of Bombay_, vol. i. part ii. (1896), and _Journal of the
Bombay Asiatic Society_ (vol. xxi.).

MANDURIA, a city of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which it is 27 m. W. by road (22 m. E. of Taranto), 270 ft. above sea-level, and 8 m. N. of the coast. Pop. (1901), 12,199 (town); 13,190 (commune). It is close to the site of the ancient Manduria, considerable remains of the defences of which can still be seen; they consisted of a double line of wall built of rectangular blocks of stone, without mortar, and with a broad ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found in 1886 (L. Viola in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1886, 100). It was an important stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and Archidamus III., king of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.C., while leading the army of the latter (Plut., _Agis_, 3, calls the place Mandonion: see s.v. ARCHIDAMUS). It revolted to Hannibal, but was stormed by the Romans in 209 B.C. Pliny mentions a spring here which never changed its level, and may still be seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the present town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old name in 1700. (T. As.)

MANDVI, a seaport of India, in the native state of Cutch, within the Gujarat province of Bombay, 36 m. from Bhuj, and 182 m. by sea from Karachi. Pop. (1901), 24,683. It is a weekly port of call for steamers of the British India line, vessels of 70 tons cannot come nearer than 500 yards. The pilots and sailors of Mandvi have a high reputation.

MANES, in Roman mythology, the disembodied and immortal spirits of the dead. The word is an old adjective--_manis_, _manus_, meaning "good," the opposite of which is _immanis_; hence the Manes, clearly a euphemistic term, are the "good people." They were looked upon as gods; hence the dedication, of great antiquity and frequent occurrence, _Divis_ or _Dis Manibus_ in sepulchral inscriptions, used even in Christian times. When a body was consumed on the funeral pyre, relations and friends invoked the deceased as a divinity, and the law of the Twelve Tables prescribed that the rights of the divine Manes should be respected, and that each man should regard the dead members of his family as gods. Their home was in the bowels of the earth, from which they only emerged at certain times. It was an old Italian custom--especially at the foundation of cities--to dig a pit in the form of an inverted sky (hence called _mundus_), the lower part of which was supposed to be sacred to the gods of the underworld, including the Manes. Such a pit existed on the Palatine at Rome. It was covered by a stone called _lapis manalis_, representing the entrance to the lower world, which was removed three times in the year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov. 8). The Manes were then believed to issue forth, and these days were regarded as _religiosi_--that is, all important business in public and private life was suspended. Offerings were made to propitiate the dead: libations of water, wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood of sacrificial victims--black sheep, pigs and oxen (_suovetaurilia_)--was poured upon the graves; ointment and incense were offered, lamps were lighted, and the grave was adorned with garlands of flowers, especially roses and violets. Beans, eggs, lentils, salt, bread and wine, placed on the grave, formed the chief part of a meal partaken of by the mourners. There was also a public state festival in honour of the dead, called Parentalia, held from the 13th to the 21st of February, the last month of the old Roman year, the last day of the festival being called Feralia. During its continuance all the temples were shut, marriages were forbidden, and the magistrates had to appear without the insignia of their office.

There was considerable analogy between the Manes and the received idea of "souls"--and there was a corresponding idea that they could be conjured up and appear as ghosts. They were also supposed to have the power of sending dreams. It is to be noticed that, unlike the Lares, the Manes are never spoken of singly.

For authorities, see LARES and PENATES.

MANET, ÉDOUARD (1832-1883), French painter, regarded as the most important master of Impressionism (q.v.), was born in Paris on the 23rd of January 1832. After spending some time under the tuition of the Abbé Poiloup, he entered the Collège Rollin, where his passion for drawing led him to neglect all his other lessons. His studies finished in 1848, he was placed on board the ship _Guadeloupe_, voyaging to Rio de Janeiro. On his return he first studied in Couture's studio (1851), where his independence often infuriated his master. For six years he was an intermittent visitor to the studio, constantly taking leave to travel, and going first to Cassel, Dresden, Vienna and Munich, and afterwards to Florence, Rome and Venice, where he made some stay. Some important drawings date from this period, and one picture, "A Nymph Surprised." Then, after imitating Couture, more or less, in "The Absinthe-drinker" (1866), and Courbet in "The Old Musician," he devoted himself almost exclusively to the study of the Spanish masters in the Louvre. A group was already gathering round him--Whistler, Legros, and Fantin-Latour haunted his studio in the Rue Guyot. His "Spaniard playing the Guitar," in the Salon of 1861, excited much animadversion. Delacroix alone defended Manet, but, this notwithstanding, his "Fifer of the Guard" and "Breakfast on the Grass" were refused by the jury. Then the "Exhibition of the Rejected" was opened, and round Manet a group was formed, including Bracquemond, Legros, Jongkind, Whistler, Harpignies and Fantin-Latour, the writers Zola, Duranty and Duret, and Astruc the sculptor. In 1863, when an amateur, M. Martinet, lent an exhibition-room to Manet, the painter exhibited fourteen pictures; and then, in 1864, contributed again to the Salon "The Angels at the Tomb" and "A Bullfight." Of this picture he afterwards kept nothing but the toreador in the foreground, and it is now known as "The Dead Man." In 1865 he sent to the Salon "Christ reviled by the Soldiers" and the famous "Olympia," which was hailed with mockery and laughter. It represents a nude woman reclining on a couch, behind which is seen the head of a negress who carries a bunch of flowers. A black cat at her feet emphasizes the whiteness of the sheet on which the woman lies. This work (now in the Louvre) was presented to the Luxembourg by a subscription started by Claude Monet (1890). It was hung in 1897 among the Caillebotte collection, which included the "Balcony," and a study of a female head called "Angelina." This production, of a highly independent individuality, secured Manet's exclusion from the Salon of 1866, so that he determined to exhibit his pictures in a place apart during the Great Exhibition of 1867. In a large gallery in the Avenue de l'Alma, half of which was occupied by Courbet, he hung no fewer than fifty paintings. Only one important picture was absent, "The Execution of the Emperor Maximilian"; its exhibition was prohibited by the authorities. From that time, in spite of the fierce hostility of some adversaries, Manet's energy and that of his supporters began to gain the day. His "Young Girl" (Salon of 1868) was justly appreciated, as well as the portrait of Lola; but the "Balcony" and the "Breakfast" (1869) were as severely handled as the "Olympia" had been. In 1870 he exhibited "The Music Lesson" and a portrait of Mlle E. Gonzales. Not long before the Franco-Prussian War, Manet, finding himself in the country with a friend, for the first time discovered the true value of open air to the effects of painting in his picture "The Garden," which gave rise to the "open air" or _plein air_ school. After fighting as a gunner, he returned to his family in the Pyrenees, where he painted "The Battle of the _Kearsarge_ and the _Alabama_." His "Bon Bock" (1873) created a _furore_. But in 1875, as in 1869, there was a fresh outburst of abuse, this time of the "Railroad," "Polichinelle," and "Argenteuil," and the jury excluded the artist, who for the second time arranged an exhibition in his studio. In 1877 his "Hamlet" was admitted to the Salon, but "Nana" was rejected. The following works were exhibited at the Salon of 1881: "In the Conservatory," "In a Boat," and the portraits of Rochefort and Proust; and the Cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on the painter on the 31st of December in that year. Manet died in Paris on the 20th of April 1883. He left, besides his pictures, a number of pastels and engravings. He illustrated _Les Chats_ by Champfleury, and Edgar Allan Poe's _The Raven_.

See Zola, _Manet_ (Paris, 1867); E. Bazire, _Manet_ (Paris, 1884); G.
Geffroy, _La Vie artistique_ (1893). (H. Fr.)

MANETENERIS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Purus river, and between it and the Jurua, north-western Brazil. They manufacture cotton cloth, and have iron axes and fish hooks. The men wear long ponchos, the women sacks open at the bottom. The Maneteneris are essentially a waterside people. Their cedarwood canoes are very long and beautifully made.

MANETHO ([Greek: Manethôn] in an inscription of Carthage; [Greek: Manethôs] in a papyrus), Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of Sebennytus in the Delta. The name which he bears has a good Egyptian appearance, and has been found on a contemporary papyrus probably referring to the man himself. The evidence of Plutarch and other indications connect him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. His most important work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for which he translated the native records. It is now only known by some fragments of narrative in Josephus's treatise _Against Apion_, and by tables of dynasties and kings with lengths of reigns, divided into three books, in the works of Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and some falsifying apologists offer the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in the _Chronographia_ of Georgius Syncellus. It is difficult to judge the value of the original from these extracts: it is clear from the different versions of the lists that they have been corrupted. Manetho's work was probably based on native lists like that of the Turin Papyrus of Kings: even his division into dynasties may have been derived from such. The fragments of narrative give a very confused idea of Egyptian history in the time of the Hyksos and the XVIIIth Dynasty. The royal lists, too, are crowded with errors of detail, both in the names and order of the kings, and in the lengths attributed to the reigns. The brief notes attached to some of the names may be derived from Manetho's narrative, but they are chiefly references to kings mentioned by Herodotus or to marvels that were supposed to have occurred: they certainly possess little historical value. A puzzling annotation to the name of Bocchoris, "in whose time a lamb spake 990 years," has been well explained by Krall's reading of a demotic story written in the twenty-third year of Augustus. According to this a lamb prophesied that after Bocchoris's reign Egypt should be in the hands of the oppressor 900 years; in Africanus's day it was necessary to lengthen the period in order to keep up the spirits of the patriots after the stated term had expired. This is evidently not from the pure text of Manetho. Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have provided the accepted scheme of Egyptian dynasties and have been of great service to scholars ever since the first months of Champollion's decipherment.

See C. Müller, _Fragmenta historicorum graecorum_, ii. 511-616; A.
Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), pp. 121 et sqq.; J.
Krall in _Festgaben für Büdinger_ (Innsbruck, 1898); Grenfell and
Hunt, _El Hibeh Papyri_, i. 223; also the section on chronology in
EGYPT, and generally books on Egyptian history and chronology.
(F. Ll. G.)

MANFRED (c. 1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son of the emperor Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia, who is reported on somewhat slender evidence to have been married to the emperor just before his death. Frederick himself appears to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, and by his will named him as prince of Tarentum and appointed him as the representative in Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV. Although only about eighteen years of age Manfred acted loyally and with vigour in the execution of his trust, and when Conrad appeared in southern Italy in 1252 his authority was quickly and generally acknowledged. When in May 1254 the German king died, Manfred, after refusing to surrender Sicily to Pope Innocent IV., accepted the regency on behalf of Conradin, the infant son of Conrad. But the strength of the papal party in the Sicilian kingdom rendered the position of the regent so precarious that he decided to open negotiations with Innocent. By a treaty made in September 1254, Apulia passed under the authority of the pope, who was personally conducted by Manfred into his new possession. But Manfred's suspicions being aroused by the demeanour of the papal retinue, he fled to the Saracens at Lucera. Aided by Saracen allies, he defeated the papal troops at Foggia on the 2nd of December 1254, and soon established his authority over Sicily and the Sicilian possessions on the mainland.

Taking advantage in 1258 of a rumour that Conradin was dead, Manfred was crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 10th of August in that year. The falsehood of this report was soon manifest; but the new king, supported by the popular voice, declined to abdicate, and pointed out to Conradin's envoys the necessity for a strong native ruler. But the pope, to whom the Saracen alliance was a serious offence, declared Manfred's coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication. Undeterred by this sentence Manfred sought to obtain power in central and northern Italy, and in conjunction with the Ghibellines his forces defeated the Guelphs at Monte Aperto on the 4th of September 1260. He was then recognized as protector of Tuscany by the citizens of Florence, who did homage to his representative, and he was chosen senator of the Romans by a faction in the city. Terrified by these proceedings, Pope Urban IV. implored aid from France, and persuaded Charles count of Anjou, a brother of King Louis IX., to accept the investiture of the kingdom of Sicily at his hands. Hearing of the approach of Charles, Manfred issued a manifesto to the Romans, in which he not only defended his rule over Italy but even claimed the imperial crown. The rival armies met near Benevento on the 26th of February 1266, where, although the Germans fought with undaunted courage, the cowardice of the Italians quickly brought destruction on Manfred's army. The king himself, refusing to fly, rushed into the midst of his enemies and was killed. Over his body, which was buried on the battlefield, a huge heap of stones was placed, but afterwards with the consent of the pope the remains were unearthed, cast out of the papal territory, and interred on the banks of the Liris. Manfred was twice married. His first wife was Beatrice, daughter of Amadeus IV. count of Savoy, by whom he had a daughter, Constance, who became the wife of Peter III. king of Aragon; and his second wife, who died in prison in 1271, was Helena, daughter of Michael II. despot of Epirus. Contemporaries praise the noble and magnanimous character of Manfred, who was renowned for his physical beauty and intellectual attainments.

Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O. Marbach
and F. W. Roggee. Three letters written by Manfred are published by J.
B. Carusius in _Bibliotheca historica regni Siciliae_ (Palermo, 1732).
See Cesare, _Storia di Manfredi_ (Naples, 1837); Münch, _König
Manfred_ (Stuttgart, 1840); Riccio, _Alcuni studii storici intorno a
Manfredi e Conradino_ (Naples, 1850); F. W. Schirrmacher, _Die letzten
Hohenstaufen_ (Göttingen, 1871); Capesso, _Historia diplomatica regni
Siciliae_ (Naples, 1874); A. Karst, _Geschichte Manfreds vom Tode
Friedrichs II. bis zu seiner Krönung_ (Berlin, 1897); and K. Hampe,
_Urban IV. und Manfred_ (Heidelberg, 1905).

MANFREDONIA, a town and archiepiscopal see (with Viesti) of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Foggia, from which it is 22½ m. N.E. by rail, situated on the coast, facing E., 13 ft. above sea-level, to the south of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of it. Pop. (1901), 11,549. It was founded by Manfred in 1263, and destroyed by the Turks in 1620; but the medieval castle of the Angevins and parts of the town walls are well preserved. In the church of S. Domenico, the chapel of the Maddalena contains old paintings of the 14th century. Two miles to the south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome and crypt. S. Leonardo, nearer Foggia, belonging to the Teutonic order, is of the same date. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 194 B.C., and was not deserted in favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century, having become unhealthy owing to the stagnation of the water in the lagoons.

See A. Beltramelli, _Il Gargano_ (Bergamo, 1907). (T. As.)

MANGABEY, a name (probably of French origin) applied to the West African monkeys of the genus _Cercocebus_, the more typical representatives of which are characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, and the uniformly coloured hairs of the fur. (See PRIMATES.)

MANGALIA, a town in the department of Constantza Rumania, situated on the Black Sea, and at the mouth of a small stream, the Mangalia, 10 m. N. of the Bulgarian frontier. Pop. (1900), 1459. The inhabitants, among whom are many Turks and Bulgarians, are mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is to be identified with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of Miletus which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of the Roman period. In the 14th century it had 30,000 inhabitants, and a large trade with Genoa.

MANGALORE, a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of the South Kanara district of Madras, and terminus of the west coast line of the Madras railway. Pop. (1901), 44,108. The harbour is formed by the backwater of two small rivers. Vessels ride in 24 to 30 ft. of water, and load from and unload into lighters. The chief exports are coffee, coco-nut products, timber, rice and spices. Mangalore clears and exports all the coffee of Coorg, and trades directly with Arabia and the Persian Gulf. There is a small shipbuilding industry. The town has a large Roman Catholic population, with a European bishop, several churches, a convent and a college. It is the headquarters of the Basel Lutheran mission, which possesses one of the most active printing presses in southern India, and has also successfully introduced the industries of weaving and the manufacture of tiles. Two colleges (Government and St Aloysius) are situated here. Mangalore was gallantly defended by Colonel John Campbell of the 42nd regiment from May 6, 1783, to January 30, 1784, with a garrison of 1850 men, of whom 412 were English, against Tippoo Sultan's whole army.

MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on the 1st of May 1803. His baptismal name was James, the "Clarence" being his own addition. His father, a grocer, who boasted of the terror with which he inspired his children, had ruined himself by imprudent speculation and extravagant hospitality. The burden of supporting the family fell on James, who entered a scrivener's office, at the age of fifteen, and drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was employed for some time in the library of Trinity College, and in 1833 he found a place in the Irish Ordnance Survey. He suffered a disappointment in love, and continued ill health drove him to the use of opium. He was habitually the victim of hallucinations which at times threatened his reason. For Charles Maturin, the eccentric author of _Melmoth_, he cherished a deep admiration, the results of which are evident in his prose stories. He belonged to the Comet Club, a group of youthful enthusiasts who carried on war in their paper, the _Comet_, against the levying of tithes on behalf of the Protestant clergy. Contributions to the _Dublin Penny Journal_ followed; and to the _Dublin University Magazine_ he sent translations from the German poets. The mystical tendency of German poetry had a special appeal for him. He chose poems that were attuned to his own melancholy temperament, and did much that was excellent in this field. He also wrote versions of old Irish poems, though his knowledge of the language, at any rate at the beginning of his career, was but slight. Some of his best-known Irish poems, however, _O'Hussey's Ode to the Maguire_, for instance, follow the originals very closely. Besides these were "translations" from Arabic, Turkish and Persian. How much of these languages he knew is uncertain, but he had read widely in Oriental subjects, and some of the poems are exquisite though the original authors whom he cites are frequently mythical. He took a mischievous pleasure in mystifying his readers, and in practising extraordinary metres. For the _Nation_ he wrote from the beginning (1842) of its career, and much of his best work appeared in it. He afterwards contributed to the _United Irishman_. On the 20th of June 1849 he died at Meath Hospital, Dublin, of cholera. It was alleged at the time that starvation was the real cause. This statement was untrue, but there is no doubt that his wretched poverty made him ill able to withstand disease.

Mangan holds a high place among Irish poets, but his fame was deferred by the inequality and mass of his work, much of which lay buried in inaccessible newspaper files under his many pseudonyms, "Vacuus," "Terrae Filius," "Clarence," &c. Of his genius, morbid though it sometimes is, as in his tragic autobiographical ballad of _The Nameless One_, there can be no question. He expressed with rare sincerity the tragedy of Irish hopes and aspirations, and he furnished abundant proof of his versatility in his excellent nonsense verses, which are in strange contrast with the general trend of his work.

An autobiography which appeared in the _Irish Monthly_ (1882) does not
reproduce the real facts of his career with any fidelity. For some
time after his death there was no adequate edition of his works, but
_German Anthology_ (1845), and _The Poets and Poetry of Munster_
(1849) had appeared during his lifetime. In 1850 Hercules Ellis
included thirty of his ballads in his _Romances and Ballads of
Ireland_. Other selections appeared subsequently, notably one (1897),
by Miss L. I. Guiney. _The Poems of James Clarence Mangan_ (1903), and
the _Prose Writings_ (1904), were both edited by D. J. O'Donoghue, who
wrote in 1897 a complete account of the _Life and Writings_ of the
poet.

MANGANESE [symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (O = 16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite) has been known from very early times, and was at first mistaken for a magnetic oxide of iron. In 1740 J. H. Pott showed that it did not contain iron and that it yielded a definite series of salts, whilst in 1774 C. Scheele proved that it was the oxide of a distinctive metal. Manganese is found widely distributed in nature, being generally found to a greater or less extent associated with the carbonates and silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium, and also as the minerals braunite, hausmannite, psilomelane, manganite, manganese spar and hauerite. It has also been recognized in the atmosphere of the sun (A. Cornu, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, pp. 315, 530), in sea water, and in many mineral waters.

The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1774, and in 1807 J. F. John (_Gehlen's Jour. chem. phys._, 1807, 3, p. 452) obtained an impure metal by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature with charcoal, mixed with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen prepared the metal by electrolysing manganese chloride in a porous cell surrounded by a carbon crucible containing hydrochloric acid. Various reduction methods have been employed for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner (_Pogg. Ann._, 1857, 101, p. 264) reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. Glatzel (_Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 2857) the chloride by magnesium, H. Moissan (_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1896 (7) 9, p. 286) reduced the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace; and H. Goldschmidt has prepared the metal from the oxide by means of his "thermite" process (see CHROMIUM). W. H. Green and W. H. Wahl [German patent 70773 (1893)] prepare a 97% manganese from pyrolusite by heating it with 30% sulphuric acid, the product being then converted into manganous oxide by heating in a current of reducing gas at a dull red heat, cooled in a reducing atmosphere, and finally reduced by heating with granulated aluminium in a magnesia crucible with lime and fluorspar as a flux. A purer metal is obtained by reducing manganese amalgam by hydrogen (O. Prelinger, _Monats._, 1894, 14, p. 353).

Prelinger's manganese has a specific gravity of 7.42, and the variety obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgam _in vacuo_ is pyrophoric (A. Guntz, _Bull. Soc._ [3], 7, 275), and burns when heated in a current of sulphur dioxide. The pure metal readily evolves hydrogen when acted upon by sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by dilute nitric acid. It precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts. It is employed commercially in the manufacture of special steels. (See IRON AND STEEL.)

COMPOUNDS

Manganese forms several oxides, the most important of which are
manganous oxide, MnO, trimanganese tetroxide, Mn3O4, manganese
sesquioxide, Mn2O3, manganese dioxide, MnO2, manganese trioxide, MnO3,
and manganese heptoxide, Mn3O7.

_Manganous oxide_, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixture of anhydrous
manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with a small quantity of
ammonium chloride (J. v. Liebig and F. Wöhler, _Pogg. Ann._, 1830, 21,
p. 584); or by reducing the higher oxides with hydrogen or carbon
monoxide. It is a dark coloured powder of specific gravity 5.09.
_Manganous hydroxide_, Mn(OH)2, is obtained as a white precipitate on
adding a solution of a caustic alkali to a manganous salt. For the
preparation of the crystalline variety identical with the mineral
pyrochroite (see A. de Schulten, _Comptes rendus_, 1887, 105, p.
1265). It rapidly oxidizes on exposure to air and turns brown, going
ultimately to the sesquioxide. _Trimanganese tetroxide_, Mn3O4, is
produced more or less pure when the other oxides are heated. It may be
obtained crystalline by heating manganese sulphate and potassium
sulphate to a bright red heat (H. Debray, _Comptes rendus_, 1861, 52,
p. 985). It is a reddish-brown powder, which when heated with
hydrochloric acid yields chlorine. _Manganese sesquioxide_, Mn2O3,
found native as the mineral braunite, may be obtained by igniting the
other oxides in a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing not more
than 26% of the latter gas (W. Dittmar, _Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1864, 17,
p. 294). The hydrated form, found native as the mineral manganite, is
produced by the spontaneous oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the
hydrated condition it is a dark brown powder which readily loses water
at above 100° C., it dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving manganous
nitrate and manganese dioxide: 2MnO(OH) + 2HNO3 = Mn(NO3)2 + MnO2 +
2H2O. _Manganese dioxide_, or pyrolusite (q.v.), MnO2, the most
important oxide, may be prepared by heating crystallized manganous
nitrate until red fumes are given off, decanting the clear liquid, and
heating to 150° to 160° C. for 40 to 60 hours (A. Gorgen, _Bull.
Soc._, 1890 [3], 4, p. 16), or by heating manganese carbonate to 260°
C. in the presence of air and washing the residue with very dilute
cold hydrochloric acid. It is a hard black solid which readily loses
oxygen when strongly heated, leaving a residue of Mn3O4. When heated
with concentrated hydrochloric acid it yields chlorine, and with
concentrated sulphuric acid it yields oxygen. It is reduced to the
monoxide when heated in a current of hydrogen. It is a strong
oxidizing agent. It dissolves in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid,
forming a dark brown solution which probably contains manganic
chloride (see R. J. Meyer, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1899, 22, p. 169; G.
Neumann, _Monats._, 1894, 15, p. 489). It is almost impossible to
prepare a pure hydrated manganese dioxide owing to the readiness with
which it loses oxygen, leaving residues of the type _x_MnO·_y_MnO2.
Such mixtures are obtained by the action of alkaline hypochlorites on
manganous salts, or by suspending manganous carbonate in water and
passing chlorine through the mixture. The solid matter is filtered
off, washed with water, and warmed with 10% nitric acid (A. Gorgen).
It is a dark brown powder, which reddens litmus. Manganese dioxide
combines with other basic oxides to form _manganites_, and on this
property is based the Weldon process for the recovery of manganese
from the waste liquors of the chlorine stills (see CHLORINE). The
manganites are amorphous brown solids, insoluble in water, and
decomposed by hydrochloric acid with the evolution of chlorine.
_Manganese trioxide_, MnO3, is obtained in small quantity as an
unstable deliquescent red solid by dropping a solution of potassium
permanganate in sulphuric acid on to dry sodium carbonate (B. Franke,
_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1887 [2], 36, p. 31). Above 50° C. it decomposes
into the dioxide and oxygen. It dissolves in water forming manganic
acid, H2MnO4. _Manganese heptoxide_, Mn2O7, prepared by adding pure
potassium permanganate to well cooled, concentrated sulphuric acid,
when the oxide separates as a dark oil (H. Aschoff, _Pogg. Ann._,
1860, 111, p. 217), is very unstable, continually giving off oxygen.
It decomposes violently on heating, and explodes in contact with
hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. It dissolves in water to form a
deep red solution which contains _permanganic acid_, HMnO4. This acid
is also formed by decomposing barium or lead permanganate with dilute
sulphuric acid. It is only known in aqueous solution. This solution is
of a deep violet-red colour, and is somewhat fluorescent; it
decomposes on exposure to light, or when heated. It is a monobasic
acid, and a very powerful oxidizing agent (M. M. P. Muir, _Jour. Chem.
Soc._, 1907, 91, p. 1485).

_Manganous Salts._--The anhydrous _chloride_, MnCl2, is obtained as a
rose-red crystalline solid by passing hydrochloric acid gas over
manganese carbonate, first in the cold and afterwards at a moderate
red heat. The hydrated chloride, MnCl2·4H2O, is obtained in rose-red
crystals by dissolving the metal or its carbonate in aqueous
hydrochloric acid and concentrating the solution. It may be obtained
in at least two different forms, one isomorphous with NaCl·2H2O, by
concentrating the solution between 15° C. and 20°C.; the other,
isomorphous with FeCl2·4H2O, by slow evaporation of the mother liquors
from the former. It forms double salts with the chlorides of the
alkali metals. The _bromide_ MnBr2·4H2O, _iodide_, MnI2, and
_fluoride_, MnF2, are known.

_Manganous Sulphate_, MnSO4, is prepared by strongly heating a paste
of pyrolusite and concentrated sulphuric acid until acid fumes cease
to be evolved. The ferric and aluminium sulphates present are thus
converted into insoluble basic salts, and the residue yields manganous
sulphate when extracted with water. The salt crystallizes with varying
quantities of water, according to the temperature at which
crystallization is effected: between -4° C. and +6° C. with 7H2O,
between 15° C. and 20° C. with 5H2O, and between 25° C. and 31° C.
with 4H2O. It crystallizes in large pink crystals, the colour of which
is probably due to the presence of a small quantity of manganic
sulphate or of a cobalt sulphate. It combines with the sulphates of
the alkali metals to form double salts.

_Manganous Nitrate_, Mn(NO3)2·6H2O, obtained by dissolving the
carbonate in nitric acid and concentrating the solution, crystallizes
from nitric acid solutions in long colourless needles, which melt at
25.8° C. and boil at 129.5° C. with some decomposition.

_Manganous Carbonate_, MnCO3, found native as manganese spar, may be
prepared as an amorphous powder by heating manganese chloride with
sodium carbonate in a sealed tube to 150° C., or in the hydrated form
as a white flocculent precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a
manganous salt. In the moist condition it rapidly turns brown on
exposure to air.

_Manganous Sulphide_, MnS, found native as manganese glance, may be
obtained by heating the monoxide or carbonate in a porcelain tube in a
current of carbon bisulphide vapour. R. Schneider (_Pogg. Ann._, 1874,
151, 449) obtained a crystalline variety by melting sulphur with
anhydrous manganous sulphate and dry potassium carbonate, extracting
the residue and drying it in a current of hydrogen. Four sulphides are
known; the red and green are anhydrous, a grey variety contains much
water, whilst the pink is a mixture of the grey and red (J. C. Olsen
and W. S. Rapalje, _Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1904, 26, p. 1615).
Ammonium sulphide alone gives incomplete precipitation of the
sulphide. In the presence of ammonium salts the precipitate is dirty
white in colour, whilst in the presence of free ammonia it is a buff
colour. This form of the sulphide is readily oxidized when exposed in
the moist condition, and is easily decomposed by dilute mineral acids.

_Manganese Disulphide_, MnS2, found native as hauerite, is formed as a
red coloured powder by heating manganous sulphate with potassium
polysulphide in a sealed tube at 160°-170° C. (H. v. Senarmont, _Jour.
prak. Chem._, 1850, 51, p. 385).

_Manganic Salts._--The sulphate, Mn2(SO4)3, is prepared by gradually
heating at 138° C. a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and manganese
dioxide until the whole becomes of a dark green colour. The excess of
acid is removed by spreading the mass on a porous plate, the residue
stirred for some hours with nitric acid, again spread on a porous
plate, and finally dried quickly at about 130° C. It is a dark green
deliquescent powder which decomposes on heating or on exposure to
moist air. It is readily decomposed by dilute acids. With potassium
sulphate in the presence of sulphuric acid it forms potassium
manganese alum, K2SO4·Mn2(SO4)2·24H2O. A. Piccini (_Zeit. anorg.
Chem._ 1898, 17, p. 355) has also obtained a manganese caesium alum.
_Manganic Fluoride_, MnF3, a solid obtained by the action of fluorine
on manganous chloride, is decomposed by heat into manganous fluoride
and fluorine. By suspending the dioxide in carbon tetrachloride and
passing in hydrochloric acid gas, W. B. Holmes (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907,
ii., p. 873) obtained a black trichloride and a reddish-brown
tetrachloride.

_Manganese Carbide_, Mn3C, is prepared by heating manganous oxide with
sugar charcoal in an electric furnace, or by fusing manganese chloride
and calcium carbide. Water decomposes it, giving methane and hydrogen
(H. Moissan); Mn3C + 6H2O = 3Mn(OH)2 + CH4 + H2.

_Manganates._--These salts are derived from manganic acid H2MnO4.
Those of the alkali metals are prepared by fusing manganese dioxide
with sodium or potassium hydroxide in the presence of air or of some
oxidizing agent (nitre, potassium chlorate, &c.); MnO2 + 2KHO + O =
K2MnO4 + H2O. In the absence of air the reaction proceeds slightly
differently, some manganese sesquioxide being formed; 3MnO2 + 2KHO =
K2MnO4 + Mn2O3 + H2O. The fused mass has a dark olive-green colour,
and dissolves in a small quantity of cold water to a green solution,
which is, however, only stable in the presence of an excess of alkali.
The green solution is readily converted into a pink one of
permanganate by a large dilution with water, or by passing carbon
dioxide through it: 3K2MnO4 + 2CO2 = 2K2CO3 + 2KMnO4 + MnO2.

_Permanganates_ are the salts of permanganic acid, HMnO4. The
_potassium_ salt, KMnO4, may be prepared by passing chlorine or carbon
dioxide through an aqueous solution of potassium manganate, or by the
electrolytic oxidation of the manganate at the anode [German patent
101710 (1898)]. It crystallizes in dark purple-red prisms, isomorphous
with potassium perchlorate. It acts as a powerful oxidizing agent,
both in acid and alkaline solution; in the first case two molecules
yield five atoms of available oxygen and in the second, three atoms:

2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5O;
2KMnO4 + 3H2O = 2MnO2·H2O + 2KHO + 3O.

It completely decomposes hydrogen peroxide in sulphuric acid
solution--

2KMnO4 + 5H2O2 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5O2.

It decomposes when heated to