Chapter VIII: Part 8

_History._--Very little is known with certainty of the early history of Manchester.[1] A Roman station of some importance existed at Castlefield, and a fragment of the wall still exists. Another, perhaps earlier, was at Hunt's Bank. In the 18th century considerable evidences of Roman occupation were still visible; and from time to time, in the course of excavation (especially during the making of the Bridgewater Canal), Roman remains have been found. The coins were chiefly those of Vespasian, Antoninus Pius, Trajan, Hadrian, Nero, Domitian, Vitellius and Constantine. Investigations by the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society and the Classical Association have brought to light many relics, chiefly of pottery. The period succeeding the Roman occupation is for some time legendary. As late as the 17th century there was a tradition that Tarquin, an enemy of King Arthur, kept the castle of Manchester, and was killed by Lancelot of the Lake. The references to the town in authentic annals are very few. It was probably one of the scenes of the missionary preaching of Paulinus; and it is said (though by a chronicler of comparatively late date) to have been the residence of Ina, king of Wessex, and his queen Ethelberga, after he had defeated Ivor, somewhere about the year 689. Almost the only point of certainty in its history before the Conquest is that it suffered greatly from the devastations of the Danes, and that in 923 Edward, who was then at Thelwall, near Warrington, sent a number of his Mercian troops to repair and garrison it. In Domesday Book Manchester, Salford, Rochdale and Radcliffe are the only places named in south-east Lancashire, a district now covered by populous towns. Large portions of it were then forest, wood and waste lands. Twenty-one thanes held the manor or hundred of Salford among them. The church of St Mary and the church of St Michael in Manchester are both named in Domesday, and some difficulty has arisen as to their proper identification. Some antiquaries consider that the passage refers to the town only, whilst others think it relates to the parish, and that, while St Mary's is the present cathedral, St Michael's would be the present parish church of Ashton-under-Lyne. In 1301 Manchester received a charter of manorial liberties and privileges from its baron, Thomas Gresley, a descendant of one to whom the manor had been given by Roger of Poictou, who was created by William the Conqueror lord of all the land between the rivers Mersey and Ribble. The Gresleys were succeeded by the De la Warrs, the last of whom was educated for the priesthood, and became rector of the town. To avoid the evil of a non-resident clergy, he made considerable additions to the lands of the church, in order that it might be endowed as a collegiate institution. A college of clergy was thus formed, whose fellows were bound to perform the necessary services at the parish church, and to whom the old baronial hall was granted as a place of residence. The manorial rights passed to Sir Reginald West, a descendant of Joan Gresley, who was summoned to parliament as Baron de la Warre. The West family, in 1579, sold the manorial rights for £3000 to John Lacy, who, in 1596, resold them to Sir Nicholas Mosley, whose descendants enjoyed the emoluments derived from them until 1845, when they were purchased by the municipality of Manchester for a sum of £200,000. The lord of the manor had the right to tax and toll all articles brought for sale into the market of the town. But, though the inhabitants were thus to a large extent taxed for the benefit of one individual, they had a far greater amount of local self-government than might have been supposed, and the court leet, which was then the governing body of the town, had, though in a rudimentary form, nearly all the powers now possessed by municipal corporations. This court had not only control over the watching and warding of the town, the regulation of the water supply, and the cleaning of the streets, but also had power, which at times was used freely, of interfering with the private liberty of their fellow-citizens. Thus, no single woman was allowed to be a householder; no person might employ other than the town musicians; and the amount to be spent at wedding feasts and other festivities was carefully settled. Under the protection of the barons the town appears to have steadily increased in prosperity, and it early became an important seat of the textile manufactures. Fulling mills were at work in the district in the 13th century; and documentary evidence exists to show that woollen manufactures were carried on in Ancoats at that period. In 1538 Leland described it as "the fairest, best-builded, quickest, and most populous town in Lancashire." The right of sanctuary granted to the town in 1540 was found so detrimental to its industrial pursuits that after very brief experience the privilege was taken away. The college of Manchester was dissolved in 1547, but was refounded in Mary's reign. Under her successor the town became the headquarters of the commission for establishing the Reformed religion. In 1641 we hear of the Manchester people purchasing linen yarn from the Irish, weaving it, and returning it for sale in a finished state. They also brought cotton wool from Smyrna to work into fustians and dimities. An act passed in the reign of Edward VI. regulates the length of cottons called Manchester, Lancashire and Cheshire cottons. These, notwithstanding their name, were probably all woollen textures. It is thought that some of the Flemish weavers who were introduced into England by Queen Philippa of Hainault were settled at Manchester; and Fuller has given an exceedingly quaint and picturesque description of the manner in which these artisans were welcomed by the inhabitants of the country they were about to enrich with a new industry. The Flemish weavers were in all probability reinforced by religious refugees from the Low Countries.

In the civil wars, the town was besieged by the Royalists under Lord Strange (better known as earl of Derby--"the great Stanley"); but was successfully defended by the inhabitants under the command of a German soldier of fortune, Colonel Rosworm, who complained with some bitterness of their ingratitude to him. An earlier affray between the Puritans and some of Lord Strange's followers is said to have occasioned the shedding of the first blood in the struggle between the king and parliament. The year 1694 witnessed the trial of those concerned in the so-called Lancashire plot, which ended in the triumphant acquittal of the supposed Jacobites. That the district really contained many ardent sympathizers with the Stuarts was, however, shown in the rising of 1715, when the clergy ranged themselves to a large extent on the side of the Pretender; and was still more clearly shown in the rebellion of 1745, when the town was occupied by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, and a regiment, known afterwards as the Manchester regiment, was formed and placed under the command of Colonel Francis Townley. In the fatal retreat of the Stuart troops the Manchester contingent was left to garrison Carlisle, and surrendered to the duke of Cumberland. The officers were taken to London, where they were tried for high treason and beheaded on Kennington Common.

The variations of political action in Manchester had been exceedingly marked. In the 16th century, although it produced both Roman Catholic and Protestant martyrs, it was earnestly in favour of the Reformed faith, and in the succeeding century it became indeed a stronghold of Puritanism. Yet the successors of the Roundheads who defeated the army of Charles I. were Jacobite in their sympathies, and by the latter half of the 18th century had become imbued with the aggressive form of patriotic sentiment known as anti-Jacobinism, which showed itself chiefly in dislike of reform and reformers of every description. A change, however, was imminent. The distress caused by war and taxation, towards the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, led to bitter discontent, and the anomalies existing in the parliamentary system of representation afforded only too fair an object of attack. While single individuals in some portions of the country had the power to return members of parliament for their pocket boroughs, great towns like Manchester were entirely without representation. The popular discontent was met by a policy of repression, culminating in the affair of Peterloo, which may be regarded as the starting-point of the modern reform agitation. This was in 1819, when an immense crowd assembled on St Peter's Fields (now covered by the Free Trade Hall and warehouses) to petition parliament for a redress of their grievances. The Riot Act was read by a clerical magistrate; but in such a manner as to be quite unheard by the mass of the people; and drunken yeomanry cavalry were then turned loose upon the unresisting mass of spectators. The yeomanry appear to have used their sabres freely; several people killed and many more injured; and, although the magistrates received the thanks of the prince regent and the ministry, their conduct excited the deepest indignation throughout the entire country. Those who had organized the meeting, including "Orator" Hunt with Samuel Bamford and other working men, were imprisoned.

Naturally enough, the Manchester politicians took an important part in the Reform agitation; when the Act of 1832 was passed, the town sent as its representatives the Right Hon. C. P. Thomson, vice-president of the board of trade, and Mark Philips. With one notable exception, this was the first time that Manchester had been represented in parliament since its barons had seats in the House of Peers in the earlier centuries. In 1654 Charles Worsley and R. Radcliffe were nominated to represent it in Cromwell's parliament. Worsley was a man of great ability, and has a place in history as the man who carried out the injunction of the Protector to "remove that bauble," the mace of the House of Commons. The agitation for the repeal of the corn laws had its headquarters at Manchester, and the success which attended it, not less than the active interest taken by its inhabitants in public questions, has made the city the home of other projects of reform. The "United Kingdom Alliance for the Suppression of the Liquor Traffic" was founded there in 1853, and during the continuance of the American War the adherents both of the North and of the South deemed it desirable to have organizations in Manchester to influence public opinion in favour of their respective causes. A charter of incorporation was granted in 1838; a bishop was appointed in 1847; and the town became a city in 1853. The Lancashire cotton famine, caused by the Civil War in America, produced much distress in the Manchester district, and led to a national movement to help the starving operatives. The more recent annals of Manchester are a record of industrial and commercial developments, and of increase in educational opportunities of all kinds. Politically Manchester was Liberal, of one or other shade, under the first Reform Act; a Conservative member was first elected in 1868, and in 1874 two. Under household suffrage in 1885 that party secured five out of six members; in 1886 and 1892, three out of six. In 1895 and 1900 five Unionists were elected, but in 1906 six Liberals were returned, one of whom (Mr Winston Churchill) was defeated at a by-election in 1908. In 1910 three Liberals, two Labour members and one Conservative were elected.

AUTHORITIES.--Although several excellent books have been written on
subjects connected with the town, there is no adequate modern history.
The _History of Manchester_, by the Rev. John Whitaker, appeared in
1771; it is a mere fragment, and, though containing much important
matter, requires to be very discreetly used. The following may be
recommended: John Reilly, _History of Manchester_, (1861); R. W.
Procter, _Manchester in Holiday Dress_ (1866), _Memorials of
Manchester Streets_ (1874), _Memorials of Byegone Manchester_ (1880);
Richard Buxton, _Botanical Guide to Manchester, &c._ (2nd ed., 1859);
Leo Grindon, _Manchester Flora_ (1859); Edward Baines, _History of
Lancashire_, edited by Croston (1886-1893), 5 vols.; W. A. Shaw,
_Manchester, Old and New_ (1894); W. E. A. Axon, _Annals of
Manchester_ (1885), _Cobden as a Citizen_ (1906); Harry Rawson,
_Historical Record of some Recent Enterprises of the Corporation of
Manchester_ (1894); _Official Manual of Manchester and Salford_
(1909); J. P. Earwaker, _Court Leet Records of Manchester, 1552-1686,
1731-1846_ (1884-1890), 12 vols.; _Constable's Accounts, 1612-1647,
1743-1776_ (1891-1892), 3 vols.; _Manchester Municipal Code_
(1894-1899), 5 vols.; George Saintsbury, _Manchester_ (1887); Thomas
Swindells, _Manchester Streets and Manchester Men_ (1906-1907), 3
vols.; James Tait, _Medieval Manchester_ (1904); Charles Roeder,
_Roman Manchester_ (1900); Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the
Manchester Ship Canal_ (1907), 2 vols. (W. E. A. A.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In the _Antonine Itinerary_ the name Mancunium (q.v.) or Mamucium
is given. This is the origin of the modern name, and has supplied the
adjective "Mancunian" (cf. "Old Mancunians" applied to old boys of
Manchester Grammar School).

MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea), a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 25 m. N.E. of Boston, on Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900), 2522; (1905, state census), 2618; (1910), 2673. Area, 7.64 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected with neighbouring towns and cities by electric lines. The township, heavily wooded in parts, and with picturesque shores alternating between rocky headlands and sandy beaches, stretches for several miles along the coast between Beverly on the west and Gloucester on the east. It is one of the most beautiful watering-places in America, and is the favourite summer residence of many of the foreign diplomats at Washington. The "singing beach" is a stretch of white sand, which, when trodden upon, emits a curious musical sound. Manchester, originally a part of Salem, was settled about 1630 and was at first known as Jeffrey's Creek. It was incorporated separately under its present name in 1645.

See _Manchester Town Records_ (2 vols., Salem, 1889-1891), and D. F.
Lamson, _History of the Town of Manchester, 1645-1895_ (Manchester,
1895).

MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and one of the county-seats of Hillsboro county, on the Merrimac river, at the mouth of the Piscataquog river, (by rail) 18 m. S. of Concord and 57 m. N.N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 44,126; (1900), 56,987; (1910 U.S. census) 70,063. Of the total population in 1900, 24,257 were foreign-born, including 13,429 French-Canadians; and 37,530 were of foreign parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 18,839 of French-Canadian parentage. Manchester is served by the Southern, the Western, the White Mountains, and the Worcester Nashua & Portland divisions of the Boston & Maine railroad, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is situated on a plain about 90 ft. above the Merrimac river (which is spanned here by three bridges), commands extensive views of the beautiful Merrimac valley, and covers a land area of about 33 sq. m. On the east side of the city are two connected lakes known as Lake Massabesic (30 m. in circumference). Manchester is known for the attractive appearance of the residence districts in which the factory operatives live, detached homes and "corporation boarding-houses," instead of tenement houses, being the rule. The Institute of Arts and Sciences (incorporated in 1898) provides lecture courses and classes in science, art and music. Among the other public buildings and institutions are the United States Government building, the city-hall, the county-court-house, the city library (1854; the outgrowth of the Manchester Athenaeum, established in 1844), St Anselm's College (R.C.), a Roman Catholic cathedral, four Roman Catholic convents, the Elliot hospital, the Sacred Heart hospital and the hospital of Notre Dame de Lourdes, the State industrial school, the State house of correction, the Gale home for aged women, an old ladies' home (R.C.), St Martha's home for working girls, the Manchester children's home and four orphan asylums. In the largest of five public squares is a soldiers' monument, consisting of a granite column 50 ft. high, surmounted by a statue of Victory. The city has two parks, and in one of them, overlooking the Merrimac, is a monument to the memory of General John Stark, who was born and was buried here. The water-supply is obtained from Lake Massabesic. Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac are 55 ft. in height, and by means of hydraulic canals Manchester is provided with a fine water-power. Steam power is also used, and the city is by far the most important manufacturing centre in the state. It is extensively engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, boots and shoes, worsted goods, hosiery and other knit goods, and locomotives; among the other manufactures are linen goods, steam fire-engines, paper, edge tools, soap, leather, carriages and beer. The value of the city's factory products increased from $24,628,345 in 1900 to $30,696,926 in 1905, or 24.6%. In 1905 Manchester produced 24.8% of the total factory product of the state. Manchester ranks fifth among the cities of the United States in cotton manufacturing, and ninth among the cities of the country in the manufacture of boots and shoes.

On account of the abundance of fish in the river here, Amoskeag Falls and vicinity were a favourite resort of the Penacook Indians, and it is said that John Eliot, the "Apostle to the Indians," preached to them here in the summer of 1651. The first white settlement within the present limits of Manchester was made in 1722 by Scottish-Irish immigrants at Goffe's Falls, 5 m. below Amoskeag Falls. In 1723 a cabin was built by some of these immigrants at the greater falls, and gradually a small settlement grew up there. In 1735 Massachusetts granted to a body of men known as "Tyng's Snow-Shoe Scouts" and their descendants a tract of land 3 m. wide along the east bank of the Merrimac, designated as "Tyng's Township." The Scottish-Irish claimed this tract as part of their grant from New Hampshire, and there arose between the rival claimants a bitter controversy which lasted until May 1741, when the courts decided against the Massachusetts claimants. In 1751 the territory formerly known as "Tyng's Township," and sometimes called "Harrytown," with portions of Chester and Londonderry, was incorporated as a township under the name Derryfield; in 1810 the name was changed to Manchester, the change having been suggested by the town's manufacturing possibilities; and in 1846 Manchester was chartered as a city. The first sawmill was erected as early as 1736, and during the years from 1794 to 1807 a canal was constructed around the Amoskeag Falls through which to carry lumber. As late as 1830 the town had a population of only 877, but in 1831 the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company was incorporated, the construction of hydraulic canals and the erection of cotton mills followed, the villages of Piscataquog and Amoskeag were annexed in 1853, and the population increased to 3235 in 1840, to 8841 in 1860, and to 33,592 in 1880.

Consult M. D. Clarke, _Manchester, A Brief Record of its Past and a
Picture of its Present_ (Manchester, 1875).

MANCHESTER, a former city of Chesterfield county, Virginia, U.S.A., (on the S. side of the James river), since 1910 a part of Richmond. Pop. (1900), 9715, of whom 3338 were negroes; (1906 estimate), 9997. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Southern railways, by electric lines to Richmond and Petersburg, and by numerous river boats. It is finely situated in a bend of the river, with about 2 m. of water front; on the heights above is Forest Hill park, a pleasure resort, and adjacent to it Woodland Heights, a beautiful residential district. From the surrounding country come much agricultural produce, coal, lumber, bricks and granite. There is a good harbour and excellent water power. Among the manufactures are paper, flour, cotton goods, leather, brick, railway supplies, &c. The value of the city's factory products increased from $1,621,358 in 1900 to $3,226,268 in 1905, or 99%.

MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL. The advantage of a waterway for the conveyance of goods between eastern Lancashire and the sea is so obvious that so far back as the year 1721 Thomas Steers designed a plan for continuing to Manchester the barge navigation which then existed between Liverpool and Warrington. Parliamentary powers were then obtained to improve the rivers Mersey and Irwell from Warrington to Manchester by means of locks and weirs. This work was successfully carried out, and proved of great benefit to the trade of the district. The duke of Bridgewater, who had made a canal from his collieries at Worsley to Manchester, afterwards continued the canal to the Mersey at Runcorn; this extension was opened in 1722 and competed with the Mersey and Irwell navigation, both routes being navigated by barges carrying about fifty tons of cargo. The Liverpool & Manchester railway at a later date afforded further facilities for conveyance of goods, but the high rates of carriage, added to heavy charges at the Liverpool docks, prejudiced trade, and the question was mooted of a ship canal to bring cotton, timber, grain and other goods direct to Manchester without transshipment. The first plan was made by William Chapman in 1825, and was followed by one designed by Henry Palmer in 1840, but it was not until the year 1882 that the movement was originated that culminated in the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal by Queen Victoria on the 21st of May 1894.

In determining the plan of the canal the main point which arose was
whether it should be made with locks or whether it should be on the
sea-level throughout, and therefore tidal. The advantage of a still
waterway in navigating large steamers, and the facilities afforded by
one constant water-level for works on the banks and the quick
discharge of goods at the terminal docks at Manchester, secured the
adoption of the plans for a canal with locks as designed by Sir E.
Leader Williams. The fresh-water portion of the canal extended between
Manchester and Runcorn, while from the latter place to Garston it was
proposed to improve the upper Mersey estuary by constructing training
walls and dredging to form a deep central channel. Parliamentary
powers to construct the canal were sought in the session of 1883, when
the bill passed the committee of the House of Commons but was rejected
by the committee of the House of Lords. Brought forward again the next
year, it was passed by the Lords but thrown out by the Commons. The
opposition from Liverpool and the railway companies was very strong;
to meet to some extent that of the former, a continuation of the canal
was proposed from Runcorn to Eastham along the Cheshire side of the
Mersey, instead of a trained channel in the estuary, and in this form
the bill was again introduced in the session of 1885, and,
notwithstanding strong opposition, was passed by both houses of
parliament. The cost of this contest to promoters and opponents
exceeded £400,000, the various committees on the bill having sat over
175 days. Owing to difficulties in raising the capital the works were
not begun until November 1887.

The total length of the canal is 35½ m. and it may be regarded as
divided into three sections. From Eastham to Runcorn it is near or
through the Mersey estuary for 12¾ m., and thence to Latchford near
Warrington, 8¼ m., it is inland; both these sections have the same
water-level, which is raised by high tides. At Latchford the locks
stop tidal action, and the canal is fed by the waters of the rivers
Mersey and Irwell from that point to Manchester, 14½ m. from
Latchford. The canal begins on the Cheshire side of the Mersey at
Eastham, about 6 m. above Liverpool. The entrance is well sheltered
and adjoins a good low-water channel communicating with the Sloyne
deep at Liverpool. Three entrance locks have been provided close to
and parallel with each other, their length and width being 600 by 80,
350 by 50, and 150 by 30 ft. These locks maintain the water-level in
the canal nearly to mean high-water level (14 ft. 2 in. above the
Liverpool datum); when the tide rises above that height the lock gates
are opened and the tide flows up to Latchford, giving on high spring
tides an additional depth of water of about 7 ft. On the ebb tide this
water is returned to the Mersey through large sluices at Randles Creek
and at the junction of the river Weaver with the canal, the level of
the canal thus being reduced to its normal height. The canal
throughout to Manchester has a minimum depth of 28 ft.; the depth
originally was 26 ft., but the lock sills were placed 2 ft. lower to
allow of the channel being dredged to 28 ft. when necessary. The
minimum width at bottom is 120 ft., allowing large vessels to pass
each other at any point on the canal; this width is considerably
increased at the locks and other parts. The slopes are generally about
1½ to 1, but are flatter through some portions; in rock-cutting the
sides are nearly vertical. From Eastham to Runcorn the canal is
alternately inland and on the foreshore of the estuary, on which
embankments were constructed to act as dams and keep out the tide
during the excavation of the canal, and afterwards to maintain the
water-level at low water in the estuary; both sides are faced with
heavy coursed stone. The material for the embankments was principally
clay excavated from the cuttings. In some places, where the foundation
was of a porous nature, sheeting piles of timber had to be used. At
Ellesmere Port, where the embankment is 6200 ft. long on sand, 13,000
whole timber sheeting piles 35 ft. long were driven, to secure the
base of the embankment on each side; water jets under pressure through
1½ in. wrought-iron pipes were used at the foot of each pile to assist
the sinking, which was found most difficult by ordinary means. At the
river Weaver ten Stoney roller sluices are built, each 30 ft. span,
with heavy stone and concrete piers and foundations; at Runcorn,
where the river Mersey is narrow, a concrete sea-wall 4300 ft. long
was substituted for the embankment. At various points under the canal
cast-iron siphon pipes were laid to carry off any land drainage which
was at a lower level than the canal; the largest of these siphons were
constructed to allow the tidal and fresh water of the river Gowy to
pass under the canal at Stanlow Point, between Eastham and Ellesmere
Port. Two 12-ft. siphons are there placed close together, built of
cast-iron segments; they are each 400 ft. long, and were laid on
concrete 4 ft. below the bottom of the canal. From Runcorn to
Latchford the canal is nearly straight, the depth of cutting varying
from 35 to 70 ft., partly in rock, but generally in alluvial deposit.
The whole length of the canal passes through the New Red Sandstone
formation, with its overlying beds of gravel, clay, sand and silt,
which gave much trouble during the progress of the work; retaining
walls of stone and brickwork had to be built in these places to
maintain the sides of the canal from slips and injury from the wash of
steamers.

The canal from Latchford to Manchester is in heavy cutting through the
valleys of the rivers Mersey and Irwell. As these rivers are
circuitous in course, only very small portions could be utilized in
forming the canal; a line as nearly straight as possible was therefore
adopted, and involved many crossings of the river channels. During the
whole progress of the work these had to be kept open for the discharge
of floods and land water, and in some places temporary cuts of
considerable length had to be made for the same object. In November
1890 and December 1891 high winter floods covered the whole of the
river valleys, filling many miles of the unfinished canal and causing
great damage to the slopes. Altogether 23 m. of canal had to be pumped
out to enable the work to be completed. After the cuttings between the
river channels were finished, the end dams were removed, and the
rivers Irwell and Mersey were turned into the new channel now forming
the upper portion of the ship canal. The total rise to the level of
the docks at Manchester from the ordinary level of the water in the
tidal portion of the canal below Latchford locks is 60 ft. 6 in.; this
is obtained by an average rise of about 15 ft. at each of the sets of
locks at Latchford, Irlam (7½ m. nearer Manchester), Barton (2 m.
farther) and Mode Wheel (3½ m. above Barton locks at the entrance to
the Manchester docks). For the greater part of this last length the
canal is widened at bottom from 120 ft., its normal width, to 170 ft.,
to enable vessels to lie at timber and other wharves without
interfering with the passage of large vessels to or from the docks.
The locks are in duplicate, one being 600 ft. long by 65 ft. wide, the
other 350 ft. long by 45 ft. wide, with Stoney's sluices adjacent.
They are filled or emptied in five minutes by large culverts on each
side with side openings into the lock. Concrete with facings of blue
Staffordshire brick is largely used, and the copings, sills, hollow
quoins and fender courses are of Cornish granite. The lock gates are
constructed of greenheart timber. The sluices near the locks take the
place of the weirs used in the old Mersey and Irwell navigation; they
are 30 ft. span each, four being generally used at each set of locks.
In ordinary seasons any water not used for lockage purposes passes
over the tops of the sluices, which are kept closed; in flood times
the sluices are raised to a height which will pass off floods with a
comparatively small rise in the canal. There are eight hydraulic
installations on the canal, each having duplicate steam-engines and
boilers; the mains exceed 7 m. in length, the pressure being 700 lb.
to the inch. They work the cranes, lifts and capstans at the docks,
lock gates and culvert sluices, coal tips, swing bridges and aqueduct.

At Barton, near Manchester, the Bridgewater canal crosses the river
Irwell on the first navigable aqueduct constructed in England. It was
the work of James Brindley, and since it was built at only sufficient
height to allow of barges passing under it, means had to be found to
allow of this important canal being maintained, and yet to permit
steamers to use the ship canal below it. Brindley's canal is on one
level throughout its whole length, and as its water supply is only
sufficient for the flight of locks by which it descends at Runcorn to
the Mersey, locks down to the ship canal would have involved the waste
of a lock of water on each side and caused serious delay to the
traffic. Sir E. Leader Williams surmounted the difficulty by means of
a swing aqueduct for the Bridgewater canal, which when closed enables
the traffic to pass as before, while it is opened to allow of ships
crossing it on the lower level of the ship canal. The water in the
swing portions of the aqueduct when opened is retained by closing
gates at each end, similar gates being shut at the same time across
the fixed portion of the aqueduct. The swing portion is a large steel
trough carried by side girders, 234 ft. long and 33 ft. high in the
centre, tapering 4 ft. to the ends; the waterway is 19 ft. wide and 6
ft. deep. The whole works on a central pier with similar arrangements
to the largest swing bridges on the canal; it has two spans over the
ship canal of 90 ft. each. It is somewhat singular that the first
fixed canal aqueduct in England should, after the lapse of 136 years,
be replaced by the first swing aqueduct ever constructed. The swing
aqueduct is moved by hydraulic power, and has never given any trouble
in working, even in times of severe frost. The weight of the movable
portion, including the water, is 1600 tons.

The manner of dealing with the five lines of railways that were cut
through by the canal was one of importance, both in the interests of
the travelling public and the trade on the canal; they are all lines
with a heavy traffic, including the main line of the London & North
Western railway near Warrington, with its important route to
Scotland. Swing bridges, although in use on some lines to cross
navigations, are dangerous and inconvenient, and high-level deviation
lines were adopted for each railway crossing the canal. No such
alteration of a railway had been previously sanctioned by parliament,
and it was only the importance of a ship canal to Manchester that
secured the requisite powers against the strong opposition of the
railway companies. Embankments were made close to and parallel with
the old lines, beginning about a mile and a quarter from the canal on
each side, the canal itself being crossed by viaducts which give a
clear headway of 75 ft. at ordinary water-level. Vessels with high
masts trading on the canal are provided with telescopic or sliding
top-masts. The gradients on the railways rising up to the viaducts are
1 in 135. The span of the viaducts is so arranged as to maintain the
full width of the canal for navigation; and as the railways generally
cross the canal on the skew, this necessitated girders in some cases
of 300 ft. span. There are nine main roads requiring swing bridges
across the canal; all below Barton have a span giving a clear waterway
of 120 ft. The width of these bridges varies with the importance of
the roads from 20 to 36 ft., and they are constructed of steel, their
weight ranging from 500 to 1000 tons each. They work on a live ring of
conical cast-iron rollers and are moved by hydraulic power supplied by
steam, gas or oil engines. The Trafford Road bridge at the docks at
Manchester is the heaviest swing bridge on the canal; being of extra
width, it weighs 1800 tons.

The canal being virtually one long dock, wharves at various points
have been erected to enable chemical or manufacturing works to be
carried on, widenings being provided where necessary. At Ellesmere
Port coal tips and sheds have been erected, and the canal is in direct
communication with the docks there as well as at Weston Point and
Runcorn, where a large trade is carried on with the Staffordshire
Potteries and the Cheshire salt districts. At Partington branches from
the railways connect the canal with the Yorkshire and Lancashire
coal-fields, and the canal is widened out 65 ft. on each side for six
hydraulic coal tips. At Mode Wheel there are extensive abattoirs and
lairages, erected by the Manchester Corporation; also large petroleum
oil tanks, graving dock and pontoons, cold-air meat stores and other
accommodation for traffic. At Manchester the area of the docks is 104
acres, with 152 acres of quay space, having over 5 m. of frontage to
the docks, which are provided with a number of three-storey transit
sheds, thirteen seven-storey and seven four-storey warehouses, and a
large grain silo. The London & North Western and Lancashire &
Yorkshire railway companies and the Cheshire Lines Committee have made
branch lines to the docks, the railways and sidings at which are over
30 miles in length. Much traffic is also carted, or dealt with by
inland canals in direct communication with the docks. The substitution
of a wide and deep canal, nearly straight, for comparatively shallow
and narrow winding rivers, and the use of large sluices in place of
fixed weirs to carry off the river water, have been of great advantage
to the district in greatly reducing the height of floods.

The total amount of excavation in the canal, docks and subsidiary work
amounted to over 54 million cub. yds., nearly one-fourth of which was
sandstone rock; the excavated material was used in forming the railway
deviation embankments, filling up the old beds of the rivers and
raising low lands near the canal. As many men were employed on the
works as could be obtained, but the number never exceeded 17,000, and
the greater part of the excavation was done by about eighty steam
navvies and land dredgers. For the conveyance of excavation and
materials, 228 miles of temporary railway lines were laid, and 173
locomotives, 6300 wagons and trucks, and 316 fixed and portable
steam-engines and cranes were employed, the total cost of the plant
being nearly £1,000,000. The expenditure on the works, including plant
and equipment, to the 1st of January 1900, was £10,327,666. The
purchase of the Mersey and Irwell and Bridgewater navigations
(£1,786,651), land and compensation (£1,223,809), interest on capital
during constructions (£1,170,733), and parliamentary, superintendence
and general expenses brought up the total amount to £15,248,437.

The traffic on the canal gradually increased from 925,659 tons in 1894
to 2,778,108 tons in 1899 and 5,210,759 tons in 1907. After its
opening considerable reductions were made in the railway rates of
carriage and the charges at the Liverpool docks in order to meet the
lower cost of conveyance by shipping passing up it. The result has
been of great advantage to the trade of Lancashire and the surrounding
districts, and the saving in the cost of carriage, estimated at
£700,000 a year, assists manufacturers to meet the competition of
their foreign opponents who have the advantage of low rates of
carriage on the improved waterways of America, Germany, France and
Belgium. Before the construction of the canal, large manufacturers had
left Manchester to establish their works at ports like Glasgow, where
they could save the cost of inland carriage. Since its opening, new
industries have been started at Manchester and along its banks,
warehouses and mills that were formerly empty are now occupied, while
nearly 10,000 new houses have been built for the accommodation of the
workpeople required to meet the enlarged trade of the city.

For further details see Sir Bosdin Leech, _History of the Manchester
Ship Canal_ (Manchester, 1907). (E. L. W.)

MANCHURIA, the name by which the territory in the east of Asia occupied by the Manchus is known in Europe. By the Chinese it is called the country of the Manchus, an epithet meaning "pure," chosen by the founder of the dynasty which now rules over Manchuria and China as an appropriate designation for his family. Manchuria lies in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction between 39° and 53° N. and between 116° and 134° E., and is wedged in between China and Mongolia on the west and north-west, and Korea and the Russian territory on the Amur on the east and north. More definitely, it is bounded N. by the Amur, E. by the Usuri, S. by the Gulf of Liao-tung, the Yellow Sea and Korea, and W. by Chih-li and Mongolia. The territory thus defined is about 800 m. in length and 500 m. in width, and contains about 390,000 sq. m. It is divided into three provinces, viz. Hei-lung-kiang or Northern Manchuria, Kirin or Central Manchuria, and Sheng-king or Southern Manchuria. Physically the country is divided into two regions, the one a series of mountain ranges occupying the northern and eastern portions of the kingdom, and the other a plain which stretches southwards from Mukden, the capital, to the Gulf of Liao-tung.

A system of parallel ranges of mountains, culminating in the Chinese Ch'ang pai Shan, "the long white mountains," on the Korean frontier, runs in a north-easterly direction from the shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung. In its course through Eastern Manchuria it forms the watershed of the Sungari, Usuri and other rivers, and in the south that of the Ya-lu and many smaller streams. It also forms the eastern boundary of the great plain of Liao-tung. The mountains of this system reach their greatest height on the south-east of Kirin, where their snow-capped peaks rise to the elevation of 8000 ft. The scenery among them is justly celebrated, more especially in the neighbourhood of Haich'eng, Siu-yen and the Korean Gate.

The three principal rivers of Manchuria are the Sungari, Mutan-kiang and Usuri already mentioned. Of these the Sungari, which is the largest, rises on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and runs in a north-westerly direction to its junction with the Nonni, from which point it turns north-east until it empties itself into the Amur. It is navigable by native junks above Kirin, which city may also be reached by steamer. In its long course it varies greatly both in depth and width, in some parts being only a few feet deep and spreading out to a width of more than a mile, while in other and mountainous portions of its course its channel is narrowed to 300 or 400 ft., and its depth is increased in inverse ratio. The Usuri rises in about 44° N. and 131° E., and after running a north-easterly course for nearly 500 m. it also joins the Amur. The Mutan-kiang takes its rise, like the Sungari, on the northern slopes of the Ch'ang pai Shan range, and not far from the sources of that river. It takes a north-easterly course as far as the city of Ninguta, at which point it turns northward, and so continues until it joins the Sungari at San-sing. It is navigable by junks between that city and Ninguta, though the torrents in its course make the voyage backwards and forwards one of considerable difficulty. Next in importance to these rivers are the Liao and Ya-lu, the former of which rises in Mongolia, and after running in an easterly direction for about 400 m. enters Manchuria in about 43° N., and turning southward empties itself into the Gulf of Liao-tung. The Ya-lu rises in Korea, and is the frontier river of that country.

_Provinces and Towns._--Mukden, or as it is called by the Chinese Sheng-king, the capital city of Manchuria, is situated in the province of Sheng-king, occupies a fine position on the river Hun-ho, an affluent of the Liao, and is a city of considerable pretensions. Liao-yang, which was once the capital of the country, is also in the province of Sheng-king. The other cities in the province are Kin-chow-fu on the west of the Gulf of Liao-tung; Kin-chow, on the western extremity of the Liao-tung peninsula; Kai-ping, on the north-western shore of the same peninsula; Hai-cheng, on the road from Niu-chwang to Mukden; Ki-yuen, a populous and prosperous city in the north of the province; and Sing-king, east of Mukden, the original seat of the founders of the present dynasty. The most important commercial place, however, is the treaty port of Niu-chwang, at the head of the Gulf of Liao-tung. According to the custom-house returns the value of the foreign imports and exports in the year 1880 was £691,954 and £1,117,790 respectively, besides a large native trade carried on in junks. In 1904 the value of foreign imports had risen to £2,757,962, but the exports amounted to £1,742,859 only, the comparatively low figure being accounted for by the Russo-Japanese war.

The province of Kirin, or Central Manchuria, is bounded on the N. and N.W. by the Sungari, on the S. by Sheng-king and Korea, on the W. by Mongolia, and on the E. by the Usuri and the maritime Russian province. It contains an area of about 90,000 sq. m., and is entirely mountainous with the exception of a stretch of plain country in its north-western corner. This plain produces large quantities of indigo and opium, and is physically remarkable for the number of isolated conical hills which dot its surface. These sometimes occur in a direct line at intervals of 15 or 20 m., and elsewhere are scattered about "like dish-covers on a table." Kirin, the capital of the province, occupies a magnificent position, being surrounded on the north, west and south by a semicircular range of mountains with the broad stream of the Sungari flowing across the front. The local trade is considerable. A-She-ho, on the Ashe, with a population of 60,000; Petuna (Chinese, Sing-chung), on the Sungari, population 30,000; San-sing, near the junction of the Sungari and Mutan-kiang; La-lin, 120 m. to the north of Kirin, population 20,000; Harbin or Kharbin and Ninguta are the other principal cities in the province.

Hei-lung-kiang, or Northern Manchuria, which contains about 195,000 sq. m., is bounded on the N. and N.E. by the Amur, on the S. by the Sungari, and on the W. by the Nonni and Mongolia. It is traversed by the Great and Lesser Khingan mountains and their offshoots. This province is thinly populated, and is cultivated only along the lines of its rivers. The only towns of any importance are Tsitsihar and Mergen, both situated on the Nonni and Khailar in the west.

_Climate, Flora, Fauna._--The climate over the greater part of the
country varies between extremes of heat and cold, the thermometer
ranging between 90° F. in the summer and 10° below zero in the winter.
As in the north of China, the rivers are frozen up during the four
winter months. After a short spring the heat of summer succeeds, which
in its turn is followed by an autumn of six weeks' duration. The great
plain in Sheng-king is in many parts swampy, and in the neighbourhood
of the sea, where the soil emits a saline exudation such as is also
common in the north of China, it is perfectly sterile. In other parts
fine crops of millet and various kinds of grain are grown, and on it
trees flourish abundantly. The trees and plants are much the same as
those common in England, and severe as the weather is in winter the
less elevated mountains are covered to their summits with trees. The
wild animals also are those known in Europe, with the addition of
tigers and panthers. Bears, wild boars, hares, wolves, foxes and wild
cats are very common, and in the north sables are found in great
numbers. One of the most noticeable of the birds is the Mongolian lark
(_Melanocorypha mongolica_), which is found in a wild state both in
Manchuria and in the desert of Mongolia. This bird is exported in
large numbers to northern China, where it is much prized on account of
its extraordinary power of imitation. The Manchurian crane is common,
as also are eagles, cuckoos, laughing doves, &c. Insects abound, owing
to the swampy nature of much of the country. The rivers are well
stocked with fish, especially with salmon, which forms a common
article of food. In such immense shoals do these fish appear in some
of the smaller streams that numbers are squeezed out on to the banks
and there perish.

_Products and Industries._--In minerals Manchuria is very rich: coal,
gold, iron (as well as magnetic iron ore), and precious stones are
found in large quantities. Gold mines are worked at several places in
the northern part of Manchuria, of which the principal are on the Muho
river, an affluent of the Amur, and near the Russian frontier. Mines
are also worked at Kwanyin-shan, opposite the Russian frontier town of
Radevska, and at Chia-pi-kou, on an affluent of the upper Sungari.
Indigo and opium are the most lucrative crops. The indigo plant is
grown in large quantities in the plain country to the north of Mukden,
and is transported thence to the coast in carts, each of which carries
rather more than a ton weight of the dye. The poppy is cultivated
wherever it will grow, the crop being far more profitable than that of
any other product. Cotton, tobacco, pulse, millet, wheat and barley
are also grown.

_Population._--The population is estimated as follows for each of the
three divisions:--

Province of Sheng-king (Feng T'ien) 4,000,000
" " Kirin 6,500,000
" " Hei-lung-kiang 2,000,000
----------
Total 12,500,000

_Communications._--Four principal highways traverse Manchuria. The
first runs from Peking to Kirin via Mukden, where it sends off a
branch to Korea. At Kirin it bifurcates, one branch going to San-sing,
the extreme north-eastern town of the province of Kirin, and the other
to Possiet Bay on the coast via Ninguta. The second road runs from the
treaty port of Niu-chwang through Mukden to Petuna in the
north-western corner of the Kirin province, and thence to Tsitsihar,
Mergen and the Amur. The third also starts from Niu-chwang, and
strikes southward to Kin-chow at the extremity of the Liao-tung
peninsula. The fourth connects Niu-chwang with the Gate of Korea.

Manchurian Railways.

The original Manchurian railway was constructed under an agreement
made in 1896 between the Chinese government and the Russo-Chinese
bank, an institution founded in 1895 to develop Russian interests in
the East. The Chinese Eastern Railway Company was formed by the bank
under this agreement, to construct and work the line, and surveys were
made in 1897, the town of Harbin being founded as headquarters for the
work. The line, which affords through communication from Europe by way
of the Trans-Siberian system, enters Manchuria near a station of that
name in the north-west corner of the country, passes Khailar, and runs
south-east, near Tsitsihar, to Harbin. Thence the main line continues
in the same general direction to the eastern frontier of Manchuria,
and so to Vladivostok. In 1898 Russia obtained a lease of the
Liao-tung peninsula, and a clause of this contract empowered her to
connect Port Arthur and Dalny (now Tairen) with the main Manchurian
railway by a branch southward from Harbin. In spite of interruption
caused by the Boxer outbreak, through communication was established in
1901. Under the Russo-Japanese treaty of August 1905, after the war,
supplemented by a convention between Japan and China concluded in
December of the same year, Japan took over the line from Port Arthur
as far as Kwang-cheng-tsze, now known as the Southern Manchurian
railway (508 m.). Branches were promoted (a) from Mukden to Antung on
the Ya-lu, to connect with the Korean system, and (b) from
Kwang-cheng-tsze to Kirin. The rest of the original Manchurian system
(1088 miles) remains under Russian control. In the south-west of
Manchuria a line of the imperial railways of Northern China gives
connexion from Peking, and Branches at Kou-pang-tsze to Sin-min-ting
and to Niu-chwang, and the link between Sin-min-ting and Mukden is
also under Chinese control. The lines now under Russian control were
laid down, and remain, on the 5 ft. gauge which is the Russian
standard; but after the Russian control of the southern lines was lost
the gauge was altered from that standard.