Chapter XXI: Part 21

_Corrections._--For obliteration or removing pen strokes from the
surface of the material the sponge was used in ancient times. While
the writing was still fresh, the scribe could easily wash off the ink
by this means; and for a fragile material, such as papyrus, he could
well use no other. On vellum he might use sponge or knife. But after a
MS. had left his hands it would undergo revision at the hands of a
corrector, who had to deal with the text in a different manner. He
could no longer conveniently apply the sponge. On hard material he
might still use the knife to erase letters or words or sentences. But
he could also use his pen for such purposes. Thus we find that a very
early system of indicating erasure was the placing of dots or minute
strokes above the letters to be thus "expunged." The same marks were
also (and generally at later periods) placed under the letters; in
rare instances they stood inside them. It need scarcely be said that
letters were also struck out with strokes of the pen or altered into
others, and that letters and words were interlined. A long sentence,
however, which could not be admitted between the lines, was entered in
the margin, and its place in the text indicated by corresponding
reference marks, such as _hd._, _hs._ = _hic deest_, _hoc supra_ or
_hic scribas_, &c.

_Abbreviations and Contractions._--The practice of shortening words in
writing has played an important part in the history of the ancient and
the medieval manuscript. Two reasons have disposed men to follow this
practice: firstly, the desire to avoid the labour of writing over and
over again words or portions of words of common occurrence which can
be readily understood in a shortened form as when written in full;
and, secondly, the necessity of saving space at a time when it was an
object to make the most of the writing material to hand. To meet the
former requirement, a simple and limited method alone was needed; to
satisfy the second, a more elaborate system was necessary. The most
natural method of reducing the length of a word is to suppress as much
as possible of its termination, consistently with intelligibility,
that is, by simple _abbreviation_. But if space of any appreciable
value is to be saved in a page of writing, a system is necessary for
eliminating letters from the body of the word as well as curtailing
the termination, that is, a system of _contraction_ as well as
abbreviation; and, in addition, the employment of arbitrary signs,
analogous to shorthand, will serve still further to condense the text.
An elaborate system of contraction of this nature was naturally only
fully developed after very long practice. Both in Greek and in Latin
MSS. from the 9th to the 15th century such a system was in full force.

Different kinds of literature were, according to their nature, more or
less abbreviated and contracted. From early times such curtailment was
more freely employed in works written in technical language, such as
works on law or grammar or mathematics, wherein particular words are
more liable to repetition, than in MSS. of general literature. The
oldest system of abbreviation is that in which a single letter (nearly
always the initial letter) or at most two or three letters represent
the whole word. This system we know was in common use among both Greek
and Latin writers, and ancient inscriptions afford plentiful examples.
It is well adapted for the brief expression of the common words and
phrases in works of a technical nature (as for example such a phrase
as C D E R N E = _cujus de ea re notio est_); but for general
literature it is of little use, and practically has been restricted to
express proper names and numerals.

Abbreviation in Greek MSS.

When abbreviations were employed only with the view of speed in
writing, it is obvious that they would occur more frequently in the
ephemeral documents of daily life than in carefully written literary
works intended for the book-market. Hence they are not to be found in
Greek papyri of the latter class. On the other hand in literary papyri
written in non-literary script they naturally occur just as they would
in contemporary common documents. As early as the 3rd and 2nd
centuries B.C. the ordinary method of abbreviation was to omit the
termination or latter portion of the word and to mark the omission by
a short horizontal stroke or dash; or the letter which immediately
preceded the omission was written above the line as a key to the
reading, as [Greek: te^l] for [Greek: télos]. Such a system obviously
might be extended indefinitely at the discretion of the writer. But in
addition, at quite an early period, symbols and monogrammatic forms
for particular words must have been developed, for they are found in
common use in cursive papyri. A notable instance of their employment
in a full degree occurs in the papyrus of Aristotle's _Constitution of
Athens_, of the 1st century.

Like the well-written literary papyri, the early vellum uncial codices
of the Bible, being inscribed with calligraphic formality, avoided in
principle the use of abbreviations. But by the 4th to the 6th century,
the period when they were chiefly produced, the contraction or
abbreviation of certain words and terminations had, it seems, become
so fixed by usage that the contracted forms were adopted in the texts.
They are [Greek: ThS] = [Greek: theos], [Greek: IS] = [Greek: iêsous],
[Greek: ChS] = [Greek: christos], [Greek: PNA] = [Greek: pneuma],
[Greek: SÊR] = [Greek: sôtêr], [Greek: KS] = [Greek: kurios], [Greek:
STROS] = [Greek: stauros], [Greek: PÊR] = [Greek: pater], [Greek: MÊR]
= [Greek: mêtêr], [Greek: US] = [Greek: huios], [Greek: ANOS] =
[Greek: anthrôpos], [Greek: OUNOS] = [Greek: ouranos], [Greek: K] =
[Greek: kai], [Greek: T] = [Greek: tai], [Greek: M] = [Greek: mou],
[Greek: moi], &c. Final N, especially at the end of a line, was
dropped, and its place occupied by the horizontal stroke, as [Greek:
TO ].

But while this limited system was used in biblical, and also in
liturgical MSS., in profane literature a greater licence was
recognized. For example, in a fragment of a mathematical work at
Milan, of the 7th century, we find instances of abbreviation by
dropping terminations, just as in the earlier papyri, and, in
addition, contracted particles and prepositions are numerous.
Technical works, in fact, inherited the system instituted in the early
papyri written in non-literary or cursive hands; and this system,
undergoing continual development, had a larger scope when the cursive
writing was cast into a literary form and became the literary
minuscule script of the middle ages. From the 9th century onwards a
fully developed system of abbreviation and contraction was practised
in Greek MSS., comprising the early system of the papyri, the special
contractions of the early biblical MSS., and also a large number of
special symbols, derived in great measure from tachygraphical signs.

In the early Greek minuscule MSS. contractions are not very frequent
in the texts; but in the marginal glosses, where it was an object to
save space, they are found in great numbers as early as the 10th
century. The MS. of Nonnus, of A.D. 972, in the British Museum
(Wattenb. and Von Vels., _Exempla_, 7) is an instance of a text
contracted to a degree that almost amounts to tachygraphy. In the
12th, 13th and 14th centuries texts were fully contracted; and as the
writing became more cursive contraction-marks were more carelessly
applied, until, in the 15th century, they degenerated into mere
flourishes.

Abbreviations in Latin MSS.

As far back as material is available for comparison, it appears that
abbreviations and contractions in Latin MSS. followed the same lines
as those in Greek MSS. We have no very early papyri written in Latin
as we have in Greek to show us what the practice of Roman writers was
in the 3rd and 2nd and early 1st centuries B.C.; but there can be
little doubt that in that remote time there was followed in Latin
writing a system of abbreviation similar to that in Greek, that is, by
curtailment of terminations, and that in ephemeral documents written
in cursive characters such abbreviation was allowed more freely than
in carefully written literary works. The early system of representing
words by their initial letters has already been referred to. It was in
common use, as we know, in the inscriptions on coins and monuments,
and to some extent in the texts of Roman writers. But the ambiguity
which must have always accompanied such a system of single-letter
abbreviations, or _sigla_, naturally induced an improvement by
expressing a word by two or more of its letters. Hence was developed
the more regular syllabic system of the Romans, by which the leading
letters of the several syllables were written, as EG = _ergo_, HR =
_heres_, ST = _satis_. At a later time Christian writers secured
greater exactness by expressing the final letter of a contracted word,
as _ds_ = _deus_, _do_ = _deo_, _scs_ = _sanctus_. Further, certain
marks and signs, many derived from shorthand symbols, came into use to
indicate inflections and terminations; or the terminating letter or a
leading letter to indicate the termination might be written above the
line, as Q^o = _quo_, V^m = _verum_, N^o = _noster_, S^i = _sint_.
This practice became capable of greater development later on. Among
the special signs are c = _est_, [symbol] = _vel_, _n_ = _non_, p´ =
_pre_, [symbol] = _per_, [symbol] = _pro_, [symbol] = termination
_us_. The letter _q_ with distinctive strokes applied in different
positions represented the often recurring relative and other short
words, as _quod_, _quia_.

In Latin Biblical uncial MSS. the same restrictions on abbreviations
were exercised as in the Greek. The sacred names and titles DS =
_deus_, DMS, DNS = _dominus_, SCS = _sanctus_, SPS = _spiritus_, and
others appear in the oldest codices. The contracted terminations Q· =
_que_, B· = _bus_, and the omission of final _m_, or (more rarely)
final _n_, are common to all Latin MSS. of the earliest period. There
is a peculiarity about the contracted form of our Saviour's name that
it is always written by the Latin scribes in letters imitating the
Greek IHC, XPC, _ihc_, _xpc_, and _ihs_, _xps_.

The full development of the medieval system of abbreviation and
contraction was effected at the time when the Carolingian schools were
compelling the reform of the handwriting of western Europe. Then came
a freer practice of abbreviation by suppression of terminations and
the latter portions of words, the omission of which was indicated by
the ordinary signs, the horizontal or oblique stroke or the
apostrophe; then came also a freer practice of contraction by omitting
letters and syllables from the middle as well as the end of words, as
oio, _omnino_, prb, _presbyter_; and then from the practice of writing
above the line a leading letter of an omitted syllable, as int^a =
_intra_, t^r = _tur_, conventional signs, with special significations,
were also gradually developed. Such growths are well illustrated in
the change undergone by the semicolon, which was attached to the end
of a word to indicate the omission of the termination, as b; = _bus_,
q; = _que_, deb; = _debet_, and which in course of time became
converted into a z, a form which survives in our ordinary
abbreviation, viz. (i.e. vi; = _videlicet_). The different forms of
contraction were common to all the nations of western Europe. The
Spanish scribes, however, attached different values to certain of
them. For example, in Visigothic MSS., _qm_, which elsewhere
represented _quoniam_, may be read as _quum_; and [symbol], which
elsewhere = _pro_, is here = _per_. Nor must the use of arbitrary
symbols for special words be forgotten. These are generally
adaptations of the shorthand signs known as Tironian notes. Such are
[symbol] = _autem_, [symbol] = _est_, [symbol] = _ejus_, [symbol] =
_enim_, [symbol] = _et_, v and u = _ut_, which were employed
particularly in early MSS. of English and Irish origin.

By the 11th century the system of Latin contractions had been reduced
to exact rules; and from this time onwards it was universally
practised. It reached its culminating point in the 13th century, the
period of increasing demand for MSS., when it became more than ever
necessary to economize space. After this date the exact formation of
the signs of contractions was less strictly observed, and the system
deteriorated together with the decline of handwriting. In conclusion,
it may be noticed that in MSS. written in the vernacular tongues
contractions are more rarely used than in Latin texts. A system suited
to the inflexions and terminations of this language could not be
readily adapted to other languages so different in grammatical
structure.

_Palimpsests, &c._--Palimpsest MSS., that is, MSS. written upon
material from which older writing has been previously removed by
washing or scraping, are described in a separate article (PALIMPSEST).
The ornamentation of MSS. is fully dealt with under the headings
ILLUMINATED MSS., and MINIATURES.

_Writing Implements._--In conclusion, a few words may be added
respecting the writing implements employed in the production of MSS.
The reed, [Greek: kalamos], _calamus_, was adapted for tracing
characters either on papyrus or vellum. By the ancient Egyptians, and
also probably by the early Greek scribes in Egypt, it was used with a
soft brush-like point, rather as a paint-brush than as a pen. The
Greek and Roman scribes used the reed cut to a point and slit like the
quill-pen; and it survived as a writing implement into the middle
ages. For scratching letters on the waxen tablet the sharp pointed
bodkin, [Greek: stylos], [Greek: grapheion], _stilus_, _graphium_, was
necessary, made of iron, bronze, ivory, or other suitable material,
with a knobbed or flattened butt-end wherewith corrections could be
made by smoothening the wax surface (hence _vertere stilum_, to
correct). Although there is no very early record of the use of quills
as pens, it is obvious that, well adapted as they are for the purpose
and to be had everywhere, they must have been in request even in
ancient times as they afterwards were in the middle ages. Bronze pens,
fashioned exactly on the model of the quill-pen, that is in form of a
tube ending in a slit nib (sometimes even with a nib at each end), of
late Roman manufacture, are still in existence. A score of them are to
be found scattered among public and private museums. The ruler for
guiding ruled lines was the [Greek: kanôn], _canon_, _regula_; the
pencil was the [Greek: molubdos], _plumbum_, the plummet; the pricker
for marking the spacing out of the ruled lines was the [Greek:
diabatês], _circinus_, _punctorium_; the pen-knife, [Greek:
glyphanon], [Greek: smilê], _scalprum_; the erasing-knife, _rasorium_,
_novacula_.

_Inks._--Inks of various colours were employed from early times. The
ink of the early papyri is a deep glossy black; in the Byzantine
period it deteriorates. In the middle ages black ink is generally of
excellent quality; it tends to deteriorate from the 14th century. But
its quality varies in different countries at different periods. Red
ink, besides being used for titles and colophons, also served for
contrast, as, for example, in glosses. In the Carolingian period
entire MSS. were occasionally written in red ink. Other coloured
inks--green, violet and yellow--are also found, at an early date. Gold
and silver writing fluids were used in the texts of the ancient purple
vellum MSS., and writing in gold was reintroduced under Charlemagne
for codices of ordinary white vellum. It was introduced into English
MSS. in the 10th century.

AUTHORITIES.--H. Geraud, _Essai sur les livres dans l'antiquité_
(1840); E. Egger, _Histoire du livre depuis ses origines jusqu'à nos
jours_ (1880); T. Birt, _Das antike Buchwesen_ (1882) and _Die
Buchrolle in der Kunst_ (1907); W. Wattenbach, _Das Schriftwesen im
Mittelalter_ (1896); K. Dziatzko, _Untersuchungen über ausgewählte
Kapitel des antiken Buchwesens_ (1900); J. W. Clark, _The Care of
Books_ (1901); W. Schubart, _Das Buch bei den Griechen und Römern_
(1907); and generally the authorities quoted in the article
PALAEOGRAPHY. See also TEXTUAL CRITICISM. (E. M. T.)

MANUTIUS, the Latin name of an Italian family (Mannucci, Manuzio), famous in the history of printing as organizers of the Aldine press.

1. ALDUS MANUTIUS (1450-1515). Teobaldo Mannucci, better known as Aldo Manuzio, the founder of the Aldine press, was born in 1450 at Sermoneta in the Papal States. He received a scholar's training, studying Latin at Rome under Gasparino da Verona, and Greek at Ferrara under Guarino da Verona. In 1482 he went to reside at Mirandola with his old friend and fellow-student, the illustrious Giovanni Pico. There he stayed two years, prosecuting his studies in Greek literature. Before Pico removed to Florence, he procured for Aldo the post of tutor to his nephews Alberto and Lionello Pio, princes of Carpi. Alberto Pio supplied Aldo with funds for starting his printing press, and gave him lands at Carpi. It was Aldo's ambition to secure the literature of Greece from further accident by committing its chief masterpieces to type. Before his time four Italian towns had won the honours of Greek publications: Milan, with the grammar of Lascaris, Aesop, Theocritus, a Greek Psalter, and Isocrates, between 1476 and 1493; Venice, with the _Erotemala_ of Chrysoloras in 1484; Vicenza, with reprints of Lascaris's grammar and the _Erolemata_, in 1488 and 1490; Florence, with Alopa's Homer, in 1488. Of these works, only three, the Milanese Theocritus and Isocrates and the Florentine Homer, were classics. Aldo selected Venice as the most appropriate station for his labours. He settled there in 1490, and soon afterwards gave to the world editions of the _Hero and Leander_ of Musaeus, the _Galeomyomachia_, and the Greek Psalter. These have no date; but they are the earliest tracts issued from his press, and are called by him "Precursors of the Greek Library."

At Venice Aldo gathered an army of Greek scholars and compositors around him. His trade was carried on by Greeks, and Greek was the language of his household. Instructions to type-setters and binders were given in Greek. The prefaces to his editions were written in Greek. Greeks from Crete collated MSS., read proofs, and gave models of calligraphy for casts of Greek type. Not counting the craftsmen employed in merely manual labour, Aldo entertained as many as thirty of these Greek assistants in his family. His own industry and energy were unremitting. In 1495 he issued the first volume of his Aristotle. Four more volumes completed the work in 1497-1498. Nine comedies of Aristophanes appeared in 1498. Thucydides, Sophocles and Herodotus followed in 1502; Xenophon's _Hellenics_ and Euripides in 1503; Demosthenes in 1504. The troubles of Italy, which pressed heavily on Venice at this epoch, suspended Aldo's labours for a while. But in 1508 he resumed his series with an edition of the minor Greek orators; and in 1509 appeared the lesser works of Plutarch. Then came another stoppage. The league of Cambray had driven Venice back to her lagoons, and all the forces of the republic were concentrated on a struggle to the death with the allied powers of Europe. In 1513 Aldo reappeared with Plato, which he dedicated to Leo X. in a preface eloquently and earnestly comparing the miseries of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the student's life. Pindar, Hesychius, and Athenaeus followed in 1514.

These complete the list of Aldo's prime services to Greek literature. But it may be well in this place to observe that his successors continued his work by giving Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, Hippocrates and Longinus to the world in first editions. Omission has been made of Aldo's reprints, in order that the attention of the reader might be concentrated on his labours in editing Greek classics from MSS. Other presses were at work in Italy; and, as the classics issued from Florence, Rome or Milan, Aldo took them up, bestowing in each case fresh industry upon the collation of codices and the correction of texts. Nor was the Aldine press idle in regard to Latin and Italian classics. The _Asolani_ of Bembo, the collected writings of Poliziano, the _Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, Petrarch's poems, a collection of early Latin poets of the Christian era, the letters of the younger Pliny, the poems of Pontanus, Sannazzaro's _Arcadia_, Quintilian, Valerius Maximus, and the _Adagia_ of Erasmus were printed, either in first editions, or with a beauty of type and paper never reached before, between the years 1495 and 1514. For these Italian and Latin editions Aldo had the elegant type struck which bears his name. It is said to have been copied from Petrarch's handwriting, and was cast under the direction of Francesco da Bologna, who has been identified by Panizzi with Francia the painter.

Aldo's enthusiasm for Greek literature was not confined to the printing-room. Whatever the students of this century may think of his scholarship, they must allow that only vast erudition and thorough familiarity with the Greek language could have enabled him to accomplish what he did. In his own days Aldo's learning won the hearty acknowledgment of ripe scholars. To his fellow workers he was uniformly generous, free from jealousy, and prodigal of praise. While aiming at that excellence of typography which renders his editions the treasures of the book-collector, he strove at the same time to make them cheap. We may perhaps roughly estimate the current price of his pocket series of Greek, Latin and Italian classics, begun in 1501, at 2s. per volume of our present money. The five volumes of the Aristotle cost about £8. His great undertaking was carried on under continual difficulties, arising from strikes among his workmen, the piracies of rivals, and the interruptions of war. When he died, bequeathing Greek literature as an inalienable possession to the world, he was a poor man. In order to promote Greek studies, Aldo founded an academy of Hellenists in 1500 under the title of the New Academy. Its rules were written in Greek. Its members were obliged to speak Greek. Their names were Hellenized, and their official titles were Greek. The biographies of all the famous men who were enrolled in this academy must be sought in the pages of Didot's _Alde Manuce_. It is enough here to mention that they included Erasmus and the English Linacre.

In 1499 Aldo married Maria, daughter of Andrea Torresano of Asola. Andrea had already bought the press established by Nicholas Jenson at Venice. Therefore Aldo's marriage combined two important publishing firms. Henceforth the names Aldus and Asolanus were associated on the title pages of the Aldine publications; and after Aldo's death in 1515, Andrea and his two sons carried on the business during the minority of Aldo's children. The device of the dolphin and the anchor, and the motto _festina lente_, which indicated quickness combined with firmness in the execution of a great scheme, were never wholly abandoned by the Aldines until the expiration of their firm in the third generation.

2. PAULUS MANUTIUS (1512-1574). By his marriage with Maria Torresano, Aldo had three sons, the youngest of whom, Paolo, was born in 1512. He had the misfortune to lose his father at the age of two. After this event his grandfather and two uncles, the three Asolani, carried on the Aldine press, while Paolo prosecuted his early studies at Venice. Excessive application hurt his health, which remained weak during the rest of his life. At the age of twenty-one he had acquired a solid reputation for scholarship and learning. In 1533 Paolo undertook the conduct of his father's business, which had latterly been much neglected by his uncles. In the interregnum between Aldo's death and Paolo's succession (1514-1533) the Asolani continued to issue books, the best of which were Latin classics. But, though their publications count a large number of first editions, and some are works of considerable magnitude, they were not brought out with the scholarly perfection at which Aldo aimed. The Asolani attempted to perform the whole duties of editing, and to reserve all its honours for themselves, dispensing with the service of competent collaborators. The result was that some of their editions, especially their Aeschylus of 1518, are singularly bad. Paolo determined to restore the glories of the house, and in 1540 he separated from his uncles. The field of Greek literature having been well-nigh exhausted, he devoted himself principally to the Latin classics. He was a passionate Ciceronian, and perhaps his chief contributions to scholarship are the corrected editions of Cicero's letters and orations, his own epistles in a Ciceronian style, and his Latin version of Demosthenes. Throughout his life he combined the occupations of a student and a printer, winning an even higher celebrity in the former field than his father had done. Four treatises from his pen on Roman antiquities deserve to be commemorated for their erudition no less than for the elegance of their Latinity. Several Italian cities contended for the possession of so rare a man; and he received tempting offers from the Spanish court. Yet his life was a long struggle with pecuniary difficulties. To prepare correct editions of the classics, and to print them in a splendid style, has always been a costly undertaking. And, though Paolo's publications were highly esteemed, their sale was slow. In 1556 he received for a time external support from the Venetian Academy, founded by Federigo Badoaro. But Badoaro failed disgracefully in 1559, and the academy was extinct in 1562. Meanwhile Paolo had established his brother, Antonio, a man of good parts but indifferent conduct, in a printing office and book shop at Bologna. Antonio died in 1559, having been a source of trouble and expense to Paolo during the last four years of his life. Other pecuniary embarrassments arose from a contract for supplying fish to Venice, into which Paolo had somewhat strangely entered with the government. In 1561 pope Pius IV. invited him to Rome, offering him a yearly stipend of 500 ducats, and undertaking to establish and maintain his press there. The profits on publications were to be divided between Paolo Manuzio and the Apostolic camera. Paolo accepted the invitation, and spent the larger portion of his life, under three papacies, with varying fortunes, in the city of Rome. Ill-health, the commercial interests he had left behind at Venice, and the coldness shown him by pope Pius V., induced him at various times and for several reasons to leave Rome. As was natural, his editions after his removal to Rome were mostly Latin works of theology and Biblical or patristic literature.

Paolo married Caterina Odoni in 1546. She brought him three sons and one daughter. His eldest son, the younger Aldus, succeeded him in the management of the Venetian printing house when his father settled at Rome in 1561. Paolo had never been a strong man, and his health was overtaxed with studies and commercial worries. Yet he lived into his sixty-second year, and died at Rome in 1574.

3. ALDUS MANUTIUS, JUNIOR (1547-1597). The younger Aldo born in the year after his father Paolo's marriage, proved what is called an infant prodigy. When he was nine years old his name was placed upon the title page of the famous _Eleganze della lingua Toscana e Latina_. The _Eleganze_ was probably a book made for his instruction and in his company by his father. In 1561, at the age of fourteen, he produced a work upon Latin spelling, called _Orthographiae ratio_. During a visit to his father at Rome in the next year he was able to improve this treatise by the study of inscriptions, and in 1575 he completed his labours in the same field by the publication of an _Epitome orthographiae_. Whether Aldo was the sole composer of the work on spelling, in its first edition, may be doubted; but he appropriated the subject and made it his own. Probably his greatest service to scholarship is this analysis of the principles of orthography in Latin.

Aldo remained at Venice, studying literature and superintending the Aldine press. In 1572 he married Francesca Lucrezia daughter of Bartolommeo Giunta, and great-grandchild of the first Giunta, who founded the famous printing house in Venice. This was an alliance which augured well of the Giunta for the future of the Aldines, especially as Aldo had recently found time to publish a new revised edition of Velleius Paterculus. Two years later the death of his father at Rome placed Aldo at the head of the firm. In concert with the Giunta, he now edited an extensive collection of Italian letters, and in 1576 he published his commentary upon the _Ars poetica_ of Horace. About the same time, that is to say, about the year 1576, he was appointed professor of literature to the Cancelleria at Venice. The Aldine press continued through this period to issue books, but none of signal merit; and in 1585 Aldo determined to quit his native city for Bologna, where he occupied the chair of eloquence for a few months. In 1587 he left Bologna for Pisa, and there, in his quality of professor, he made the curious mistake of printing Alberti's comedy _Philodoxius_ as a work of the classic Lepidus. Sixtus V. drew him in 1588 from Tuscany to Rome; and at Rome he hoped to make a permanent settlement as lecturer. But his public lessons were ill attended, and he soon fell back upon his old vocation of publisher under the patronage of a new pope, Clement VIII. In 1597 he died, leaving children, but none who cared or had capacity to carry on the Aldine press. Aldo himself, though a precocious student, a scholar of no mean ability, and a publisher of some distinction, was the least remarkable of the three men who gave books to the public under the old Aldine ensign. This does not of necessity mean that we should adopt Scaliger's critique of the younger Aldo without reservation. Scaliger called him "a poverty-stricken talent, slow in operation; his work is very commonplace; he aped his father." What is true in this remark lies partly in the fact that scholarship in Aldo's days had flown beyond the Alps, where a new growth of erudition, on a basis different from that of the Italian Renaissance, had begun.

See Renouard's _Annales de l'imprimerie des Aldes_ (Paris, 1834);
Didot's _Alde Manuce_ (Paris, 1873); Omont's _Catalogue_ of Aldine
publications (Paris, 1892). (J. A. S.)

MANWARING, ROBERT, English 18th-century furniture designer and cabinet maker. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was a contemporary and imitator of Chippendale, and not the least considerable of his rivals. He prided himself upon work which he described as "genteel," and his speciality was chairs. He manifests the same surprising variations of quality that are noticed in the work of nearly all the English cabinet-makers of the second half of the 18th century, and while his best had an undeniable elegance his worst was exceedingly bad--squat, ill-proportioned and confused. Some of his chairbacks are so nearly identical with Chippendale's that it is difficult to suppose that the one did not copy from the other, and most of the designs of the greater man enjoyed priority of date. During a portion of his career Manwaring was a devotee of the Chinese taste; he likewise practised in the Gothic manner. He appears to have introduced the small bracket between the front rail of the seat and the top of the chair leg, or at all events to have made such constant use of it that it has come to be regarded as characteristic of his work. Manwaring described certain of his own work as "elegant and superb," and as possessing "grandeur and magnificence." He did not confine himself to furniture but produced many designs for rustic gates and railings, often very extravagant. One of his most absurd rural chairs has rock-work with a waterfall in the back.

Among Manwaring's writings were _The Cabinet and Chair Makers' Real
Friend and Companion, or the Whole System of Chairmaking Made Plain
and Easy_ (1765); _The Carpenters' Compleat Guide to Gothic Railing_
(1765); and _The Chair-makers' Guide_ (1766).

MANYCH, a river and depression in S. Russia, stretching between the lower river Don and the Caspian Sea, through the Don Cossacks territory and between the government of Astrakhan on the N. and that of Stavropol on the S. During the greater part of the year it is either dry or occupied in part by a string of saline lakes (_limans_ or _ilmens_); but in spring when the streams swell which empty into it, the water flows in two opposite directions from the highest point (near Shara-Khulusun). The western stream flows westwards, with an inclination northwards, until it reaches the Don, though when the latter river is running high, its water penetrates some 60 miles up the Manych. The eastern stream dies away in the sandy steppe about 25 miles from the Caspian, though it is said sometimes to reach the Kuma through the Huiduk, a tributary of the Kuma. Total length of the depression, 330 m. For its significance as a former (geologic) connexion between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea, see CASPIAN SEA. By some authorities the Manych depression is taken as part of the boundary between Europe and Asia.

MANYEMA (_Una-Ma-Nyema_, eaters of flesh), a powerful and warlike Bantu-Negroid people in the south-east of the Congo basin. Physically they are of a light colour, with well formed noses and not over-full lips, the women being described as singularly pretty and graceful. Manyemaland was for the greater part of the 19th century an Eldorado of the Arab slave raiders.

MANZANARES, a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, on the river Azuer, a large sub-tributary of the Záncara, and on the railways from Madrid to Ciudad Real and Lináres. Pop. (1900), 11,229. Manzanares is one of the chief towns of La Mancha, and thus in the centre of the district described by Cervantes in _Don Quixote_. Its citadel was founded as a Christian fortress after the defeat of the Moors at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). Bull-fights were formerly held in the main _plaza_, where galleries to accommodate spectators were built between the buttresses of an ancient parish church. Manzanares has manufactures of soap, bricks and pottery, and an active trade in wheat, wine, spirits, aniseed and saffron.

MANZANILLO, a town and port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, in the state of Colima, 52 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of that name. It is situated on a large harbour partly formed and sheltered by a long island extending southwards parallel with the coast. Southward also, and in the vicinity of the town, is the large stagnant, shallow lagoon of Cayutlán which renders the town unhealthy. Manzanillo is a commercial town of comparatively recent creation. Its new harbour works, the construction of which was begun in 1899, and its railway connexion with central Mexico, promise to make it one of the chief Pacific ports of the republic. These works include a breakwater 1300 ft. long, with a depth of 12 to 70 ft. and a maximum breadth of 320 ft. at the base and 25 ft. on top, and all the necessary berthing and mechanical facilities for the handling of cargoes. A narrow-gauge railway was built between Colima and Manzanillo toward the end of the nineteenth century, but the traffic was only sufficient for a tri-weekly service up to 1908, when the gauge was widened and the railway became part of the Mexican Central branch, completed in that year from Irapuato through Guadalajara to Colima. The exports include hides and skins, palm leaf hats, Indian corn, coffee, palm oil, fruit, lumber and minerals.

MANZANILLO, an important commercial city of Cuba, in Santiago province, on the gulf of Guacanabo, about 17 m. S. of the mouth of the Rio Cauto, on the shore of Manzanillo Bay. Pop. (1907), 15,819. It is shut off to the east and south by the Sierra Maestra. Besides the Cauto, the rivers Yara and Buey are near the city. Manzanillo is the only coast town of importance between Trinidad and Santiago. It exports large quantities of sugar, hides, tobacco, and bees-wax; also some cedar and mahogany. The history of the settlement begins in 1784, but the port was already important at that time for a trade in woods and fruits; French and English corsairs resorted thither for shipbuilding woods. The settlement was sacked by the French in 1792, and in the following year a fort was built for its protection. In 1833 it received an _ayuntamiento_ (council) and in 1837, for its "loyalty" in not following the lead of Santiago in proclaiming the Spanish Constitution, received from the crown the title of _Fiel_. In 1827 the port was opened to commerce, national and foreign.

MANZOLLI, PIER ANGELO, Italian author, was born about the end of the fifteenth century at La Stellata, near Ferrara. He wrote a poem entitled _Zodiacus vitae_, published at Basel in 1543, and dedicated to Hercules II. of Ferrara. The poem is full of didactic writing on the subject of human happiness in connexion with scientific knowledge, and combines metaphysical speculation with satirical attacks on ecclesiastical hypocrisy, and especially on the Pope and on Luther. It was translated into several languages, but fell under the ban of the Inquisition on the ground of its rationalizing tendencies.

MANZONI, ALESSANDRO FRANCESCO TOMMASO ANTONIO (1785-1873), Italian poet and novelist, was born at Milan on the 7th of March 1785. Don Pietro, his father, then about fifty, represented an old family settled near Lecco, but originally feudal lords of Barzio, in the Valsassina, where the memory of their violence is still perpetuated in a local proverb, comparing it to that of the mountain torrent. The poet's maternal grandfather, Cesare Beccaria, was a well-known author, and his mother Giulia a woman of some literary ability. Manzoni's intellect was slow in maturing, and at the various colleges where his school days were passed he ranked among the dunces. At fifteen, however, he developed a passion for poetry, and wrote two sonnets of considerable merit. On the death of his father in 1805, he joined his mother at Auteuil, and spent two years there, mixing in the literary set of the so-called "ideologues," philosophers of the 18th century school, among whom he made many friends, notably Claude Fauriel. There too he imbibed the negative creed of Voltairianism, and only after his marriage, and under the influence of his wife, did he exchange it for that fervent Catholicism which coloured his later life. In 1806-1807, while at Auteuil, he first appeared before the public as a poet, with two pieces, one entitled _Urania_, in the classical style, of which he became later the most conspicuous adversary, the other an elegy in blank verse, on the death of Count Carlo Imbonati, from whom, through his mother, he inherited considerable property, including the villa of Brusuglio, thenceforward his principal residence.

Manzoni's marriage in 1808 to Henriette Blondel, daughter of a Genevese banker, proved a most happy one, and he led for many years a retired domestic life, divided between literature and the picturesque husbandry of Lombardy. His intellectual energy at this period was devoted to the composition of the _Inni sacri_, a series of sacred lyrics, and a treatise on Catholic morality, forming a task undertaken under religious guidance, in reparation for his early lapse from faith. In 1818 he had to sell his paternal inheritance, as his affairs had gone to ruin in the hands of a dishonest agent. His characteristic generosity was shown on this occasion in his dealings with his peasants, who were heavily indebted to him. He not only cancelled on the spot the record of all sums owing to him, but bade them keep for themselves the whole of the coming maize harvest.

In 1819 Manzoni published his first tragedy, _Il Conte di Carmagnola_, which, boldly violating all classical conventionalisms, excited a lively controversy. It was severely criticized in the _Quarterly Review_, in an article to which Goethe replied in its defence, "one genius," as Count de Gubernatis remarks, "having divined the other." The death of Napoleon in 1821 inspired Manzoni's powerful stanzas _Il Cinque maggio_, the most popular lyric in the Italian language. The political events of that year, and the imprisonment of many of his friends, weighed much on Manzoni's mind, and the historical studies in which he sought distraction during his subsequent retirement at Brusuglio suggested his great work. Round the episode of the _Innominato_, historically identified with Bernardino Visconti, the novel _I Promessi sposi_ began to grow into shape, and was completed in September 1822. The work when published, after revision by friends in 1825-1827, at the rate of a volume a year, at once raised its author to the first rank of literary fame. In 1822, Manzoni published his second tragedy _Adelchi_, turning on the overthrow by Charlemagne of the Lombard domination in Italy, and containing many veiled allusions to the existing Austrian rule. With these works Manzoni's literary career was practically closed. But he laboriously revised _I Promessi sposi_ in the Tuscan idiom, and in 1840 republished it in that form, with a sort of sequel, _La Storia della Colonna infame_, of very inferior interest. He also wrote a small treatise on the Italian language.

The end of the poet's long life was saddened by domestic sorrows. The loss of his wife in 1833 was followed by that of several of his children, and of his mother. In 1837 he married his second wife, Teresa Borri, widow of Count Stampa, whom he also survived, while of nine children born to him in his two marriages all but two preceded him to the grave. The death of his eldest son, Pier Luigi, on the 28th of April 1873, was the final blow which hastened his end; he fell ill immediately, and died of cerebral meningitis, on the 22nd of May. His country mourned him with almost royal pomp, and his remains, after lying in state for some days, were followed to the cemetery of Milan by a vast cortège, including the royal princes and all the great officers of state. But his noblest monument was Verdi's _Requiem_, specially written to honour his memory.

Biographical sketches of Manzoni have been published by Cesare Cantù
(1885), Angelo de Gubernatis (1879), Arturo Graf (1898). Some of his
letters have been published by Giovanni Sforza (1882).

MAORI (pronounced "Mowri"; a Polynesian word meaning "native," "indigenous"; the word occurs in distinction from _pakeha_, "stranger," in other parts of Polynesia in the forms _Maoi_ and _Maoli_), the name of the race inhabiting New Zealand when first visited by Tasman in 1642.

That they were not indigenous, but had displaced an earlier Melanesian or Papuan race, the true aborigines, is certain. The Maoris are Polynesians, and, in common with the majority of their kinsfolk throughout the Pacific, they have traditions which point to Savaii, originally Savaiki, the largest island of the Samoan group, as their cradleland. They say they came to New Zealand from "Hawaiki," and they appear to distinguish between a large and small, or a nearer and farther, "Hawaiki." "The seed of our coming is from Hawaiki; the seed of our nourishing, the seed of mankind." Their great chief, Te Kupe, first landed, they say, on Aotearoa, as they called the north island, and, pleased with his discovery, returned to Hawaiki to tell his fellow-countrymen. Thereafter he returned with seven war canoes, each holding a hundred warriors, priests, stone idols and sacred weapons, as well as native plants and animals. Hawaiki, the name of Te Kupe's traditional home, is identical with several other Polynesian place-names, e.g. Hawaii, Apai in the Tonga Islands, Evava in the Marquesas, all of which are held to be derived from Savii or Savaiki. Dr Thomson, in his _Story of New Zealand_, quotes a Maori tradition, published by Sir George Grey, that certain islands, among which it names Rarotonga, Parima and Manono, are islands near Hawaiki. The Rarotongas call themselves Maori, and state that their ancestors came from Hawaiki, and Parima and Manono are the native names of two islands in the Samoan group. The almost identical languages of the Rarotongas and the Maoris strengthen the theory that the two peoples are descended from Polynesians migrating, possibly at widely different dates, from Samoa. The distance from Rarotonga to New Zealand is about 2000 m., and, with the aid of the trade wind, large canoes could traverse the distance within a month. Moreover the fauna and flora of New Zealand in many ways resemble those of Samoa. Thus it would seem certain that the Maoris, starting from "further Hawaiki," or Samoa, first touched at Rarotonga, "nearer Hawaiki," whence, after forming a settlement, they journeyed on to New Zealand. Maori tradition is explicit as to the cause of the exodus from Samoa, gives the names of the canoes in which the journey was made and the time of year at which the coast of New Zealand was sighted. On the question of the date a comparison of genealogies of Maori chiefs shows that, up to the beginning of the 20th century, about eighteen generations or probably not much more than five centuries had passed since the first Maori arrivals. There is some evidence that the "tradition of the six canoes" does not represent the first contact of the Polynesian race with New Zealand. If earlier immigrants from Samoa or other eastern Pacific islands arrived they must have become absorbed into the native Papuan population--arguing from the absence of any distinct tradition earlier than that "of the six canoes." Some have sought to find in the Morioris of Chatham Island the remnants of this Papuan-Polynesian population, expelled by Te Kupe and his followers. The extraordinary ruined fortifications found, and the knowledge of the higher art of war displayed by the Maoris, suggest (what is no doubt the fact) that there was a hard fight for them when they first arrived, but the greatest resistance must have been from the purer Papuan inhabitants, and not from the half-castes who were probably easily overwhelmed. The shell heaps found on the coasts and elsewhere dispose of the theory that New Zealand was uninhabited or practically so six centuries back.

Any description of the Maoris, who in recent years have come more and more under the influence of white civilization, must necessarily refer rather to what they have been than what they are. Physically the Maoris are true Polynesians, tall, well-built, with straight or slightly curved noses, high foreheads and oval faces. Their colour is usually a darker brown than that of their kinsfolk of the eastern Pacific, but light-complexioned Maoris, almost European in features, are met with. Their hair is black and straight or wavy, scarcely ever curly. They have long been celebrated for their tattooing, the designs being most elaborate.

Among the most industrious of Polynesian races, they have always been famed for wood-carving; and in building, weaving and dyeing they had made great advances before the whites arrived. They are also good farmers and bold seamen. In the Maori wars they showed much strategic skill, and their knowledge of fortification was very remarkable. Politically the Maoris have always been democratic. No approach to a monarchy ever existed. Each tribe under its chief was autonomous. Tribal lands were held in common and each man was entitled to a share in the products. They had slaves, but so few as not to alter the social conditions. Every Maori was a soldier, and war was the chief business and joy of his life. Tribal wars were incessant. The weapons were wooden spears, clubs and stone tomahawks. Cannibalism, which earned them in earlier years a terrible name, was generally restricted to the bloodthirsty banquets which always followed a victory. The Maoris ate their enemies' hearts to gain their courage, but to whatever degree animistic beliefs may have once contributed to their cannibalism, it is certain that long before Captain Cook's visit religious sanction for the custom had long given place to mere gluttonous enjoyment.

The Maoris had no regular marriage ceremony. Polygamy was universal, and even to-day they are not strictly monogamous. The power of the husband over the wife was absolute, but women took their meals with the men, were allowed a voice in the tribe's affairs, and sometimes accompanied the men into battle. Some tribes were endogamic, and there matriarchy was the rule, descent being traced through the female line. Ferocious as they were in war, the Maoris are generally hospitable and affectionate in their home-life, and a pleasant characteristic, noticed by Captain Cook, is their respect and care of the old. The Maoris buried their dead, the cemeteries being ornamented with carved posts. Their religion was a nature-worship intimately connected with the veneration of ancestors. There was a belief in the soul, which was supposed to dwell in the left eye. They had no doubt as to a future state, but no definite idea of a supreme being. They had no places of worship, nor, though they had sacred wooden figures, is there any reason to consider that they were idolaters in the strict sense of the word. The custom of taboo was very fully developed. Nowadays they are all nominally Christians. While they had no written language, a considerable oral literature of songs, legends and traditions existed. Their priesthood was a highly trained profession, and they had schools which taught a knowledge of the stars and constellations, for many of which they had names. All Maoris are natural orators and poets, and a chief was expected to add these accomplishments to his prowess as a warrior or his skill as a seaman. The Maoris of to-day are law-abiding, peaceable and indolent. They have been called the Britons of the south, and their courage in defending their country and their intelligence amply justify the compliment. By the New Zealanders they are cordially liked. At the census of 1906 they numbered 47,731, as against 45,470 in 1874; and there were 6516 half-castes. See also POLYNESIA and SAMOA.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Sir G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends_
(Wellington, 1885); A. de Quatrefages, _Les Polynésiens et leurs
migrations_ (Paris, 1866); Abraham Fornander, _An Account of the
Polynesian Race_ (1877-1885); Henri Mager, _Le Monde polynésien_
(Paris, 1902); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, _Les Polynésiens, leur origine,
&c._ (Paris, 1880-1884); W. Pember Reeves, _New Zealand_; A. R.
Wallace, _Australasia_ (Stanford's Compendium, 1894); G. W. Rusden,
_History of New Zealand_ (1895); Alfred Saunders, _History of New
Zealand_ (1896); James Cowan, _The Maoris of New Zealand_ (1909).

MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9), medieval ecclesiastic, author and wit, to whose authority the main body of prose Arthurian literature has, at one time or another, been assigned, flourished in the latter part of the 12th and early years of the 13th centuries. Concerning the date of his birth and his parentage nothing definite is known, but as he ascribes his position at court to the merits of his parents they were probably people of some importance. He studied at Paris under Girard la Pucelle, who began to teach in or about 1160, but as he states in his book _De nugis curialium_ that he was at the court of Henry II. before 1162, his residence at Paris must have been practically comprised in the decade 1150-1160.

Map's career was an active and varied one; he was clerk of the royal household and justice itinerant; in 1179 he was present at the Lateran council at Rome, on his way thither being entertained by the count of Champagne; at this time he apparently held a plurality of ecclesiastical benefices, being a prebend of St Paul's, canon and precentor of Lincoln and parson of Westbury, Gloucestershire. There seems to be no record of his ordination, but as he was a candidate for the see of Hereford in 1199 it is most probable that he was in priest's orders. The last reference to him, as living, is in 1208, when an order for payment to him is on record, but Giraldus Cambrensis, in the second edition of his _Hibernica_, redacted in 1210, utters a prayer for his soul, "cujus animae propitietur Deus," a proof that he was no longer alive.