Chapter XV: Part 15

Briançon manna is met with on the leaves of the common Larch (q.v.),
and _bide-khecht_ on those of the willow, _Salix fragilis_; and a kind
of manna was at one time obtained from the cedar.

The manna of the Biblical narrative, notwithstanding the miraculous
circumstances which distinguish it from anything now known, answers in
its description very closely to the tamarisk manna.

See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_ (1880); Watt, _Dictionary
of Economic Products of India_, under "Manna" (1891). For analyses see
A. Ebert, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1909, 96, p. 176.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See _Bombay Lit. Tr._, vol. i. art. 16, for details as to the
_gazangubin_. A common Persian sweetmeat consists of wheat-flour
kneaded with manna into a thick paste.

MANNERS, CHARLES (1857- ), English musician, whose real name was Southcote Mansergh, was born in London, son of Colonel Mansergh, an Irishman. He had a fine bass voice, and was educated for the musical profession in Dublin and at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He began singing in opera in 1881, and in 1882 had great success as the sentry in _Iolanthe_ at the Savoy, following this with numerous engagements in opera both in England and America. He married the singer Fanny Moody, already a leading soprano on the operatic stage, in 1890; and in 1897 they formed the Moody-Manners opera company, which had a great success in the provinces and undertook seasons in London in 1902. Manners and his wife were assisted by some other excellent artists, and their enterprise had considerable influence on contemporary English music.

MANNERS-SUTTON, CHARLES (1755-1828), archbishop of Canterbury, was educated at Charterhouse and Cambridge. In 1785 he was appointed to the family living at Averham-with-Kelham, in Nottinghamshire, and in 1791 became dean of Peterborough. He was consecrated bishop of Norwich in 1792, and two years later received the appointment of dean of Windsor _in commendam_. In 1805 he was chosen to succeed Archbishop Moore in the see of Canterbury. During his primacy the old archiepiscopal palace at Croydon was sold and the country palace of Addington bought with the proceeds. He presided over the first meeting which issued in the foundation of the National Society, and subsequently lent the scheme his strong support. He also exerted himself to promote the establishment of the Indian episcopate. His only published works are two sermons, one preached before the Lords (London, 1794), the other before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (London, 1797). His brother, THOMAS MANNERS-SUTTON, 1st BARON MANNERS (1756-1842), was lord chancellor of Ireland. For his son Charles see CANTERBURY, 1ST VISCOUNT.

MANNHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, lying on the right bank of the Rhine, at its confluence with the Neckar, 39 m. by rail N. of Karlsruhe, 10 m. W. of Heidelberg and 55 m. S. of Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900), 141,131; (1905), 162,607 (of whom about 70,000 are Roman Catholics and 6000 Jews). It is perhaps the most regularly built town in Germany, consisting of twelve parallel streets intersected at right angles by others, which cut it up into 136 square sections of equal size. These blocks are distinguished, after the American fashion, by letters and numerals. Except on the south side all the streets debouch on the promenade, which forms a circle round the town on the site of the old ramparts. Outside this ring are the suburbs Schwetzinger-Vorstadt to the south and Neckar-Vorstadt to the north, others being Lindenhof, Mühlau, Neckarau and Käferthal. Mannheim is connected by a handsome bridge with Ludwigshafen, a rapidly growing commercial and manufacturing town on the left bank of the Rhine, in Bavarian territory. The Neckar is spanned by two bridges.

Nearly the whole of the south-west side of the town is occupied by the palace (1720-1759), formerly the residence of the elector palatine of the Rhine. It is one of the largest buildings of the kind in Germany, covering an area of 15 acres, and having a frontage of about 600 yards. It has 1500 windows. The left wing was totally destroyed by the bombardment of 1795, but has since been restored. The palace contains a picture gallery and collections of natural history and antiquities, and in front of it are two monumental fountains and a monument to the emperor William I. The large and beautiful gardens at the back form the public park of the town. Among the other prominent buildings arc the theatre, the arsenal, the synagogue, the "Kaufhaus," the town-hall (_Rathaus_, 1771) and the observatory. A newer building is the fine municipal Festhalle with magnificent rooms. The only noteworthy churches are the Jesuit church (1737-1760), the interior of which is lavishly decorated with marble and painting; the Koncordienkirche and the Schlosskirche. In front of the theatre are statues of Schiller, August Wilhelm Iffland the actor, and Wolfgang Heribert von Dalberg (1750-1806), intendant of the theatre in the time of Schiller. Mannheim is the chief commercial town on the upper Rhine, and yields in importance to Cologne alone among the lower Rhenish towns. It stands at the head of the effective navigation on the Rhine, and is not only the largest port on the upper course of that stream, but is the principal emporium for south Germany for such commodities as cereals, coal, petroleum, timber, sugar and tobacco, with a large trade in hops, wine and other south German produce. Owing to the rapid increase in the traffic, a new harbour at the mouth of the Neckar was opened in 1898. The industries are equal in importance to the transit trade, and embrace metal-working, iron-founding and machine building, the manufacture of electric plant, celluloid, automobiles, furniture, cables and chemicals, sugar refining, cigar and tobacco making, and brewing.

Mannheim is the seat of the central board for the navigation of the Rhine, of a high court of justice, and of the grand ducal commissioner for north Baden.

_History._--The name of Mannheim was connected with its present site in the 8th century, when a small village belonging to the abbey of Lorsch lay in the marshy district between the Neckar and the Rhine. To the south of this village, on the Rhine, was the castle of Eicholzheim, which acquired some celebrity as the place of confinement assigned to Pope John XXIII. by the council of Constance. The history of modern Mannheim begins, however, with the opening of the 17th century, when the elector palatine Frederick IV. founded a town here, which was peopled chiefly with Protestant refugees from Holland. The strongly fortified castle which he erected at the same time had the unfortunate result of making the infant town an object of contention in the Thirty Years' War, during which it was five times taken and retaken. In 1688 Mannheim, which had in the meantime recovered from its former disasters, was captured by the French, and in 1689 it was burned down. Ten years later it was rebuilt on an extended scale, and provided with fortifications by the elector John William. For its subsequent importance it was indebted to the elector Charles Philip, who, owing to ecclesiastical disputes, transferred his residence from Heidelberg to Mannheim in 1720. It remained the capital of the Palatinate for nearly sixty years, being especially flourishing under the elector Charles Theodore. In 1794 Mannheim fell into the hands of the French, and in the following year it was retaken by the Austrians after a severe bombardment, which left scarcely a single building uninjured. In 1803 it was assigned to the grand duke of Baden, who caused the fortifications to be razed. Towards the end of the 18th century Mannheim attained great celebrity in the literary world as the place where Schiller's early plays were performed for the first time. It was at Mannheim that Kotzebue was assassinated in 1819. During the revolution in Baden in 1849 the town was for a time in the hands of the insurgents, and was afterwards occupied by the Prussians.

See Feder, _Geschichte der Stadt Mannheim_ (1875-1877, 2 vols., new
ed. 1903); Pichler, _Chronik des Hof- und National Theaters in
Mannheim_ (Mannheim, 1879); Landgraf, _Mannheim und Ludwigshafen_
(Zürich, 1890); _Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung Mannheims_, published
by the Mannheim Chamber of Commerce (Mannheim, 1905); the _Forschungen
zur Geschichte Mannheims und der Pfalz_, published by the _Mannheimer
Altertumsverein_ (Leipzig, 1898); and the annual _Chronik der
Hauptstadt Mannheim_ (1901 seq.).

MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892), English Roman Catholic cardinal, was born at Totteridge, Hertfordshire, on the 15th of July 1808,[1] being the third and youngest son of William Manning, a West India merchant, who was a director of the Bank of England and governor, 1812-1813, and who sat in Parliament for some thirty years, representing in the Tory interest Plympton Earle, Lymington, Evesham, and Penryn consecutively. His mother, Mary, daughter of Henry Leroy Hunter, of Beech Hill, Reading, was of a family said to be of French extraction. Manning's boyhood was mainly spent at Coombe Bank, Sundridge, Kent, where he had for companions Charles and Christopher Wordsworth, afterwards bishops of St Andrews and of Lincoln. He was educated at Harrow, 1822-1827, Dr G. Butler being then the head master, but obtained no distinction beyond being in the cricket eleven in 1825. He matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1827, and soon made his mark as a debater at the Union, where Gladstone succeeded him as president in 1830. At this date he was ambitious of a political career, but his father had sustained severe losses in business, and in these circumstances Manning, having graduated with first-class honours in 1830, obtained the year following, through Viscount Goderich, a post as supernumerary clerk in the colonial office. This, however, he resigned in 1832, his thoughts having been turned towards a clerical career under Evangelical influences, which affected him deeply throughout life. Returning to Oxford, he was elected a fellow of Merton College, and was ordained; and in 1833 he was presented to the rectory of Lavington-with-Graffham in Sussex by Mrs Sargent, whose granddaughter Caroline he married on the 7th of November 1833, the ceremony being performed by the bride's brother-in-law, Samuel Wilberforce, afterwards bishop of Oxford and of Winchester. Manning's married life was of brief duration. His young and beautiful wife was of a consumptive family, and died childless (July 24, 1837). The lasting sadness that thus early overshadowed him tended to facilitate his acceptance of the austere teaching of the Oxford Tracts; and though he was never an acknowledged disciple of Newman, it was due to the latter's influence that from this date his theology assumed an increasingly High Church character, and his printed sermon on the "Rule of Faith" was taken as a public profession of his alliance with the Tractarians. In 1838 he took a leading part in the Church education movement, by which diocesan boards were established throughout the country; and he wrote an open letter to his bishop in criticism of the recent appointment of the ecclesiastical commission. In December of that year he paid his first visit to Rome, and called on Dr Wiseman in company with W. E. Gladstone. In January 1841 Shuttleworth, bishop of Chichester, appointed him archdeacon, whereupon he began a personal visitation of each parish within his district, completing the task in 1843. In 1842 he published a treatise on _The Unity of the Church_, and his reputation as an eloquent and earnest preacher being by this time considerable, he was in the same year appointed select preacher by his university, thus being called upon to fill from time to time the pulpit which Newman, as vicar of St Mary's, was just ceasing to occupy. Four volumes of his sermons appeared between the years 1842 and 1850, and these had reached the 7th, 4th, 3rd and 2nd editions respectively in 1850, but were not afterwards reprinted. In 1844 his portrait was painted by Richmond, and the same year he published a volume of university sermons, in which, however, was not included the one on the Gunpowder Plot. This sermon had much annoyed Newman and his more advanced disciples, but it was a proof that at that date Manning was loyal to the Church of England as Protestant. Newman's secession in 1845 placed Manning in a position of greater responsibility, as one of the High Church leaders, along with Pusey and Keble and Marriott; but it was with Gladstone and James Hope (afterwards Hope-Scott) that he was at this time most closely associated. In the spring of 1847 he was seriously ill, and that autumn and the following winter he spent abroad, chiefly in Rome, where he saw Newman "wearing the Oratorian habit and dead to the world." He had public and private audiences with the pope on the 9th of April and the 11th of May 1848, but recorded next to nothing in his diary concerning them, though numerous other entries show an eager interest in everything connected with the Roman Church, and private papers also indicate that he recognized at this time grave defects in the Church of England and a mysterious attractiveness in Roman Catholicism, going so far as to question whether he might not one day be a Roman Catholic himself. Returning to England, he protested, but with moderation, against the appointment of Hampden as bishop of Hereford, and continued to take an active part in the religious education controversy. Through the influence of Samuel Wilberforce, he was offered the post of sub-almoner to Queen Victoria, always recognized as a stepping-stone to the episcopal bench, and his refusal of it was honourably consonant with all else in his career as an Anglican dignitary, in which he united pastoral diligence with an asceticism that was then quite exceptional. In 1850 the decision of the privy council, that the bishop of Exeter was bound to institute the Rev. G. C. Gorham to the benefice of Brampford Speke in spite of the latter's acknowledged disbelief in the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, brought to a crisis the position within the Church of England of those who believed in that Church as a legitimate part of the infallible _Ecclesia docens_. Manning made it clear that he regarded the matter as vital, though he did not act on this conviction until no hope remained of the decision being set aside or practically annulled by joint action of the bishops. In July he addressed to his bishop an open letter on "The Appellate Jurisdiction of the Crown in Matters Spiritual," and he also took part in a meeting in London which protested against the decision. In the autumn of this year (1850) was the great popular outcry against the "Papal aggression" (see WISEMAN), and Manning, feeling himself unable to take part in this protest, resigned, early in December his benefice and his archdeaconry; and writing to Hope-Scott, who a little later became a Roman Catholic with him, stated his conviction that the alternative was "either Rome or licence of thought and will." He was received into the Roman Catholic Church by Father Brownbill, S.J., at the church in Farm Street, on Passion Sunday, the 6th of April 1851. On the following Sunday he was confirmed and received to communion by Cardinal Wiseman, who also, within ten weeks of his reception, ordained him priest. Manning thereupon proceeded to Rome to pursue his theological studies, residing at the college known as the "Academy for Noble Ecclesiastics," and attending lectures by Perrone and Passaglia among others. The pope frequently received him in private audience, and in 1854 conferred on him the degree of D.D. During his visits to England he was at the disposal of Cardinal Wiseman, who through him, at the time of the Crimean War, was enabled to obtain from the government the concession that for the future Roman Catholic army chaplains should not be regarded as part of the staff of the Protestant chaplain-general. In 1857 the pope, _proprio motu_, appointed him provost (or head of the chapter) of Westminster, and the same year he took up his residence in Bayswater as superior of a community known as the "Oblates of St Charles," an association of secular priests on the same lines as the institute of the Oratory, but with this difference, that they are by their constitution at the beck and call of the bishop in whose diocese they live. The community was thus of the greatest service to Cardinal Wiseman, whose right-hand man Manning thenceforward became. During the eight years of his life at Bayswater he was most active in all the duties of the priesthood, preaching, hearing confessions, and receiving converts; and he was notably zealous to promote in England all that was specially Roman and papal, thus giving offence to old-fashioned Catholics, both clerical and lay, many of whom were largely influenced by Gallican ideas, and had with difficulty accepted the restoration of the hierarchy in 1850. In 1860 he delivered a course of lectures on the pope's temporal power, at that date seriously threatened, and shortly afterwards he was appointed a papal domestic prelate, thus becoming a "Monsignor," to be addressed as "Right Reverend." He was now generally recognized as the able and effective leader of the Ultramontane party among English Roman Catholics, acting always, however, in subordination to Cardinal Wiseman; and on the latter's death (Feb. 15, 1865) it was felt that, if Manning should succeed to the vacant archbishopric, the triumph of Ultramontanism would be secured. Such a consummation not being desired by the Westminster chapter, they submitted to the pope three names, and Manning's was not one of them. Great efforts were made to secure the succession for the titular archbishop Errington, who at one time had been Wiseman's coadjutor with that right reserved to him, but who had been ousted from that position by the pope acting under Manning's influence. In such circumstances Pius IX. could hardly do otherwise than ignore Errington's nomination, as he also ignored the nomination of Clifford, bishop of Clifton, and of Grant, bishop of Southwark; and, by what he humorously described as "the Lord's own _coup d'état_," he appointed Manning to the archiepiscopal see. Consecrated at the pro-cathedral at Moorfields (since destroyed) by Dr Ullathorne, bishop of Birmingham (June 8, 1865), and enthroned there (Nov. 6), after receiving the _pallium_ in Rome, Manning began his work as archbishop by devoting himself especially to the religious education of the poor and to the establishment of Catholic industrial and reformatory schools. He steadily opposed whatever might encourage the admission of Catholics to the national universities, and so put his foot down on Newman's project to open a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford with himself as superior. He made an unsuccessful and costly effort to establish a Catholic university at Kensington, and he also made provision for a diocesan seminary of strictly ecclesiastical type. Jealous of the exclusive claims of the Roman Church, he procured a further condemnation at Rome of the "Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom," which advocated prayers for the accomplishment of a kind of federal union between the Roman, Greek and Anglican Churches, and in a pastoral letter he insisted on the heretical assumption implied in such an undertaking. He also worked for the due recognition of the dignity of the secular or pastoral clergy, whose position seemed to be threatened by the growing ascendancy of the regulars, and especially of the Jesuits, whom, as a practically distinct organization within the Church, he steadily opposed. In addition to his diocesan synods, he presided in 1873 over the fourth provincial synod of Westminster, which legislated on "acatholic" universities, church music, mixed marriages, and the order of a priest's household, having previously taken part, as theologian, in the provincial synods of 1853 and 1859, with a hand in the preparation of their decrees. But it was chiefly through his strenuous advocacy of the policy of defining papal infallibility at the Vatican council (1869-1870) that Manning's name obtained world-wide renown. In this he was instant in season and out of season. He brought to Rome a petition in its favour from his chapter at Westminster, and during the progress of the council he laboured incessantly to overcome the opposition of the "inopportunists." And he never ceased to regard it as one of the chief privileges of his life that he had been able to take an active part in securing the definition, and in having heard with his own ears that doctrine proclaimed as a part of divine revelation. In 1875 he published a reply to Gladstone's attack on the Vatican decrees; and on the 15th of March in that year he was created cardinal, with the title of SS. Andrew and Gregory on the Coelian. He was present at the death of Pius IX. (Feb. 7, 1878); and in the subsequent conclave, while some Italian cardinals were prepared to vote for his election to fill the vacant chair, he himself supported Cardinal Pecci, afterwards known as Leo XIII. With him, however, Manning found less sympathy than with his predecessor, though Manning's advocacy of the claims of labour attracted Leo's attention, and influenced the encyclical which he issued on the subject. After the Vatican council, and more especially after the death of Pius IX., Manning devoted his attention mainly to social questions, and with these his name was popularly associated during the last fifteen years of his life. From 1872 onwards he was a strict teetotaller, not touching alcohol even as a medicine, and there was some murmuring among his clergy that his teaching on this subject verged on heresy. But his example and his zeal profoundly influenced for good the Irish poor forming the majority of his flock; and the "League of the Cross" which he founded, and which held annual demonstrations at the Crystal Palace, numbered nearly 30,000 members in London alone in 1874. He sat on two royal commissions, the one on the housing of the working classes (1884), and the other on primary education (1886); and in each case the report showed evident marks of his influence, which his fellow-commissioners recognized as that of a wise and competent social reformer. In the cause of labour he was active for many years, and in 1872 he set an example to the clergy of all the churches by taking a prominent part in a meeting held in Exeter Hall on behalf of the newly established Agricultural Labourers' Union, Joseph Arch and Charles Bradlaugh being among those who sat with him on the platform. In later years his strenuous advocacy of the claims of the working classes, and his declaration that "every man has a right to work or to bread" led to his being denounced as a Socialist. That he was such he denied more than once (Lemire, _Le Cardinal Manning et son action sociale_, Paris, 1893, p. 210), nor was he ever a Socialist in principle; but he favoured some of the methods of Socialism, because they alone seemed to him practically to meet the case of that pressing poverty which appealed to his heart. He took a leading part in the settlement of the dockers' strike in the autumn of 1889, and his patient and effectual action on this and on similar occasions secured for him the esteem and affection of great numbers of working men, so that his death on the 14th of January 1892, and his funeral a week later, were the occasion for a remarkable demonstration of popular veneration. The Roman Catholic Cathedral at Westminster is his joint memorial with his predecessor, Cardinal Wiseman.

Whatever may have been the value of Manning's services to the Roman Catholic Church in England in bringing it, as he did, up to a high level of what in earlier years was commonly denounced as Ultramontanism, it is certain that by his social action, as well as by the earnestness and holiness of his life, he greatly advanced, in the minds of his countrymen generally, their estimate of the character and value of Catholicism. Pre-eminently he was a devout ecclesiastic, a "great priest"; and his sermons, both Anglican and Catholic, are marked by fervour and dignity, by a conviction of his own authoritative mission as preacher, and by an eloquent insistence on considerations such as warm the heart and bend the will rather than on such as force the intellect to assent. But many of his instincts were those of a statesman, a diplomatist, a man of the world, even of a business man; and herein lay, at least in part, the secret of his influence and success. Intellectually he did not stand in the front rank. He was neither a philosopher nor a literary genius. Among his many publications, written, it is only fair to admit, amidst the urgent pressure of practical work, there is barely a page or even a sentence that bears the stamp of immortality. But within a somewhat narrower field he worked with patience, industry, and self-denying zeal; his ambition, which seemed to many personal, was rather the outcome of his devotion to the cause of the Church; and in the later years of his life especially he showed that he loved righteousness and hated iniquity, and that he realized as clearly as any one that the service of God was incomplete without the service of man.

The publication in 1896 of Manning's _Life_, by Purcell, was the
occasion for some controversy on the ethics of biography. Edward
Purcell was an obscure Catholic journalist, to whom Manning, late in
life, had entrusted, rather by way of charitable bequest, his private
diaries and other confidential papers. It thus came to pass that in
Purcell's voluminous biography much that was obviously never intended
for the public eye was, perhaps inadvertently, printed, together with
a good deal of ungenerous comment. The facts disclosed which mainly
attracted attention were: (1) that Manning, while yet formally an
Anglican, and while publicly and privately dissuading others from
joining the Roman Catholic Church, was yet within a little convinced
that it was his own duty and destiny to take that step himself; (2)
that he was continually intriguing at the back-stairs of the Vatican
for the furtherance of his own views as to what was desirable in
matters ecclesiastical; (3) that his relations with Newman were very
unfriendly; and (4) that, while for the most part he exhibited towards
his own clergy a frigid and masterful demeanour, he held privately
very cordial relations with men of diverse religions or of no
theological beliefs at all. And certainly Manning does betray in these
autobiographical fragments an unheroic sensitiveness to the verdict of
posterity on his career. But independent critics (among whom may
specially be named François de Pressensé) held that Manning came well
through the ordeal, and that Purcell's _Life_ had great value as an
unintentionally frank revelation of character. (A. W. Hu.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Purcell's assertion that the year of his birth was 1807 rests on
no trustworthy evidence.

MANNY, SIR WALTER DE MANNY, BARON DE (d. 1372), soldier of fortune and founder of the Charterhouse, younger son of Jean de Mauny, known as Le Borgne de Mauny, by his wife Jeanne de Jenlain, was a native of Hainaut, from whose counts he claimed descent. Manny--the name is thus spelt by most English writers--was a patron and friend of Froissart, in whose chronicles his exploits have a conspicuous and probably an exaggerated place. He appears to have first come to England as an esquire of Queen Philippa in 1327, and he took a distinguished part in the Scottish wars of Edward III. In 1337 he was placed in command of an English fleet, and in the following year accompanied Edward to the continent, where in the campaigns of the next few years he proved himself one of the boldest and ablest of the English king's military commanders. He was summoned to parliament as a baron by writ from the 12th of November 1347 to the 8th of January 1371. In 1359 he was made a knight of the Garter; and at various times he received extensive grants of land both in England and in France. He was frequently employed by King Edward in the conduct of diplomatic negotiations as well as in military commands. He was one of those charged with the safe custody of the French king John when a prisoner at Calais in 1360; in 1369 he was second in command under John of Gaunt in his invasion of France.

But Manny is chiefly remembered for his share in the foundation of the Charterhouse in London. In 1349 he bought some acres of land near Smithfield, which were consecrated as a burying-place where large numbers of the victims of the Black Death were interred; and here he built a chapel, from which the place obtained the name of "Newchurchhaw." The chapel and ground were bought from Manny by the bishop of London, Michael de Northburgh, who died in 1361 and by his will bequeathed a large sum of money to found there a Carthusian convent. It is not clear whether this direction was ever carried out; for in 1371 Manny obtained letters patent from King Edward III. permitting him to found, apparently on the same site, a Carthusian monastery called "La Salutation Mère Dieu," where the monks were to pray for the soul of Northburgh as well as for the soul of Manny himself. The bishop's bequest may have contributed to the building and endowment of the house; or possibly, as seems to be implied by a bull granted by Urban VI. in 1378, there were originally two kindred establishments owing their foundation to Northburgh and Manny respectively. At all events Manny, who died early in 1372, left instructions that he was to be buried in the church of the Carthusian monastery founded by himself. About 1335 he married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Norfolk, son of King Edward I., whose first husband had been John, Lord Segrave. This lady, who outlived Manny by many years, was countess of Norfolk in her own right, and she was created duchess of Norfolk in 1397. Manny left no surviving son. His daughter Anne, Baroness de Manny in her own right, married John Hastings, 2nd earl of Pembroke; and on the death of her only son unmarried in 1389, the barony of Manny became extinct.

See _Oeuvres de Froissart, I. Chroniques_, edited by Baron Kervyn de
Lettenhove (Brussels, 1867-1877), and the Globe edition of
_Froissart's Chronicles_ (Eng. trans., London, 1895); G. F. Beltz,
_Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_ (London, 1841);
_Chronicon Angliae 1323-1388_, edited by E. Maunde Thompson (Rolls
series 64, London, 1874); Philip Bearcroft, _An Historical Account of
Thomas Sutton and of his Foundation in Charterhouse_ (London, 1737).

MANNYNG, ROBERT (ROBERT OF BRUNNE) (c. 1264-1340?), English poet, was a native of Brunne, now Bourne, in Lincolnshire. About 6 m. from Bourne was the Gilbertine monastery of Sempringham, founded by Sir Gilbert de Sempringham in 1139. The foundation provided for seven to thirteen canons, with a number of lay brothers and a community of nuns. No books were allowed to the lay brothers and nothing could be written in the monastery without the prior's consent. Mannyng entered this house in 1288, when, according to the rules, he must have been at least 24 years of age, if, as is supposed, he was a lay brother. He says he was at Cambridge with Robert de Bruce and his two brothers, Thomas and Alexander, but this does not necessarily imply that he was a fellow-student. There was a Gilbertine monastery at Cambridge, and Mannyng may have been there on business connected with his order. When he wrote _Handlyng Synne_ he had been (11. 63-76) fifteen years in the priory, beginning to write in "englysch rime in 1303." Thirty-five years later he began his _Story of Inglande_, and had removed (11. 139, &c.) to the monastery of Sixille (now Sixhills), near Market Rasen, in north Lincolnshire.

_Handlyng Synne_, a poem of nearly 13,000 lines, is a free translation, with many additions and amplifications, from William of Waddington's _Manuel des Pechiez_. It is a series of metrical homilies on the Ten Commandments, the Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Sacraments, illustrated by a number of amusing stories from various sources. The _Cursor Mundi_ had turned religious history into something not very different from a romance of chivalry, and in the stories of _Handlyng Synne_ the influence of the _fabliaux_ is not far to seek. Mannyng wrote in the English tongue not for learned but for "lewd" men, "that talys and ryme wyl blethly here," to occupy the leisure hours during which they might otherwise fall into "vylanye, dedly synne or other folye." Each of his twenty-four topics has its complement of stories. He tells of the English observance of Saturday afternoon as holy to the Virgin, and has much to say of popular amusements, which become sins when they keep people away from church. Tournaments in particular are fertile occasions of all the deadly sins; and mystery plays, except those of the birth and resurrection of Christ performed in the churches, also lead men into transgression. He inveighs against the oppression of the poor by the rich, reproves those who, weary of matins or mass, spend their time in church "jangling," telling tales, and wondering where they will get the best ale, and revives the legend of the dancers at the church door during mass who were cursed by the priest and went on dancing for a twelvemonth without cessation. He loved music himself, and justified this profane pleasure by the example of Bishop Grosseteste, who lodged his harper in the chamber next his own; but he holds up as a warning to gleemen the fate of the minstrel who sang loud while the bishop said grace, and was miserably killed by a falling stone in consequence. The old monk's keen observation makes the book a far more valuable contribution to history than his professed chronicle. It is a storehouse of quaint stories and out-of-the-way information on manners and customs.

His chronicle, _The Story of Inglande_, was also written for the solace and amusement of the unlearned when they sit together in fellowship (11. 6-10). The earlier half is written in octosyllabic verse, and begins with the story of the Deluge. The genealogy of Locrine, king of Britain, is traced back to Noah, through Aeneas, and the chronicler relates the incidents of the Trojan war as told by Dares the Phrygian. From this point he follows closely the _Brut_ of Wace. He loved stories for their own sake, and found fault with Wace for questioning the miraculous elements in the legend of Arthur. In the second half of his chronicle, which is less simple in style, he translates from the French of Pierre de Langtoft. He writes in rhyming alexandrines, and in the latter part of the work uses middle rhymes. Mannyng's _Chronicle_ marks a change in national sentiment. Though he regards the Norman domination as a "bondage," he is loud in his praises of Edward I., "Edward of Inglond."

The linguistic importance of Mannyng's work is very great. He used very few of those Teutonic words which, though still in use, were eventually to drop out of the language, and he introduced a great number of French words destined to be permanently adopted in English. Moreover, he employed comparatively few obsolete inflexions, and his work no doubt furthered the adoption of the Midland dialect as the acknowledged literary instrument. T. L. Kington-Oliphant (_Old and Middle English_, 1878) regards his work as the definite starting point of the New English which with slight changes was to form the language of the Book of Common Prayer.

A third work, usually ascribed to Mannyng, chiefly on the ground of its existing side by side with the _Handlyng Synne_ in the Harleian and Bodleian MSS., is the _Medytacyuns of the Soper of oure lorde Jhesu, And also of hys passyun And eke of the peynes of hys swete modyr, Mayden marye_, a free translation of St Bonaventura's _De coena et passione Domini..._.

Robert of Brunne's _Chronicle_ exists in two MSS.: Petyt MS. 511,
written in the Northern dialect, in the Inner Temple library; and
Lambeth MS. 131 in a Midland dialect. The first part was edited _The
Story of England ..._ (1887) for the Rolls Series, with an
introductory essay by F. J. Furnivall; the second part was published
by Thomas Hearne as _Peter Langtoft's Chronicle ..._ (1725). Peter
Langtoft's French version was edited by Thomas Wright for the "Rolls
Series" in 1866. Of _Handlyng Synne_ there are complete MSS. in the
Bodleian library (MS. 415) and in the British Museum (Harleian MS.
1701), and a fragment in the library of Dulwich College (MS. 24). It
was edited, with Waddington's text in parallel columns, by F. J.
Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club (1862), and for the Early English
Text Society (1901-1903). The _Meditacyun_ was edited from the
Bodleian and Harleian MSS. by J. Meadow Cooper for the same society
(1875). See also Gerhard Hellmers, _Ueber die Sprache Robert Mannyngs
of Brunne und über die Autorschaft der ihm zugeschriebenen Meditations
..._ (Göttingen, 1885), which contains an analysis of the dialectic
peculiarities of Mannyng's work; O. Boerner, "Die Sprache Robert
Mannyngs" ... in _Studien zur engl. Philologie_ (vol. xii., Halle,
1904) and Oskar Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of Brunne's Übersetzung von
Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle_ (Breslau, 1891). All accounts of his
life are based on his own work. For the Sempringham priory see
Dugdale, _Monasticon_ vi. 947 seq., and Miss Rose Graham's _S. Gilbert
of Sempringham and the Gilbertines_ (1901).

MANOEUVRES, MILITARY. Manoeuvres may be defined as the higher training for war of troops of all arms in large bodies, and have been carried out in most countries ever since the first formation of standing armies. In England no manoeuvres or camps of exercise appear to have been held till the beginning of the 19th century, when Sir John Moore trained the famous Light Brigade at Shorncliffe camp. In France, however, under Louis XIV., large camps of instruction were frequently held, the earliest recorded being that of 18,000 troops at Compiègne in 1666; and these were continued at intervals under his successor. At these French camps much time was devoted to ceremonial, and the manoeuvres performed were of an elementary description. Still their effect upon the training of the army for war was far-reaching, and bore fruit in the numerous wars in the first half of the 18th century. Moreover, experiments were made with proposed tactical systems and technical improvements, as in the case of the contest between _l'ordre mince_ and _l'ordre profonde_ (see INFANTRY) between 1785 and 1790. Other countries followed suit, but it was reserved for Frederick the Great to inaugurate a system of real manoeuvres and to develop on the training-ground the system of tactics which bore such good fruit in his various campaigns. The numbers of troops assembled were large; for example, at Spandau in 1753, when 36,000 men carried out manoeuvres for twelve days. The king laid the greatest stress on these exercises, and took immense pains to turn to account the experience gained in his campaigns. Great secrecy was observed, and before the Seven Years' War no stranger was allowed to be present. The result of all this careful training was shown in the Seven Years' War, and after it the Prussian manoeuvres gained a reputation which they have maintained to this day. But with the passing away of the great king they became more and more pedantic, and the fatal results were shown in 1806. After the Napoleonic wars yearly manoeuvres became the custom in every large Continental army. Great Britain alone thought she could dispense with them, perhaps because of the constant practical training her troops and officers received in the various Indian and colonial wars; and it was not till 1853 that, by the advice of the Prince Consort, a body of troops were gathered together for a camp of exercise on Chobham Common, and that eventually a standing camp of exercise was evolved out of the temporary camp formed during the Crimean War at Aldershot.

Most continental armies have, since the great successes of the Germans
in 1870, copied more or less their system of military training; hence
it is appropriate to consider their methods first. The whole training
of the army is based on a yearly programme of gradual progression,
from the joining of the recruits in October to the training by squads,
companies, battalions and regiments, the latter finishing their field
training about the middle of August, when the manoeuvre period begins.
First of all, the brigades go through five working days of drills on
flat ground, to get them under the hand of their commanders and
prepare them for manoeuvres. Then follow ten working days of
manoeuvres in new and varied ground, of which four are "brigade," four
"divisional" and two "corps" manoeuvres, in each case the unit named
being divided into two portions of all arms, which manoeuvre against
one another. Each year two or more army corps carry out manoeuvres
before the emperor, working against one another. The chief feature of
the German manoeuvres is the free hand allowed to leaders of sides. Of
course, for reasons of supply and transport, it is necessary to keep
the troops within a certain area, but the general and special ideas[1]
are so framed that, while retaining their own initiative, the leaders
of sides have to give such orders as will suit the arrangements made
by the director of manoeuvres for supply. The faculty of quartering
troops on private individuals to any extent, and the fact of the
troops being provided with portable tent equipment, give great
latitude to the German leaders in their choice of quarters for troops,
and so increase the similitude of manoeuvres to war. The Austrian and
Italian manoeuvres are a close copy of the German, but those of the
French present the peculiarity of a certain amount of prearrangement,
especially at grand manoeuvres, when it is frequently laid down
beforehand which side is to be victorious. Thus a series of pictures
of war is presented, but the manoeuvres are hardly a test of the skill
of the rival leaders. But, just as in recent years in France this
practice has been modified, so also the entire liberty given to
commanders in the German manoeuvres in 1906-7 had to be curtailed in
the following years owing to the strain of forced marches which it
entailed on the troops.

In Russia the climatic and social conditions, and the distribution of
the army, necessitate a quite peculiar system. The troops leave their
barracks and move into standing camps, generally in May, and in these
for about three months their training up to that in battalions is
carried out on the drill ground. Camps of mixed units are then formed
for a month, and from them, but always over the same ground, the
manoeuvres of regiments, brigades and divisions are performed. Then
follow the so-called mobile manoeuvres, which last for ten days or a
fortnight. Of all European manoeuvres these are perhaps the nearest
approach to war, for the sides start a great distance apart, and ample
time is allowed for cavalry reconnaissance. Besides, the Russian
soldier does not require elaborate arrangements for supply; hence the
director is not so tied down by consideration of this matter as in
other armies. A political colour is sometimes given to such large
assemblages of troops, especially when the manoeuvres take place in
frontier districts.

In England the military authorities have long been hampered in the
organization of manoeuvres by the necessity of carrying them out on
very limited portions of government land or on areas lent as a favour
by, or hired from, private individuals. There has been no want of
recognition by the military authorities of the necessity for, and
value of, manoeuvres, and the training at the camps of instruction has
been supplemented as far as possible by small manoeuvres on such
portions of country as could be made available. But, with the
exception of spasmodic efforts in 1871 and 1872, it was not until 1897
that the government allowed itself to be convinced by its military
advisers, and passed a Military Manoeuvres Act, by which certain
districts could be "proclaimed" for purposes of manoeuvres, and troops
in consequence could traverse all ground. In 1898 the first manoeuvres
under this Act were held in Wilts and Dorset, and were intended to be
repeated at fixed intervals in future years. In addition, every effort
was made to add to the existing permanent training grounds for troops,
and ground was acquired on Salisbury Plain with the intention of
developing it into a second Aldershot. But the training on those
well-known grounds, excellent as it is in itself as a preparation, is
not "manoeuvres," and never can do away with the necessity for them,
with a more or less free hand given to the leaders over fresh country.

Much misconception prevails as to the nature and limitation of the
military instruction to be imparted at manoeuvres. Manoeuvres are a
school for the leaders, in a less degree for the led, and
consequently the minor details of instruction must be completed, and
the troops fully trained as units, before they can take part in them
with advantage. The time during which large bodies of troops can be
kept together for manoeuvres is too short, and the expense too great,
to justify time being spent on exercises which might as well be
carried out in the ordinary stations or at the great training camps.
Therefore it may be laid down as a principle that manoeuvres, properly
so-called, should be begun with units not smaller than a brigade of
infantry on each side, with a due proportion of the other arms
attached. It is useful if these can precede the manoeuvres of larger
bodies, as the training is then progressive and the result more
satisfactory.[2]

The choice of ground is of great importance. Its extent should be
proportionate to the force to be employed and the nature of the
instruction to be imparted. It should not be too hilly nor yet too
flat, but both descriptions should be judiciously combined; and regard
must be had to the water supply and the road and railway net for the
convenience of the supply service. Once the ground has been selected,
the general and special ideas must be so framed that the troops are
thereby confined to the chosen ground without seeming to tie the hands
of the leaders of sides. It is of great advantage if the same idea can
be maintained throughout each series of operations, as thereby the
interest of all concerned and the likeness to actual warfare are
increased; and, if possible, the "state of war" should be continuous
also. Within the limits of the special idea, the utmost latitude
should be left to leaders; but if the orders of one or both sides seem
to render a collision unlikely, the director should so modify the
special idea as to compel one or other to re-cast his orders in such a
way that contact is brought about. Such interference will scarcely be
necessary after the first issues of orders in each series. In war the
number of marching days vastly outnumbers those of fighting, but in
manoeuvres this must not be allowed; tactical instruction is what is
desired, and a manoeuvre day in which none is imparted is not fully
utilized. It is not necessary that all the troops should be engaged,
but at least the advanced bodies must come into contact, and the rest
must carry out marches as on active service. Each action should be
fought to its end, "Cease firing" being sounded when the crisis has
been reached; and on a decision being given by the director, one side
should retire and the fight be broken off in a proper military manner.
The troops should place outposts each day, and act in all respects as
if on active service.

The quartering and supply of troops are the chief difficulties in the
arrangement of manoeuvres, and afford ample opportunity for the
practising of the officers and departments responsible for these
matters. In England, where in peace it is not possible to billet
troops on private individuals, quartering must be replaced by
encampments or bivouacs, and the selection of ground for them affords
invaluable practice. If possible, their position should be selected to
conform to the military situation; but if it is found necessary, for
reasons of water or food supply, to withdraw troops to positions other
than such as they would occupy in real warfare, time should be allowed
them on the following day to regain the positions they would otherwise
have occupied. It is next to impossible, for various reasons,
financial and other, to organize the food supply in manoeuvres as it
would be in war. Sufficient transport cadres cannot be kept up in
peace, and consequently recourse must be had to hired transport, which
cannot be treated as a military body. Again, food cannot be
requisitioned, and local purchase at the time cannot be trusted to; so
dépôts of supplies must be formed beforehand in the manoeuvres area,
which more or less tie the hands of the supply service. Still, with a
judicious choice of the points at which these are formed, much may be
done to approximate to service conditions, and the more nearly these
are realized the more instructive for the supply will the manoeuvres
become.

Finally, a word must be said as to the umpire staff, which represents
the bullets. The most careful selection of officers for this important
duty is necessary, and they must have sufficient authority and be in
sufficient number to make their influence everywhere felt. Their
principal object should be to come to a decision quickly, so as to
prevent the occurrence of unreal situations; and by constant
intercommunication they must ensure uniformity in their decisions, and
so maintain continuity of the action all over the manoeuvres
battlefield. (J. M. Gr.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The "general idea" is a document, communicated to both sides,
containing such general information of the war--the supposed
frontiers, previous battles, &c.--as would be matters of common
knowledge. The "special idea" of each side comprises the instructions
upon which it is acting.

[2] Manoeuvres incidentally afford an excellent opportunity of
testing new patterns of equipment, transport or other matériel under
conditions approximating to those of active service.

MANOMETER (Gr. [Greek: manos], thin or loose; [Greek: metron], a measure), an instrument for measuring the pressures exerted by gases or vapours. An alternative name is pressure gauge, but this term may conveniently be restricted to manometers used in connexion with steam-boilers, &c. The principle of hydrostatics suggest the most common forms. Suppose we have a U tube (fig. 1), containing a liquid: if the pressures on the surfaces of the liquid be equal, then the surfaces will be at the same height. If, on the other hand, the pressure in one limb be greater than the pressure in the other, the surfaces will be at different heights, the difference being directly proportional to the difference of pressures and inversely as the specific gravity of the liquid used.

Two forms are in use: (1) the "open-tube," in which the pressure in
one limb is equal to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) the
"closed-tube," in which the experimental pressure is balanced against
the liquid column and the air compressed into the upper part of a
closed limb of the tube. In the "open tube" form (fig. 1) the pressure
on the surface a is equal to the pressure on the surface at b (one
atmosphere) _plus_ the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid
column of height a b. The liquid commonly used is mercury. If a scale
be placed behind the limbs of the tube, so that the difference a b can
be directly determined, then the pressure in a is at once expressible
as P + a b in millimetres or inches of mercury, where P is the
atmospheric pressure, known from an ordinary barometric observation.
In the "closed tube" form (fig. 2) the calculation is not so simple,
for the variation of pressure on the mercury surface in the closed
limb has to be taken into account. Suppose the length of the air
column in the closed limb be h when the mercury is at the same height
in both tubes. Applying the experimental pressure to the open end, if
this be greater than atmospheric pressure the mercury column will rise
and the air column diminish in the closed limb. Let the length of the
air column be h´, then its pressure is h/h´ atmospheres. The
difference in height of the mercury columns in the two limbs is 2(h -
h´), and the pressure in the open limb is obviously equal to that of a
column of mercury of length 2(h - h´), plus h/h´ atmospheres. These
instruments are equally serviceable for determining pressures less
than one atmosphere. In laboratory practice, e.g. when it is required
to determine the degree of exhaust of a water pump, a common form
consists of a vertical glass tube having its lower end immersed in a
basin of mercury, and its upper end connected by means of an
intermediate vessel to the exhaust. The mercury rises in the tube, and
the difference between the barometric height and the length of the
mercury column gives the pressure attained.