Chapter XIII: Part 13

_The Secret of Manichaeism._--How are we to explain the rapid spread of Manichaeism, and the fact that it really became one of the great religions? What gave it strength was that it united an ancient mythology and a thorough-going materialistic dualism with an exceedingly simple spiritual worship and a strict morality. On comparing it with the Semitic religions of nature we perceive that it was free from their sensuous _cultus_, substituting instead a spiritual worship as well as a strict morality. Manichaeism was thus able to satisfy the new wants of an old world. It offered revelation, redemption, moral virtue and immortality, spiritual benefits on the basis of the religion of nature. A further source of strength lay in the simple yet firm social organization which was given by Mani himself to his new institution. The wise man and the ignorant, the enthusiast and the man of the world, could all find acceptance here, and there was laid on no one more than he was able and willing to bear. Each one, however, was attached and led onward by the prospect of a higher rank to be attained, while the intellectually gifted had an additional inducement in the assurance that they did not require to submit themselves to any authority, but would be led to God by pure reason. Thus adapted from the first to individual requirements, this religion also showed itself able to appropriate from time to time foreign elements. Originally furnished from fragments of various religions, it could increase or diminish this possession without rupturing its own elastic framework. And, after all, great adaptability is just as necessary for a universal religion as a divine founder in whom the highest revelation of God may be seen and reverenced. Manichaeism indeed, though it applies the title "redeemer" to Mani, has really no knowledge of a redeemer, but only of a physical and gnostic process of redemption; on the other hand, it possesses in Mani the supreme prophet of God. If we consider in conclusion that Manichaeism gave a simple, apparently profound, and yet convenient solution of the problem of good and evil, a problem that had become peculiarly oppressive to the human race in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, we shall have named the most important factors which account for the rapid spread of the system.

_Sketch of the History of Manichaeism._--Manichaeism first gained a firm footing in the East, i.e. in Persia, Mesopotamia and Transoxiana. The persecutions it had to endure did not hinder its extension. The seat of the Manichaean pope was for centuries in Babylon, at a later period in Samarkand. Even after the conquests of Islam the Manichaean Church continued to maintain itself, indeed it seems to have become still more widely diffused by the victorious campaigns of the Mahommedans, and it frequently gained secret adherents among the latter themselves. Its doctrine and discipline underwent little change in the East; in particular, it drew no nearer to the Christian religion. More than once, however, Manichaeism experienced attempts at reformation; for of course the _auditores_ very easily became worldly in character, and movements of reformation led temporarily to divisions and the formation of sects. Towards the close of the 10th century, at the time the _Fihirst_ was written, the Manichaeans in Mesopotamia and Persia had already been in large measure ousted from the towns, and had withdrawn to the villages. But in Turkestan, and as far as the Chinese frontier, there existed numerous Manichaean communities and even whole tribes that had adopted the name of Mani. Probably it was the great migrations of the Mongolian race that first put an end to Manichaeism in Central Asia. But even in the 15th century there were Manichaeans living beside the Thomas-Christians on the coast of Malabar in India (see Germann, _Die Thomas-Christen_, 1875). Manichaeism first penetrated the Greek-Roman Empire about the year 280, in the time of the emperor Probus (see the _Chronicon_ of Eusebius). If we may take the edict of Diocletian against the Manichaeans as genuine, the system must have gained a firm footing in the West by the beginning of the 4th century, but we know that as late as about the year 325 Eusebius had not any accurate knowledge of the sect. It was only subsequent to about 330 that Manichaeism spread rapidly in the Roman Empire. Its adherents were recruited on the one hand from the old gnostic sects (especially from the Marcionites--Manichaeism exerted besides this a strong influence on the development of the Marcionite churches of the 4th century), on the other hand from the large number of the "cultured," who were striving after a "rational" and yet in some manner Christian religion. Its polemics and its criticism of the Catholic Church now became the strong side of Manichaeism, especially in the West. It admitted the stumbling-blocks which the Old Testament offers to every intelligent reader, and gave itself out as a Christianity without the Old Testament. Instead of the subtle Catholic theories concerning divine predestination and human freedom, and instead of a difficult theodicaea, it offered an exceedingly simple conception of sin and goodness. The doctrine of the incarnation of God, which was especially objectionable to those who were going over to the new universal religion from the old cults, was not proclaimed by Manichaeism. In its rejection of this doctrine Manichaeism agreed with Neo-Platonism; but, while the latter, notwithstanding all its attempts to conform itself to Christianity, could find no formula by which to inaugurate within its own limits the special veneration of Christ, the Western Manichaeans succeeded in giving their teaching a Christian tinge. The only part of the Manichaean mythology that became popular was the crude, physical dualism. The barbaric elements were judiciously screened from view as a "mystery"; they were, indeed, here and there explicitly disavowed even by the initiated. The farther Manichaeism advanced into the West the more Christian and philosophic did it become. In Syria it maintained itself in comparative purity. In North Africa it found its most numerous adherents, gaining secret support even among the clergy. Augustine was an _auditor_ for nine years, while Faustus was at that time the most esteemed Manichaean teacher in the West. Augustine in his later writings against the Manichaeans deals chiefly with the following problems: (1) the relation between knowledge and faith, and between reason and authority; (2) the nature of good and evil, and the origin of the latter; (3) the existence of free will, and its relation to the divine omnipotence; (4) the relation of the evil in the world to the divine government.

The Christian Byzantine and Roman emperors, from Valens onwards, enacted strict laws against the Manichaeans. But at first these bore little fruit. The _auditores_ were difficult to trace out, and besides they really gave little occasion for persecution. In Rome itself between 370 and 440 Manichaeism gained a large amount of support, especially among the scholars and public teachers. It also made its way into the life of the people by means of a popular literature in which the apostles were made to play a prominent part (_Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles_). Manichaeism in the West had also some experience of attempts at reformation from the ascetic side, but of these we know little. In Rome Leo the Great was the first who took energetic measures, along with the state authorities, against the system. Valentinian III. decreed banishment against its adherents, Justinian the punishment of death. In North Africa Manichaeism appears to have been extinguished by the persecution of the Vandals. But it still continued to exist elsewhere, both in the Byzantine Empire and in the West, and in the earlier part of the middle ages it gave an impulse to the formation of new sects, which remained related to it. And if it has not been quite proved that so early as the 4th century the Priscillianists of Spain were influenced by Manichaeism, it is at least undoubted that the Paulicians and Bogomiles, as well as the Catharists and the Albigenses, are to be traced back to Manichaeism (and Marcionitism). Thus the system, not indeed of Mani the Persian, but of Manichaeism as modified by Christian influences, accompanied the Catholic Church until the 13th century.

_Sources._--(a) Oriental. Among the sources for a history of
Manichaeism the most important are the Oriental. Of these the
Mahommedan, though of comparatively late date, are distinguished by
the excellent manner in which they have been transmitted to us, as
well as by their impartiality. They must be named first, because
ancient Manichaean writings have been used in their construction. At
the head of all stands En-Nedim, _Fihrist_ (c. 980), ed. by Flügel
(1871-1872); cf. the latter's work _Mani, seine Lehre u. seine
Schriften_ (1862). See also Shahrastani, _Kitab al-milal wan-nuhal_
(12th cent.), ed. by Cureton (1846) and translated into German by
Haarbrücker (1851), and individual notes and excerpts by Tabari (10th
cent.), Al-Biruni (11th cent.), and other Arabian and Persian
historians. Next come the Turfan fragments described in the body of
this article. See also W. Brandt, _Schriften aus der Genza oder Sidva
Rabba_ (Göttingen, 1893).

Of the Christian Orientals those that afford most information are
Ephraem Syrus (d. 373), in various writings; the Armenian Esnik
(German translation by J. M. Schmid, Vienna, 1900, see also _Zeitsch.
f. hist. Theol._, 1840, ii.; Langlois, _Collection_, ii. 375 seq.),
who wrote in the 5th century against Marcion and Mani; and the
Alexandrian patriarch Eutychius (d. 916), _Annales_, ed. Pococke
(1628). There are, besides, scattered pieces of information in
Aphraates (4th cent.), Barhebraeus (13th cent.) and others. The newly
found Syriac _Book of Scholia_ of Theodor bar Khouni (see Pognon, _Les
Coupes de Kouabir_, Paris, 1898) gives many details about Mani's
teaching (also ed. without translation by Dr M. Lewin, Berlin, 1905).

(b) Greek and Latin. The earliest mention of the Manichaeans in the
Graeco-Roman Empire is to be found in an edict of Diocletian (see
Hänel, _Cod. Gregor._, tit. xv.), which is held by some to be
spurious, while others assign it to one or other of the years 287,
290, 296, 308 (so Mason, _The Persec. of Diocl._, pp. 275 seq.).
Eusebius gives a short account of the sect (_H. E._, vii. 31). It was
the _Acta Archelai_, however, that became the principal source on the
subject of Manichaeism for Greek and Roman writers. These _Acta_ are
not indeed what they give themselves out for, viz. an account of a
disputation held between Mani and the bishop Archelaus of Cascar, in
Mesopotamia; but they nevertheless contain much that is trustworthy,
especially regarding the doctrine of Mani, and they also include
Manichaean documents. They consist of various distinct pieces, and
originated in the beginning of the 4th century, probably at Edessa.
They were translated as early as the first half of the same century
from the Syriac (as is maintained by Jerome, _De vir. illust._, 72;
though this is doubted by modern scholars) into Greek, and soon
afterwards into Latin. It is only this secondary Latin version that we
possess (ed. by C. H. Beeson; Leipzig, 1906, under title _Hegemonius
acta Archelai_); earlier editions, Zacagni (1698); Routh, _Reliquiae
sac._, vol. v. (1848); translated in Clark's _Ante-Nicene Library_,
vol. xx.; small fragments of the Greek version have been preserved.
Regarding the _Acta Archelai_, see Zittwitz in _Zeitschr. f. d.
histor. Theol._ (1873) and Oblasinski, _Acta disp. Arch. el Manetis_
(1874). In the form in which we now possess them, they are a
compilation after the pattern of the _Clementine Homilies_, and have
been subjected to manifold redactions. These _Acta_ were used by Cyril
of Jerusalem (_Catech._ 6), Epiphanius (_Haer._ 66), and a great
number of other writers. All the Greek and Latin heresiologists have
included the Manichaeans in their catalogues; but they seldom adduce
any independent information regarding them (see Theodoret, _Haer.
fab._ i. 26). Important matter is to be found in the resolutions of
the councils from the 4th century onwards (see Mansi, _Acta concil._,
and Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vols. i.-iii.), and also in the
controversial writings of Titus of Bostra (6th century), [Greek: Pros
Manichaious] (ed. Lagarde, 1859), and of Alexander of Lycopolis
[Greek: Logos pros tas Manichaiou doxas] (ed. Combefis; transl. in
_Ante-Nic. Lib._, vol. xiv.). Of the Byzantines, the most worthy of
mention are John of Damascus (_De haeres._ and _Dialog._) and Photius
(_cod._ 179 _Biblioth._). The struggle with the Paulicians and the
Bogomiles, who were often simply identified with the Manichaeans,
again directed attention to the latter. In the West the works of
Augustine are the great repertory for information on the subject of
Manichaeism (_Contra epistolam Manichaei, quam vocant fundamenti_;
_Contra Faustum Manichaeum_; _Contra Fortunatum_; _Contra Adimantum_;
_Contra Secundinum_; _De actis cum Felice Manichaeo_; _De genesi c.
Manichaeos_; _De natura boni_; _De duabus animabus_; _De utilitate
credendi_; _De moribus eccl. cathol. et de moribus Manichaeorum_; _De
haeres._). The more complete the picture, however, which may here be
obtained of Manichaeism, the more cautious must we be in making
generalizations from it, for it is beyond doubt that Western
Manichaeism adopted Christian elements which are wanting in the
original and in the Oriental Manichaeism. The "Dispute of Paul the
Persian with a Manichaean" in Migne _P.G._, 88, col. 529-578 (first
ed. by A. Mai) is shown by G. Mercati, _Studi e testi_ (Rome, 1901) to
be the _procès verbal_ of an actual discussion held under Justinian at
Constantinople in 527.

LITERATURE.--The most important works on Manichaeism are Beausobre,
_Hist. critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme_ (2 vols., 1734 seq.;
the Christian elements in Manichaeism are here strongly, indeed too
strongly, emphasized); Baur, _Das manich. Religionssystem_ (1831; in
this work Manichaean speculation is exhibited from a speculative
standpoint); Flügel, _Mani_ (1862; a very careful investigation on the
basis of the _Fihrist_); Kessler, _Untersuchung zur Genesis des
manich. Religionssystems_ (1876); and the article "Mani, Manichäer,"
by the same writer in Herzog-Hauck's _R.E._, xii. 193-228; Kessler,
_Mani_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889, 1903); Ernest Rochat, _Essai sur Mani
et sa doctrine_ (Geneva, 1897); _Recherches sur le manichéisme: I. La
cosmogonie manichéisme d'après Théodore Bar Khôui_, by Franz Cumont
(Brussels, 1908); _II. Fragments syriaques d'ouvrages manichéens_, by
Kugener and F. Cumont. _III. Les Formules grecques d'abjuration
imposées aux manichéens_, by F. Cumont. The accounts of Mosheim,
Lardner, Walch and Schröckh, as well as the monograph by Trechsel,
_Ueber Kanon, Kritik und Exegese der Manichäer_ (1832), may also be
mentioned as still useful. The various researches which have been made
regarding Parsism, the ancient Semitic religions, Gnosticism, &c., are
of the greatest importance for the investigation of Manichaeism.
(A. Ha.; F. C. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] A [Greek: biblion epistolôn] is spoken of in the formula of
abjuration, and an _Epistola ad virginem Menoch_ by Augustine.
Fabricius has collected the "Greek Fragments of Manichaean Epistles"
in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (vii. 311 seq.).

[2] The _Canticum amatorium_ is cited by Augustine.

[3] Zittwitz assumes that this epistle was in its original form of
much larger extent, and that the author of the _Acts_ took out of it
the matter for the speeches which he makes Mani deliver during his
disputation with Bishop Archelaus. The same scholar traces back the
account by Turbo in the _Acts_, and the historical data given in the
fourth section, to the writings of Turbo, a Mesopotamian, who is
assumed to have been a Manichaean renegade and a Christian. But as to
this difference of opinion is at least allowable.

[4] Analogous to this is the veneration in which the Catholic monks
and the Neoplatonic "philosophers" were held; but the prestige of the
Manichaean _electi_ was greater than that of the monks and the
philosophers.

MANIFEST (Lat. _manifestus_, clear, open to view), in commercial law, a document delivered to the officer of customs by the captain of a ship before leaving port, giving a description of the shipped goods of every kind, and setting forth the marks, numbers and descriptions of the packages and the names of the consignors thereof. In England, by the Revenue Act 1884, s. 3, where goods are exported for which no bond is required, a manifest must be delivered to the officer of customs by the master or owner of the ship within six days after the final clearance, or a declaration in lieu thereof, the penalty in default being a sum not exceeding five pounds.

MANIHIKI (MANAHIKI, MONAHIKI), a scattered archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, between 4° and 11° S., and 150° and 162° W., seldom visited, and producing only a little copra and guano. It may be taken to include the Caroline or Thornton Islands, Vostok and Flint to the east; Suvarov, Manihiki or Humphrey, and Tongareva or Penrhyn to the west, and Starbuck and Malden to the north, the whole thus roughly forming the three corners of a triangle. There are pearl and pearl-shell fisheries at Tongareva and Suvarov. The natives (about 1000) are Polynesians and nominally Christian. There are ancient stone buildings of former inhabitants on Malden Island. The islands were mostly discovered early in the 19th century, and were annexed by Great Britain mainly in 1888-1889.

MANIKIALA, a village of India, in Rawalpindi district of the Punjab. Pop. (1901), 734. It contains one of the largest _stupas_ or Buddhist memorial shrines in N. India, and the one first known to Europeans, who early detected traces of Greek influence in the sculpture. The _stupa_ was excavated by General Court in 1834, and has been identified by Sir A. Cunningham with the scene of Buddha's "body-offering."

MANILA, the capital city and principal port of the Philippine Islands, situated on the W. coast of the island of Luzon, on the E. shore of Manila Bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river, in lat. 14° 35´ 31´´ N., and in long. 120° 58´ 8´´ E. It is about 4890 m. W.S.W. of Honolulu, 6990 m. W.S.W. of San Francisco, 628 m. S.E. of Hong-Kong, and 1630 m. S. by W. of Yokohama. Pop. (1876), 93,595; (1887), 176,777; (1903), 219,928. Of the total population in 1903, 185,351 were of the brown race, 21,838 were of the yellow race, 7943 were of the white race, and 232 were of the black race (230 of those of this race were foreign-born), and 4564 were of mixed races; of the same total 131,659, or nearly 60% were males. The foreign-born in 1903 numbered 29,491, comprising 21,083 natives of China, 4300 natives of the United States of America, 2065 natives of Spain, and 721 natives of Japan. Nearly all of the brown race were native-born, and 80.6% of them were Tagalogs.

The city covers an area of about 20 sq. m. of low ground, through which flow the Pasig river and several _esteros_, or tidewater creeks. To the west is the broad expanse of Manila Bay, beyond which are the rugged Mariveles Mountains; to the eastward the city extends about half-way to Laguna de Bay, a lake nearly as large as Manila Bay and surrounded on three sides by mountains. On the south bank of the Pasig and fronting the bay for nearly a mile is the "Ancient City," or Intramuros, enclosed by walls 2½ m. long, with a maximum height of 25 ft., built about 1590. Formerly a moat flanked the city on the land sides, and a drawbridge at each of six gates was raised every night. But this practice was discontinued in 1852 and the moat was filled with earth in 1905. In the north-west angle of the walled enclosure stands Fort Santiago, which was built at the same time as the walls to defend the entrance to the river; the remaining space is occupied largely by a fine cathedral, churches, convents, schools, and government buildings. Outside the walls the modern city has been formed by the union of several towns whose names are still retained as the names of districts. The Pasig river is crossed by two modern steel cantilever bridges. Near the north-east angle of Intramuros is the Bridge of Spain, a stone structure across the Pasig, leading to Binondo, the principal shopping and financial district; here is the Escolta, the most busy thoroughfare of the city, and the Rosario, noted for its Chinese shops. Between Binondo and the bay is San Nicholas, with the United States custom-house and large shipping interests. North of San Nicholas is Tondo, the most densely populated district; in the suburbs, outside the fire limits, the greater part of the inhabitants live in native houses of bamboo frames roofed and sided with nipa palm, and the thoroughfares consist of narrow streets and navigable streams. Paco, south-west of Intramuros, has some large cigar factories, and a large cemetery where the dead are buried in niches in two concentric circular walls. Ermita and Malate along the bay in the south part of the city, San Miguel on the north bank of the river above Intramuros, and Sampaloc farther north, are the more attractive residential districts.

Most of the white inhabitants live in Ermita and Malate, or in San
Miguel, where there are several handsome villas along the river front,
among them that of the governor-general of the Philippines. The better
sort of houses in Manila have two storeys, the lower one built of
brick or stone and the upper one of wood, roofed with red Spanish tile
or with corrugated iron; the upper storey contains the living-rooms,
and the lower has servants' rooms, storehouses, stables,
carriage-houses and poultry yards. On account of the warm climate the
cornices are wide, the upper storey projects over the lower, and the
outer walls are fitted with sliding frames. Translucent oyster shells
are a common substitute for glass; and the walls are white-washed, but
on account of the frequency of earthquakes are not plastered. More
than one half of the dwellings in the city are mere shacks or nipa
huts. Few of the public buildings are attractive or imposing. There
are, however, some churches with graceful towers and beautiful façades
and a few attractive monuments; among the latter are one standing on
the Magellan Plaza (Plaza or Paseo de Magellanes) beside the Pasig, to
the memory of Ferdinand Magellan, the discoverer of the islands; and
another by A. Querol on the shore of the bay, to the memory of Don
Miguel de Legaspi (d. 1572), the founder of the Spanish city, and of
Andres de Urdaneta (1498-1568), the Augustinian friar who accompanied
Legaspi to Cebu (but not to what is now Manila).

Many improvements have been made in and about the city since the American occupation in 1898. The small tram-cars drawn by native ponies have been replaced by a modern American electric street-railway service, and the railway service to and from other towns on the island of Luzon has been extended; in 1908, 267 m. were open to traffic and 400 m. were under construction. Connected with Manila by electric railway is Fort William McKinley, a U.S. army post in the hills five miles away, quartering about 3000 men. The scheme for dredging some of the _esteros_ in order to make them more navigable and for filling in others has been in part executed. But the greatest improvement affecting transportation is the construction of a safe and deep harbour. Although Manila Bay is nearly landlocked, it is so large that in times of strong winds it becomes nearly as turbulent as the open sea, and it was formerly so shallow that vessels drawing more than 16 ft. could approach no nearer than two miles to the shore, where typhoons of the south-west monsoon not infrequently obliged them to lie several days before they could be unloaded. Two long jetties or breakwaters have now been constructed, about 350 acres of harbour area have been dredged to a depth of 30 ft., and two wharves of steel and concrete, one 600 ft. long and 70 ft. wide, and the other 650 ft. long and 110 ft. wide, were in process of construction in 1909. The Pasig river has been dredged up to the Bridge of Spain to a depth of 18 ft. and from the Bridge of Spain to Laguna de Bay to a depth of 6 ft. The construction of the harbour was begun about 1880 by the Spanish government, but the work was less than one-third completed when the Americans took possession. Among other American improvements were: an efficient fire department, a sewer system whereby the sewage by means of pumps is discharged into the bay more than a mile from the shore; a system of gravity waterworks (1908) whereby the city's water supply is taken from the Mariquina river about 23 m. from the city into a storage reservoir which has a capacity of 2,000,000,000 gallons and is 212 ft. above the sea; the extension of the Luneta, the principal pleasure-ground; a boulevard for several miles along the bay; a botanical garden; and new market buildings.

_Climate._--Manila has a spring and summer hot season, an autumn and
winter cooler season, a summer and autumn rainy season, and a winter
and spring dry season. For the twenty years 1883-1902 the annual
average of mean monthly temperatures was 26.8° C., the maximum being
27.4° in 1889 and 1897, and the minimum 26.2° in 1884. From May until
October the prevailing wind is south-east, from November to January it
is north, and from February to April it is east. July and August are
the cloudiest months of the year; the average number of rainy days in
each of those months being 21, and in February or March only 3. The
annual average of rainy days is 138: 94 in the wet season (average
precipitation for the six months, 1556.3 mm.) and 44 in the dry season
(average precipitation for the six dry months, 382 mm.). Thunderstorms
are frequent and occasionally very severe, between May and September;
the annual average of thunderstorms for the decennium 1888-1897 was
505, the greatest frequency was in May (average 100.3) and in June
(average 90.7); the severity of these storms may be imagined from the
fact that in a half-hour between 5 and 6 P.M. on the 21st of May 1892
the fall (probably the maximum) was 60 mm. The air is very damp: for
the period 1883-1902 the annual average of humidity was 79.4%, the
lowest average for any one month was 66.6% in April 1896 (the average
for the twenty Aprils was 70.7), and the highest average for any one
month was 89.9% for September 1897 (the average for the twenty
Septembers was 85.5). The city is so situated as to be affected by
shocks from all the various seismological centres of Luzon, especially
those from the active volcano Taal, 35 m. south of the city. At the
Manila observatory, about 1 m. south-east of the walled city, the
number of perceptible earthquakes registered by seismograph between
1880 and 1897 inclusive was 221; the greatest numbers for any one year
were 26 in 1882 and 23 in 1892, and the least, 5 in 1896 and 6 in 1889
and in 1894; the average number in each May was 1.44, in each July,
1.33, and in January and in February 0.72; the frequency is much
greater in each of the spring summer months (except June, average
0.78) than in the months of autumn and winter.

_Public Institutions._--The public school system of Manila includes,
besides the common schools and Manila high school, the American
school, the Philippine normal school (1901), the Philippine school of
arts and trades (1901), the Philippine medical school (1907) and the
Philippine school of commerce (1908). The Philippine government also
maintains here a bureau of science which publishes the monthly
_Philippine Journal of Science_, and co-operates with the Jesuits in
maintaining, in Ermita, the Manila observatory (meteorological,
seismological and astronomical), which is one of the best equipped
institutions of the kind in the East. The royal and pontifical
university of St Thomas Aquinas (generally known as the university of
Santo Tomas) was founded in 1857 with faculties of theology, law,
philosophy, science, medicine and pharmacy, and grew out of a
seminary, for the foundation of which Philip II. of Spain gave a grant
in 1585, and which opened in 1601; and of the Dominican college of St
Thomas, dating from 1611. Other educational institutions are the
(Dominican) San José medical and pharmaceutical college, San Juan de
Letrán (Dominican), which is a primary and secondary school, the
ateneo municipal, a corresponding secondary and primary school under
the charge of the Jesuits, and the college of St Isabel, a girls'
school. In 1908 there were thirty-four newspapers and periodicals
published in the city, of which thirteen were Spanish, fourteen were
English, two were Chinese, and five were Tagalog; the principal
dailies were the _Manila Times_, _Cablenews American_, _El Comercio_,
_El Libertas_, _El Mercantil_, _El Renacimiento_ and _La Democracia_.
There are several Spanish hospitals in Manila, in two of which the
city's indigent sick are cared for at its expense; in connexion with
another a reform school is maintained; and there are a general
hospital, built by the government, a government hospital for
contagious diseases, a government hospital for government employees, a
government hospital for lepers, an army hospital, a free dispensary
and hospital supported by American philanthropists, St Paul's hospital
(Roman Catholic), University hospital (Protestant Episcopal), and the
Mary Johnson hospital (Methodist Episcopal). There are several
American Protestant churches in the city, notably a Protestant
Episcopal cathedral and training schools for native teachers. In
Bibilid prison, in the Santa Cruz district, nearly 80% of the
prisoners of the archipelago are confined; it is under the control of
the department of public instruction and its inmates are given an
opportunity to learn one or more useful trades.

_Trade and Industry._--Manila is important chiefly for its commerce,
and to make it the chief distributing point for American goods
consigned to Eastern markets the American government undertook the
harbour improvements, and abolished the tonnage dues levied under
Spanish rule. Manila is the greatest hemp market in the world; 110,399
tons, valued at $19,444,769, were exported from the archipelago in
1906, almost all being shipped from Manila. Other important exports
are sugar, copra and tobacco. The imports represent a great variety of
food stuffs and manufactured articles. In 1906 the total value of the
exports was $23,902,986 and the total value of the imports was
$21,868,257. The coastwise trade is large. The principal manufactures
are tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, malt liquors, distilled liquors,
cotton fabrics, clothing, ice, lumber, foundry and machine shop
products, carriages, waggons, furniture and boots and shoes. There is
some ship and boat building. Lumber is sawed by steam power, and
cotton mills in the Tondo district are operated by steam. In the
foundries and machine shops small engines, boilers and church bells
are made, and the government maintains an ice and cold-storage plant.
With these exceptions manufacturing is in a rather primitive state.
Another industry of importance, especially in the district of Tondo,
is fishing, and the city's markets are well supplied with many
varieties of choice fish.

_Administration._--Manila is governed under a charter enacted in 1901 by the Philippine commission, and amended in 1903. This vests the legislative and administrative authority mainly in a municipal board of five members, of whom three are appointed by the governor of the Philippines by the advice and with the consent of the Philippine commission, and the others are the president of the advisory board and the city engineer. The administration is divided into eight departments: engineering and public works; sewer and waterworks construction; sanitation and transportation; assessments and collections; police, fire, law and schools. There are no elective offices, but there is an advisory board, appointed by the governor and consisting of one member from each of eleven districts; its recommendations the municipal board must seek on all important matters. The administration of justice is vested in a municipal court and in one court under justices of the peace and auxiliary justices; the administration of school affairs is vested in a special board of six members; and matters pertaining to health are administered by the insular bureau of health.

_History._--The Spanish city of Manila (named from "nilad," a weed or bush which grew in the locality) was founded by Legaspi in 1571. The site had been previously occupied by a town under a Mahommedan chieftain, but this town had been burned before Legaspi gained possession, although a native settlement still remained, within the present district of Tondo. In 1572, while its fortifications were still slight, the Spanish city was attacked and was nearly captured by a force of Chinese pirates who greatly outnumbered the Spaniards. About 1590 the construction of the present walls and other defences was begun. At the beginning of the 17th century Manila had become the commercial metropolis of the Far East. To it came fleets from China, Japan, India, Malacca and other places in the Far East for an exchange of wares, and from it rich cargoes were sent by way of Mexico to the mother country in exchange for much cheaper goods. Before the close of the century, however, a decline began, from which there was but little recovery under Spanish rule. Several causes contributed to this, among them the waning of the power of Spain, an exclusive commercial policy, dishonest administration, hostilities with the Chinese, ravages of the Malay pirates, and the growth of Dutch commerce. On several occasions the city has been visited with destructive earthquakes; those of 1645 and 1863 were especially disastrous. In 1762, during war between England and Spain, an English force under Vice-Admiral Sir Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) and Lieut.-General Sir William Draper (1721-1787) breached the walls and captured the city, but by the Treaty of Paris (1763) it was returned to Spain. In 1837 the port of Manila was opened to foreign trade, and there was a steady but slow increase in prosperity up to about 1890. During this period, however, progress was hampered by vested interests, and the spirit of rebellion among the natives became increasingly threatening. About 1892 a large number of Filipinos in and near Manila formed a secret association whose object was independence and separation from Spain. In August 1896 members of this association began an attack; and late in December the movement was reinforced as a result of the execution in Manila of Dr José Rizal y Mercado (1861-1896), a Filipino patriot. It spread to the provinces, and was only in part suppressed when, in April 1898, the United States declared war against Spain. On the 1st of May an American fleet under Commodore George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet stationed in Manila Bay (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). The smouldering Filipino revolt then broke out afresh and an American army under General Wesley Merritt (1836- ) was sent from San Francisco to assist in capturing the city. The Spaniards, after making a rather weak defence, surrendered it on the 13th of August 1898. Trouble now arose between the Americans and the Filipinos under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, for the latter wished to establish a government of their own. On the night of the 4th of February 1899 the Filipinos attacked the American army which was defending the city, but were repulsed after suffering a heavy loss. A military government, however, was maintained in the city until August 1901.

MANILA HEMP, the most valuable of all fibres for cordage, the produce of the leaf-stalks of _Musa textilis_, a native of the Philippine Islands. The plant, called _abacá_ by the islanders, throws up a spurious stem from its underground rootstocks, consisting of a cluster of sheathing leaf-stalks, which rise to a height of from 15 to 25 ft. and spread out into a crown of huge undivided leaves characteristic of the various species of _Musa_ (plantain, banana, &c.). From 12 to 20 clusters are developed on each rhizome. In its native regions the plant is rudely cultivated solely as a source of fibre; it requires little attention, and when about three years old develops flowers on a central stem, at which stage it is in the most favourable condition for yielding fibre. The stock is then cut down, and the sheathing stalks are torn asunder and reduced to small strips. These strips in their fresh succulent condition are drawn between a knife-edged instrument and a hard wooden block to which it is fixed. The knife is kept in contact with the block except when lifted to introduce the ribbons. Sufficient weight is suspended to the end of the knife to keep back all pith when the operator is drawing forward the ribbon between the block and knife. By repeated scraping in this way the soft cellular matter which surrounds the fibre is removed, and the fibre so cleaned has only to be hung up to dry in the open air, when, without further treatment, it is ready for use. Each stock yields, on an average, a little under 1 lb. of fibre; and two natives cutting down plants and separating fibre will prepare not more than 25 lb. per day. The fibre yielded by the outer layer of leaf-stalks is hard, fully developed and strong, and used for cordage, but the produce of the inner stalks is increasingly thin, fine and weak. The finer fibre is used by the natives, without spinning or twisting (the ends of the single fibres being knotted or gummed together), for making exceedingly fine, light and transparent yet comparatively strong textures, which they use as articles of dress and ornament. According to Warden, "muslin and grass-cloth are made from the finest fibres of Manila hemp, and some of them are so fine that a garment made of them may, it is said, be enclosed in the hollow of the hand." In Europe, especially in France, articles of clothing, such as shirts, veils, neckerchiefs and women's hats, are made from _abacá_. It is also used for matting and twines. It is of a light colour, very lustrous, and possesses great strength, being thus exceptionally suitable for the best class of ropes. It is extensively used for marine and other cordage. The hemp exported for cordage purposes is a somewhat woody fibre, of a bright brownish-white colour, and possessing great durability and strain-resisting power. The strength of Manila hemp compared with English hemp is indicated by the fact that a Manila rope 3¼ in. in circumference and 2 fathoms long stood a strain of 4669 lb. before giving way, while a similar rope of English hemp broke with 3885 lb. The fibre contains a very considerable amount of adherent pectinous matter, and in its so-called dry condition an unusually large proportion, as much as 12% of water. In a damp atmosphere the fibre absorbs moisture so freely that it has been found to contain not less than 40% of water, a circumstance which dealers in the raw fibre should bear in mind. From the old and disintegrated ropes is made the well-known manila paper. The plant has been introduced into tropical lands--the West Indies, India, Borneo, &c.--but only in the Philippines has the fibre been successfully produced as an article of commerce. It is distributed throughout the greater part of the Philippine Archipelago. The area of successful cultivation lies approximately between 6° and 15° N. and 121° and 126° E.; it may be successfully cultivated up to about 4000 ft. above sea-level. The provinces, or islands, where cultivation is most successful are those with a heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. H. T. Edwards, fibre expert to the Philippine bureau of agriculture, wrote in 1904:--

"The opportunities for increasing the production of _abacá_ in the
Philippines are almost unlimited. Enormous areas of good _abacá_ land
are as yet untouched, while the greater part of land already under
cultivation might yield a greatly increased product if more careful
attention were given to the various details of cultivation. The
introduction of irrigation will make possible the planting of _abacá_
in many districts where it is now unknown. The _perfection_ of a
machine for the extraction of the fibre will increase the entire
output by nearly one-third, as this amount is now lost by the wasteful
hand-stripping process."

Hitherto, while numerous attempts have been made to extract the fibre with machinery, some obstacle has always prevented the general use of the process. The exports have increased with great rapidity, as shown by the following table:--

1870 31,426 tons.
1880 50,482 "
1890 67,864 "
1900 89,438 "
1904 121,637 "

In 1901 the value of the export was $14,453,410, or 62.3% of the total exports from the Philippines. The fibre is now so valuable that Manila hemp cordage is freely adulterated by manufacturers, chiefly by admixture of phormium (New Zealand flax) and Russian hemp.

MANILIUS, a Roman poet, author of a poem in five books called _Astronomica_. The author is neither quoted nor mentioned by any ancient writer. Even his name is uncertain, but it was probably Marcus Manilius; in the earlier MSS. the author is anonymous, the later give Manilius, Manlius, Mallius. The poem itself implies that the writer lived under Augustus or Tiberius, and that he was a citizen of and resident in Rome. According to R. Bentley he was an Asiatic Greek; according to F. Jacob an African. His work is one of great learning; he had studied his subject in the best writers, and generally represents the most advanced views of the ancients on astronomy (or rather astrology). He frequently imitates Lucretius, whom he resembles in earnestness and originality and in the power of enlivening the dry bones of his subject. Although his diction presents some peculiarities, the style is metrically correct. Firmicus, who wrote in the time of Constantine, exhibits so many points of resemblance with the work of Manilius that he must either have used him or have followed some work that Manilius also followed. As Firmicus says that hardly any Roman except Caesar, Cicero and Fronto had treated the subject, it is probable that he did not know the work of Manilius. The latest event referred to in the poem (i. 898) is the great defeat of Varus by Arminius in the Teutoburgiensis Saltus (A.D. 9). The fifth book was not written till the reign of Tiberius; the work appears to be incomplete, and was probably never published.

See editions by J. Scaliger (1579); R. Bentley (1739); F. Jacob
(1846); A. G. Pingré (1786); and T. Breiter (Leipzig, 1907; and
commentary 1909); of book i. by A. E. Housman (1903). On the subject
generally see M. Bechert, _De emendandi Manilii Ratione_ (1878) and
_De M. M. Astronomicorum Poeta_ (1891); B. Freier, _De M. Astronom.
Aetate_ (1880); A. Cramer, _De Manilii Elocutione_ (very full; 1882);
G. Lanson, _De Manilio Poeta_, with select bibliog. (1887); P.
Monceaux, _Les Africains_ (a study of the Latin literature of Africa;
1894); R. Ellis, _Noctes Manilianae_ (1891); J. P. Postgate, _Silva
Maniliana_ (1897), chiefly on textual questions; P. Thomas,
_Lucubrationes Manilianae_ (1888), a collation of the Gemblacensis
(Gembloux) MS.; F. Plessis, _La Poesie latine_ (1909), pp. 477-483.

MANILIUS, GAIUS, Roman tribune of the people in 66 B.C. At the beginning of his year of office (Dec. 67) he succeeded in getting a law passed (_de libertinorum suffragiis_), which gave freedmen the privilege of voting together with those who had manumitted them, that is, in the same tribe as their patroni; this law, however, was almost immediately declared null and void by the senate. Both parties in the state were offended by the law, and Manilius endeavoured to secure the support of Pompey by proposing to confer upon him the command of the war against Mithradates with unlimited power (see POMPEY). The proposal was supported by Cicero in his speech, _Pro lege Manilia_, and carried almost unanimously. Manilius was later accused by the aristocratical party on some unknown charge and defended by Cicero. He was probably convicted, but nothing further is heard of him.

See Cicero's speech; Dio Cassius xxxvi. 25-27; Plutarch, _Pompey_, 30;
Vell. Pat. ii. 33; art. ROME: _History_, § II.

MANIN, DANIELE (1804-1857), Venetian patriot and statesman, was born in Venice, on the 13th of May 1804. He was the son of a converted Jew, who took the name of Manin because that patrician family stood sponsors to him, as the custom then was. He studied law at Padua, and then practised at the bar of his native city. A man of great learning and a profound jurist, he was inspired from an early age with a deep hatred for Austria. The heroic but foolhardy attempt of the brothers Bandiera, Venetians who had served in the Austrian navy against the Neapolitan Bourbons in 1844, was the first event to cause an awakening of Venetian patriotism, and in 1847 Manin presented a petition to the Venetian congregation, a shadowy consultative assembly tolerated by Austria but without any power, informing the emperor of the wants of the nation. He was arrested on a charge of high treason (Jan. 18, 1848), but this only served to increase the agitation of the Venetians, who were beginning to know and love Manin. Two months later, when all Italy and half the rest of Europe were in the throes of revolution, the people forced Count Palffy, the Austrian governor, to release him (March 17). The Austrians soon lost all control of the city, the arsenal was seized by the revolutionists, and under the direction of Manin a civic guard and a provisional government were instituted. The Austrians evacuated Venice on the 26th of March, and Manin became president of the Venetian republic. He was already in favour of Italian unity, and though not anxious for annexation to Piedmont (he would have preferred to invoke French aid), he gave way to the will of the majority, and resigned his powers to the Piedmontese commissioners on the 7th of August. But after the Piedmontese defeats in Lombardy, and the armistice by which King Charles Albert abandoned Lombardy and Venetia to Austria, the Venetians attempted to lynch the royal commissioners, whose lives Manin saved with difficulty; an assembly was summoned, and a triumvirate formed with Manin at its head. Towards the end of 1848 the Austrians, having been heavily reinforced, reoccupied all the Venetian mainland; but the citizens, hard-pressed and threatened with a siege, showed the greatest devotion to the cause of freedom, all sharing in the dangers and hardships and all giving what they could afford to the state treasury. Early in 1849 Manin was again chosen president of the republic, and conducted the defence of the city with great ability. After the defeat of Charles Albert's forlorn hope at Novara in March the Venetian assembly voted "Resistance at all costs!" and granted Manin unlimited powers. Meanwhile the Austrian forces closed round the city; but Manin showed an astonishing power of organization, in which he was ably seconded by the Neapolitan general, Guglielmo Pepe. But on the 26th of May the Venetians were forced to abandon Fort Malghera, half-way between the city and the mainland; food was becoming scarce, on the 19th of June the powder magazine blew up, and in July cholera broke out. Then the Austrian batteries began to bombard Venice itself, and when the Sardinian fleet withdrew from the Adriatic the city was also attacked by sea, while certain demagogues caused internal trouble. At last, on the 24th of August 1849, when all provisions and ammunition were exhausted, Manin, who had courted death in vain, succeeded in negotiating an honourable capitulation, on terms of amnesty to all save Manin himself, Pepe and some others, who were to go into exile. On the 27th Manin left Venice for ever on board a French ship. His wife died at Marseilles, and he himself reached Paris broken in health and almost destitute, having spent all his fortune for Venice. In Paris he maintained himself by teaching and became a leader among the Italian exiles. There he became a convert from republicanism to monarchism, being convinced that only under the auspices of King Victor Emmanuel could Italy be freed, and together with Giorgio Pallavicini and Giuseppe La Farina he founded the _Società Nazionale Italiana_ with the object of propagating the idea of unity under the Piedmontese monarchy. His last years were embittered by the terrible sufferings of his daughter, who died in 1854, and he himself died on the 22nd of September 1857, and was buried in Ary Scheffer's family tomb. In 1868, two years after the Austrians finally departed from Venice, his remains were brought to his native city and honoured with a public funeral. Manin was a man of the greatest honesty, and possessed genuinely statesmanlike qualities. He believed in Italian unity when most men, even Cavour, regarded it as a vain thing, and his work of propaganda by means of the National Society greatly contributed to the success of the cause.

See A. Errera, _Vita di D. Manin_ (Venice, 1872); P. de la Farge,
_Documents, &c., de D. Manin_ (Paris, 1860); Henri Martin, _D. Manin_
(Paris, 1859); V. Marchesi, _Settant' anni della storia di Venezia_
(Turin) and an excellent monograph in Countess Martinengo Cesaresco's
_Italian Characters_ (London, 1901).

MANING, FREDERICK EDWARD (1812-1883), New Zealand judge and author, son of Frederick Maning, of Johnville, county Dublin, was born on the 5th of July 1812. His father emigrated to Tasmania in the ship "Ardent" in 1824 and took up a grant of land there. Young Maning served in the fatuous expedition which attempted to drive in the Tasmanian blacks by sweeping with an unbroken line of armed men across the island. Soon afterwards he decided to try the life of a trader among the wild tribes of New Zealand, and, landing in the beautiful inlet of Hokianga in 1833, took up his abode among the Ngapuhi. With them the tall Irish lad--he stood 6 ft. 3 in.--full of daring and good-humour and as fond of fun as of fighting, quickly became a prime favourite, was adopted into the tribe, married a chief's daughter, and became a "Pakeha-Maori" (foreigner turned Maori). With the profits of his trading he bought a farm of 200 acres on the Hokianga, for which, unlike most white adventurers of the time, he paid full value. When New Zealand was peacefully annexed in 1840, Maning's advice to the Maori was against the arrangement, but from the moment of annexation he became a loyal friend to the government, and in the wars of 1845-46 his influence was exerted with effect in the settlers' favour. Again, in 1860, he persuaded the Ngapuhi to volunteer to put down the insurrection in Taranaki. Finally, at the end of 1865, he entered the public service as a judge of the native lands court, where his unequalled knowledge of the Maori language, customs, traditions and prejudices was of solid value. In this office he served until 1881, when ill-health drove him to resign, and two years later to seek surgical aid in London, where, however, he died of cancer on the 25th of July 1883. At his wish, his body was taken back to New Zealand and buried there. A bust of him is placed in the public library at Auckland. Maning is chiefly remembered as the author of two short books, _Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand against the Chief Heké_. Both books were reprinted in London in 1876 and 1884, with an introduction by the earl of Pembroke.

MANIPLE (Lat. _manipulus_, from _manus_, hand, and _plere_, to fill), a liturgical vestment of the Catholic Church, proper to all orders from the subdeacon upwards. It is a narrow strip of material, silk or half-silk, about a yard long, worn on the left fore-arm in such a way that the ends hang down to an equal length on either side. In order to secure it, it is sometimes tied on with strings attached underneath, sometimes provided with a hole in the lining through which the arm is passed. It is ornamented with three crosses, one in the centre and one at each end, that in the centre being obligatory, and is often elaborately embroidered. It is the special ensign of the office of subdeacon, and at the ordination is placed on the arm of the new subdeacon by the bishop with the words: "Take the maniple, the symbol of the fruit of good works."[1] It is strictly a "mass vestment," being worn, with certain exceptions (e.g. by a subdeacon singing the Gospel at the service of blessing the palms), only at Mass, by the celebrant and the ministers assisting.

The most common name for the maniple up to the beginning of the 11th century in the Latin Church was _mappula_ (dim. of _mappa_, cloth), the Roman name for the vestment until the time of Innocent III. The designation _manipulus_ did not come into general use until the 15th century. Father Braun (_Liturg. Gewandung_, p. 517) gives other early medieval names: _sudanum_, _fano_, _mantile_, all of them meaning "cloth" or "handkerchief." He traces the vestment ultimately to a white linen cloth of ceremony (_pallium linostinum_) worn in the 4th century by the Roman clergy over the left arm, and peculiar at that time to them. Its ultimate origin is obscure, but is probably traceable to some ceremonial handkerchiefs commonly carried by Roman dignitaries, e.g. those with which the magistrates were wont to signal the opening of the games of the circus. As late as the 9th century, indeed, the maniple was still a handkerchief, held folded in the left hand. By what process it became changed into a narrow strip is not known; the earliest extant specimen of the band-like maniple is that found in the grave of St Cuthbert (9th century); by the 11th century (except in the case of subdeacons, whose maniples would seem to have continued for a while to be cloths in practical use) the maniple had universally assumed its present general form and purely ceremonial character.