Chapter I: Part 1

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FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS

* * * * *

THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES.

THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.

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LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 coloured Plates and 331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.

FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Coloured Plates and numerous Illustrations from Drawings by PATTEN WILSON and from Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.

THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. FURNEAUX. With 8 Plates in colour and over 300 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.

BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. HUDSON. With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by FRANK E. BEDDARD, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which are coloured), and over 100 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6_s._ net.

COUNTRY PASTIMES FOR BOYS. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. With 252 Illustrations from Drawings and Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 3_s._ net.

LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay, and Calcutta.

* * * * *

FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS

by

W. S. FURNEAUX

Author of 'The Outdoor World' 'British Butterflies and Moths' 'Life in Ponds and Streams' 'The Sea Shore' etc.

With Eight Plates in Colour, and Numerous Illustrations by Patten Wilson, and Photographs from Nature by the Author

Longmans, Green, and Co. 39 Paternoster Row, London New York, Bombay, and Calcutta 1909

All rights reserved

PREFACE

This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series' is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs and trees--a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific.

The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and identifying his gathered specimens at home.

A large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included, and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours.

It has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these having been previously included in former volumes of this series dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore.

The thanks of the author are due to his friend, G. Du Heaume, Esq., for his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for description and illustration.

W. S. F.

CONTENTS

CHAP. PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION--GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE
IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS 1

II. THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS 25

III. CLIMBING PLANTS 30

IV. EARLY SPRING 39

V. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING 48

VI. THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS,
AND HEDGEROWS 61

VII. WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING 81

VIII. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING 108

IX. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING 123

X. WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER 130

XI. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER 151

XII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--COMPOSITE FLOWERS 175

XIII. WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER--_continued_ 190

XIV. MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER 211

XV. BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER 236

XVI. ON HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR 257

XVII. IN THE CORN FIELD 281

XVIII. ON THE CHALK 296

XIX. BY THE RIVER SIDE 312

XX. ON WALLS, ROCKS, AND STONY PLACES 318

XXI. FIELD AND WAYSIDE IN AUTUMN 328

XXII. AUTUMN IN THE WOODS 331

XXIII. PARASITIC PLANTS 340

XXIV. CARNIVOROUS PLANTS 350

LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITATS
AND HABITS 359

LIST OF FLOWERS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR ORDERS
AND GENERA 373

GLOSSARIAL INDEX 381

COLOURED PLATES

I. SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _Frontispiece_

1. Green Hellebore

2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-Bane

3. Lady's Slipper

4. Sand Garlic

5. Wild Hyacinth

6. Wood Melic Grass

II. FLOWERS OF THE WOODS _To face p._ 130

1. Great Valerian

2. Foxglove

3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard

4. Nettle-leaved Bell-flower

5. Broad-leaved Helleborine

6. Hairy Brome-grass

III. FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE _To face p._ 150

1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill

2. Black Horehound

3. Evergreen Alkanet

4. Bristly Ox-tongue

5. Red Bartsia

6. Annual Meadow Grass

7. Hemlock Stork's-bill

IV. FLOWERS OF THE FIELD _To face p._ 210

1. Rough Cock's-foot Grass

2. Lucerne

3. Crimson Clover

4. Blue-Bottle

5. Common Vetch

6. Meadow Clary

V. FLOWERS OF BOGS AND MARSHES _To face p._ 236

1. Marsh Gentian

2. Marsh Marigold

3. Marsh Orchis

4. Marsh Mallow

5. Marsh Vetchling

6. Marsh St. John's-wort

7. Bog Pimpernel

VI. FLOWERS OF DOWN, HEATH, AND MOOR _To face p._ 256

1. Musk Thistle

2. Clustered Bell-flower

3. Spiny Rest Harrow

4. Hairy Hawkbit

5. Sheep's-bit

6. Spotted Orchis

7. Heath Rush

VII. FLOWERS OF THE CORN-FIELD _To face p._ 280

1. Long Smooth-headed Poppy

2. Field Scabious

3. Corn Cockle

4. Corn Marigold

5. Flax

6. Corn Pheasant's-eye

VIII. FLOWERS OF CHALKY SOILS _To face p._ 296

1. Red Valerian

2. Narrow-leaved Flax

3. Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch

4. Spiked Speedwell

5. Pasque Flower

6. Bee Orchis

7. Yellow Oat Grass

_Erratum._--On Plate VI, _for_ 'Spring Rest Harrow' _read_ 'Spiny Rest Harrow.'

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS

PAGE

Forms of Roots 2

Running underground stem of Solomon's Seal 4

Arrangement of Leaves 5

Leaf of Pansy with two large Stipules 5

Margins of Leaves 6

Various Forms of Simple Leaves 7

Forms of Compound Leaves 7

Forms of Inflorescence 8

Longitudinal Section through the flower of the Buttercup 10

Inferior and Superior Ovary 11

Unisexual Flowers of the Nettle 11

Dehiscent Fruits 12

THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS

Pollen Cells throwing out their Tubes 25

CLIMBING PLANTS

Prickles of the Wild Rose 31

Ivy, showing the Rootlets or Suckers 32

Stem of the Bindweed, twining to the left 34

Stem of the Hop, twining to the right 35

EARLY SPRING

Trees in Winter or Early Spring

1. Hazel; 2. Ash; 3. Oak; 4. Lime 41

5. Birch; 6. Poplar; 7. Beech; 8. Alder 43

Twig of Lime in Spring, showing the Deciduous, Scaly Stipules 45

Seedling of the Beech 46

WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING

The Daffodil 48

The Wood Anemone 49

The Goldilocks 50

The Wild Columbine 51

The Dog Violet 52

The Wood Sorrel 53

The Sweet Woodruff 54

The Lesser Periwinkle 55

The Bugle 56

The Broad-leaved Garlic 57

The Star of Bethlehem 58

The Hairy Sedge 59

SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS

The Barberry 62

The Spindle Tree 63

The Wild Cherry 65

The Crab Apple 67

The Mountain Ash 68

The Spurge Laurel 70

The Elm in Flower 71

The Oak in Flower 72

The Beech in Fruit 73

The Scots Pine, with Cones 78

The Yew in Fruit 79

WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING

The Shepherd's Purse 82

The Scurvy Grass 83

The Common Whitlow Grass 83

The Yellow Rocket 84

The Procumbent Pearlwort 86

The Greater Stitchwort 87

The Chickweed 88

The Broad-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed 89

The Dove's-foot Crane's-bill 90

The Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill 91

The Herb Robert 92

The Grass Vetchling 93

The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil 94

The Moschatel 95

The White Bryony 96

The Wild Beaked Parsley 97

The Garden Beaked Parsley 98

The Goutweed 99

The Crosswort 100

The Colt's-foot in Early Spring 101

The Germander Speedwell 101

The White Dead Nettle 102

The Yellow Pimpernel 103

The Dog's Mercury 104

The Black Bryony 105

The Wild Arum 106

MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SPRING

The Field Pennycress 109

The Wild Pansy 110

The Ragged Robin 111

The Purple Clover 114

The Daisy 115

The Butterbur 117

The Yellow Rattle 118

The Henbit Dead Nettle 119

The Cowslip 120

The Fox-tail Grass 121

BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES IN SPRING

The Marsh Potentil 124

The Golden Saxifrage 125

The Marsh Valerian 126

The Marsh Trefoil 127

The Marsh Lousewort 127

The Yellow Flag 128

WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER

The Large-flowered St. John's-wort 131

The Common St. John's-wort 132

The Dyer's Greenweed 133

The Sweet Milk Vetch 134

The Wild Raspberry 135

The Rose Bay Willow Herb 136

The Dogwood 137

The Wood Sanicle 138

The Alexanders 139

The Elder 140

The Guelder Rose 141

The Saw-wort 143

The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower 145

Twigs of Holly 146

The Privet 147

The Millet Grass 148

The Bearded Wheat 148

The Slender False Brome 149

WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER

The Wild Clematis 152

The Hedge Mustard 152

The Felix Weed 153

The Dyer's Weed 154

The Deptford Pink 155

The Red Campion 156

The Common Mallow 157

The Musk Mallow 158

The Bloody Crane's-bill 159

The Fruit of the Stork's-bill 160

The Hemlock Stork's-bill 161

The Bird's-foot Trefoil 162

The Herb Bennet or Geum 163

The Dog Rose 164

The Silver Weed 164

The Agrimony 165

The Orpine or Livelong 167

The Fool's Parsley 168

The Wild Parsnip 169

The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed 170

The Honeysuckle 171

The Great Hedge Bedstraw 172

The Teasel 173

Teasel Heads 174

Flower Head of the Marigold 176

Florets of a Composite Flower 176

The Yellow Goat's-beard 177

The Hawkweed Picris 178

The Prickly Lettuce 179

The Sharp-fringed Sow-Thistle 180

The Smooth Hawk's-beard 181

The Nipplewort 182

The Burdock 183

The Spear Thistle 184

The Creeping Thistle 185

The Tansy 186

The Wormwood 187

The Ragwort 188

The Scentless Mayweed 189

The Yarrow or Milfoil 189

The Rampion Bell-flower 191

The Great Bindweed 192

The Henbane 193

The Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet 194

The Deadly Nightshade 195

The Yellow Toadflax 196

The Vervein 197

The Balm 198

The Hedge Woundwort 199

The Gromwell 201

The Hound's-tongue 202

The White Goosefoot 203

The Spotted Persicaria 205

The Curled Dock 207

The Great Nettle 208

The Canary Grass 209

MEADOWS, FIELDS, AND PASTURES--SUMMER

The Gold of Pleasure 212

The Bladder Campion 213

The White Campion 214

The Kidney Vetch 215

The Common Melilot 216

The Lady's Mantle 217

The Meadow Sweet 219

The Burnet Saxifrage 220

The Wild Carrot 221

The Devil's-bit Scabious 222

The Rough Hawkbit 223

The Autumnal Hawkbit 224

The Meadow Thistle 225

The Black Knapweed 226

The Great Knapweed 226

The Common Fleabane 227

The Ox-eye Daisy 228

The Sneezewort 229

The Small Bindweed 230

Section of the Flower of Salvia 231

The Self-heal 231

The Ribwort Plantain 232

The Butterfly Orchis 233

The Cat's-tail Grass 233

The Meadow Barley 233

The Rye Grass or Darnel 234

The Sheep's Fescue 234

BOGS, MARSHES, AND WET PLACES--SUMMER

The Lesser Spearwort 237

The Great Hairy Willow Herb 238

The Purple Loosestrife 239

The Water Hemlock 241

The Common Water Dropwort 242

The Marsh Thistle 243

The Brooklime 244

The Water Figwort 245

The Gipsy wort 246

The Round-leaved Mint 247

The Forget-me-not 248

The Water Pepper or Biting Persicaria 249

The Bog Asphodel 251

The Common Rush 252

The Shining-fruited Jointed Rush 253

The Common Sedge 254

The Marsh Sedge 255

HEATH, DOWN, AND MOOR

The Milkwort 258

The Broom 259

The Furze or Gorse 260

The Tormentil 261

The Smooth Heath Bedstraw 264

The Dwarf Thistle 265

The Carline Thistle 267

The Common Chamomile 268

The Harebell 269

The Cross-leaved Heath 270

The Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath 271

The Eyebright 273

The Wild Thyme 275

The Autumnal Lady's Tresses 276

The Butcher's Broom 277

The Common Quaking Grass 278

The Common Mat Grass 279

IN THE CORN FIELD

The Mousetail 282

The Common Red Poppy 284

The White or Opium Poppy 285

The Fumitory 287

The Black Mustard 288

The Corn Spurrey 289

The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb 290

The Venus's Looking Glass or Corn Bell-flower 291

The Scarlet Pimpernel 292

The Climbing Bistort 293

The Dwarf Spurge 294

ON THE CHALK

The Rock Rose 297

The Sainfoin 300

The Salad Burnet 301

The Field Gentian 302

The Yellow-wort 303

The Great Mullein 304

The Red Hemp Nettle 305

An Orchis Flower 307

The Sweet-scented Orchis 309

BY THE RIVER SIDE

The Common Meadow Rue 313

The Hemp Agrimony 314

The Common Skull-cap 315

The Comfrey 316

ON WALLS, ROCKS AND STONY PLACES

The Biting Stonecrop or Wall Pepper 321

The Wall Pennywort or Navelwort 322

The London Pride 323

The Mossy Saxifrage 324

The Ivy-leaved Toadflax 325

The Wall Pellitory 326

AUTUMN IN THE WOODS

The Alder in Autumn 333

The Ash in Autumn 336

The Maple in Fruit 337

The Wayfaring Tree in Fruit 338

The Strawberry Tree 339

PARASITIC PLANTS

The Greater Dodder 342

The Clover Dodder 343

The Great Broomrape 345

The Mistletoe 347

A Young Mistletoe Plant 348

CARNIVOROUS PLANTS

The Greater Bladder-wort 351

Longitudinal section through the leaf of the Toothwort 352

The Common Butterwort 353

The Round-leaved Sundew 355

FIELD

AND

WOODLAND PLANTS

I

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS

The beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. But there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is to put the beginner on the right track. He must remember, however, that the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time, help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other flowers that fall in his way.

The directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject, dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the description of plants and their flowers.

THE ROOT

The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its appendages.

Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the moisture present. This matter is absorbed mainly by the minute root-hairs--outgrowths of the superficial cells--which are to be found on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main descending axis.

The principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:--

1. The _simple fibrous root_, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we see in the Bulbous Buttercup and the Common Daisy.

2. The _branched fibrous root_, as that of the Chickweed and Grasses.

3. The _tap root_, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the roots of the Dandelion, Carrot and Wild Parsnip.

4. The _tuberous root_, common among the Orchids.

5. The _creeping root_, possessed by some Grasses in addition to their fibrous roots.

Besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional character, such as the _aerial roots_ or _suckers_ which grow from the stem of the Ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the Mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary nourishment.

The student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. A true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new plants. If a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the Barley Grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment from a wider area--a matter of considerable importance when the soil is dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. A creeping stem, on the other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a permanent terminal bud.

Again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is often important to note whether the root is _annual_, _biennial_, or _perennial_; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or retains its life for an indefinite number of years.

Most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature, thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the warmth and light of the early spring sun.

THE STEM

The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers.

The character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive our attention.

As regards surface, the stem may be _smooth_ or _hairy_. In general form, as seen in transverse section, it may be _round_, _flattened_, _triangular_, _square_, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and furrows more or less distinct. Flattened stems are sometimes more or less _winged_ with leaf-like extensions, as in the Everlasting Pea, in which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. It should also be noted whether the stems are _herbaceous_, or _woody_, and whether they are _hollow_, or _jointed_.

In some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start direct from the root, as in the Dandelion and Primrose. Such stems are said to be _inconspicuous_.

_a_, Terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; _b_, Stem of the present year; _c_, and _d_, Scars of the stems of previous years.]

The longer and conspicuous stems are either _simple_ or _branched_, and they may be _erect_, _prostrate_, _trailing_, _climbing_, or _running_. In the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by the twining of the stem itself.

Running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals, as in the case of the Wild Strawberry. Many stems, however, creep under the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots, from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into new plants, as in the Iris and Solomon's Seal.

THE LEAF

The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted whether the leaves are _opposite_, _alternate_, _whorled_ (arranged in circles round the stem), or _radical_ (apparently starting direct from the root).

Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves or scales are termed _stipules_. They are often so well developed that they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such instances they perform the functions of the latter. The presence and character of the stipules should always be noted. A leaf without stipules is said to be _exstipulate_.

A leaf usually consists of two distinct parts--the _petiole_ or stalk, and the _lamina_ or blade. Some, however, have no petiole, but the blade is in direct contact with the stem. These leaves are said to be _sessile_, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on the stem, forming a wing or a sheath.

A leaf is said to be _simple_ when the blade is in one continuous whole, even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is _compound_.

The student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are often very similar in general appearance. The compound leaf may always be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. The distinct parts of compound leaves are termed _leaflets_.

Attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of species. Not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. The surface may be _smooth_, _hairy_, _downy_, _velvety_, _shaggy_, _rough_, _wrinkled_ or _dotted_. The margin is said to be _entire_ when it is not broken by incisions of any kind. If not entire it may be _toothed_, _serrate_ (sawlike), _crenate_ or _wavy_. Sometimes it happens that the teeth bear still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be _doubly toothed_; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is _doubly serrate_. As regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is _acute_ (sharp), _obtuse_ (blunt), or _bifid_ (divided into two).

It is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of simple and compound leaves. These are illustrated, and the student should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations. Concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary segments may be similarly cut. Thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be _bi-pinnate_; and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a _tri-pinnate_ leaf.

INFLORESCENCE

We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of _inflorescence_ or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks (_peduncles_), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be _sessile_. Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the leaves--the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem--they are said to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be _solitary_; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle, and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the _pedicels_.

It is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are as follows:--

1. _Spike._--Sessile flowers arranged along a common axis.

2. _Raceme._--Flowers stalked along a common axis.

3. _Corymb._--Flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the same level.

4. _Umbel._--The pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle.

5. _Cyme._--An arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels.

6. _Panicle._--A compound raceme--a raceme the pedicels of which are themselves branched.

7. _Capitulum_ or _Flower-head_.--A dense cluster of flowers, all attached to a common broad disc or receptacle.

Other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. Thus, a _compound umbel_ is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves umbellate.

THE FLOWER

A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly attached to a receptacle.

The outer whorl is the _calyx_, and is composed of parts called _sepals_, which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower, the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be _inferior_. If, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is _superior_. When it remains after other parts of the flower have decayed, it is said to be _persistent_.

The second whorl--the _corolla_--is usually the whorl that gives most beauty to the flower. It is composed of parts, united or distinct, called _petals_.

Both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. They may be cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c. If the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be _regular_; if otherwise, they are _irregular_.

The third whorl consists of the _stamens_, each of which, in its most perfect form, is made up of a _filament_ or stalk, and an _anther_ which, when mature, splits and sets free the _pollen_ that is formed within it. Sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then said to be sessile.

The mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. They may grow from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be attached to either the petals or the sepals. The filaments are usually distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a tube, or grow into two or more bundles. The anthers are usually distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow together.

The central part of the flower is the _pistil_, and this is made up of one or more parts called _carpels_. Each carpel, when distinct, is a hollow case or _ovary_, prolonged above into one or more stalks or _styles_, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the _stigma_. The ovary contains the _ovules_, attached to a surface called the _placenta_; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. The ovary may have no style, and the stigma is then sessile.

Where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or more cells. In other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. For purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of the placenta. This may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is said to be _parietal_; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary, without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as _free central_. If, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed _axile_.

If the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding parts being attached below it, it is said to be _superior_; but if the perianth (p. 11) adheres to it, it is _inferior_.

A leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or at the base of a sessile flower. This is termed a _bract_, and a flower possessing a bract is said to be _bracteate_. The bract is sometimes so large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster of flowers.

The flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the ovules are impregnated. Thus the stamens and the pistil are the _essential_ parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of the species.

This being the case, a flower may be described as _perfect_ if it consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or corolla; and _imperfect_ if it possesses no pistil _or_ no stamens, regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla.

The two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and corolla) together form the _perianth_. Some flowers, however have only one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla of the more highly organised flower. This one whorl, therefore, is the perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or sepals, since they represent both.

A perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as _bisexual_, for it includes the two sexual organs of the plant--the ovary or female part, producing the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules.

Many plants produce only _unisexual_ (and therefore imperfect) flowers, which contain either no stamens or no pistil. If such possess stamens and no pistil, they are called _staminate_ or _male_ flowers; and if pistil and no stamens, _pistillate_ or _female_ flowers. These two kinds are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be _monoecious_; but often on separate plants (_dioecious_), as in some of the Nettleworts and the Willow Tree. Spikes of unisexual flowers, such as are common among our forest trees, are called _catkins_.

THE FRUIT AND SEED

After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or less, till it becomes a ripened _fruit_.

Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be divided into two main groups--those that split when ripe (_dehiscent fruits_) and those which do not split (_indehiscent fruits_).

The principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:--

1. The _pod_ or _legume_, which splits into two valves, with placenta on one side.

2. The _siliqua_, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides.

3. The _silicula_, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad as it is long.

4. The _follicle_, which splits on one side only, through the placenta.

5. All other fruits that split are termed _capsules_. Some of these split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for the escape of the seeds.

The chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:--

1. The _drupe_ or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry.

2. The _berry_, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds, like the currant and the grape.

3. The _nut_ or _achene_--a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the filbert and the acorn.

4. The _samara_ or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore.

Various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with; thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. A berry, too, may be made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. The apple and similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface.

The seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. It consists of one or more seed-leaves or _cotyledons_, a _radicle_ or young root, and a _plumule_ or young bud. In many cases the skin of the seed encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the _dicotyledons_ and the _monocotyledons_. These terms suggest that the division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case, but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus, the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer epidermis or in a bark. These plants also bear leaves with netted veins, and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or multiples of four or five. Those plants whose seeds have only one cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in a ring or rings. They have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins; and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three. The following table shows these features at a glance:--

_Dicotyledons_ _Monocotyledons_

Embryo with two cotyledons. Embryo with one cotyledon.

Stem with central pith, wood in Stem with no central pith, no true
rings or rings, and bark. bark, and wood not in rings.

Leaves with netted veins. Leaves with parallel veins.

Parts of flower usually in fours Parts of flower arranged in threes
or fives. or multiples of three.

These two great divisions or _classes_ are split up into _sub-classes_, each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the sub-classes are again divided into _orders_, and the orders into _genera_.

The student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. It is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may be gained by the study of flowers--their peculiar structure, habits and habitats--even though their names are unknown; and the student who has learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves.

Our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine the natural order of almost every one he sees. In order to show how this table is to be used we will take an imaginary example.

Let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:--

The netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant is a _dicotyledon_. Then, the presence of both calyx and corolla enables us to decide that the plant belongs to Division I. of the dicotyledons--that it belongs to one of the orders 1 to 59. Noting, now, that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its position in the subdivision I.B, among orders 37 to 59. Next, the superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group I.B 2--orders 44 to 59; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once that it is not a member of order 44. Turning now to the Synopsis of the Natural Orders (p. 17), we find that the irregular flowers of this group of orders occur only in 51, 52, 53, 54, and 56. Finally, the square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that the plant must belong to the order _Labiatæ_.

The student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly.

Again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant, but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which determine the natural position of the plant. In this way he will cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers.

To aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with the object of assisting in the identification of the others.

In our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those features which are common to the species of their respective orders. These features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of the species themselves. Thus, when we describe the Pasque Flower (p. 297) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to all the _Ranunculaceæ_ or Buttercup family, and which may be seen at once by referring to p. 17, but give all those details that are necessary to enable one to distinguish between the Pasque Flower and the other members of the same order.

_Dicotyledons_

(Leaves with netted veins. Parts of flower generally in fours or fives or multiples of four or five)

I. Flowers with both calyx and corolla.

A. Corolla composed of free and separate petals.

1. Stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil--Orders
1-22.

2. Stamens attached above or around the pistil--Orders
23-36.

B. Corolla of united petals.

1. Ovary inferior.

_a._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 37-41.

_b._ Stamens on the ovary--Orders 42-43.

2. Ovary superior.

_a._ Stamens free from the corolla--Order 44.

_b._ Stamens on the corolla--Orders 45-59.

II. Flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent.

A. Flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens
and pistil in the same flower.

1. Ovary superior--Orders 60-64.

2. Ovary inferior--Orders 65-67.

B. Corolla and calyx usually absent. Stamens and pistil
usually in separate flowers.

1. Flowers not in catkins--Orders 68-71.

2. Flowers in catkins--Orders 72-76.

_Monocotyledons_

(Leaves usually with parallel veins. Parts of flower in threes or multiples of three)

I. Perianth (see p. 11), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (Sometimes absent.)

A. Ovary inferior.

1. Leaves with parallel veins--Orders 77-80.

2. Leaves with netted veins--Order 81.

B. Ovary superior--Orders 82-88.

II. Flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks.

A. Grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit
sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one
to three stamens--Order 89.

B. Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming
split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally
perfect, with three stamens--Order 90.

SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS

1. RANUNCULACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes. (The Buttercup Family.)

2. BERBERIDACEÆ.--Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves; and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry. (The Berberry Family.)

3. NYMPHÆACEÆ.--Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary flowers. Petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and into stamens inwards. Ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (The Water-lily Family.)

4. PAPAVERACEÆ.--Herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous. Fruit a capsule. Petals 4. Stamens many. Ovary one-celled, but with many membranous, incomplete partitions. (The Poppy Family.)

5. FUMARIACEÆ.--Herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes of small irregular, bracteate flowers. Sepals 2 or 0, deciduous. Petals 4, irregular. Stamens 6, in two bundles. Ovary of two carpels, one-celled. (The Fumitory Family.)

6. CRUCIFERÆ.--Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciform. Stamens 6, four longer and two shorter. Ovary one-or two-celled. Fruit a siliqua. (The Cabbage Family.)

7. RESEDACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, persistent. Petals 4 to 7, irregular. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 lobes, one-celled. (The Mignonette Family.)

8. CISTACEÆ.--Herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5. Petals 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 carpels, one-chambered. (The Rock-rose Family.)

9. VIOLACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary, irregular flowers. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, unequal, the lower one prolonged into a spur. Stamens 5. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Violet Family.)

10. DROSERACEÆ.--Small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and cymes of small, white, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10. Ovary of 3 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sundew Family.)

11. POLYGALACEÆ.--Herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner ones resembling petals. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two bundles. Ovary two-celled. Fruit a capsule. (The Milkwort Family.)

12. FRANKENIACEÆ.--Herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small, axillary, red, regular flowers. Sepals 4 to 6, united into a tube. Petals 4 to 6. Stamens 4 to 6. Ovary of 2 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sea Heath.)

13. ELATINACEÆ.--Small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate, spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. Sepals, petals and stamens 2 to 5. Fruit a capsule with 2 to 5 valves. (The Waterwort Family.)

14. CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.--Herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2 to 5. Fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at top by teeth. (The Pink Family.)

15. LINACEÆ.--Herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire, exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Petals twisted in the bud, fugacious (falling early). Carpels each with two ovules. Fruit a capsule of 3 to 5 cells. (The Flax Family.)

16. MALVACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into a tube. Carpels many, each with one ovule. (The Mallow Family.)

17. TILIACEÆ.--Trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves; a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels 5, each with two ovules. (The Linden Family.)

18. HYPERICACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, with glandular dots. Petals 4 or 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into several bundles. Carpels 3 to 5, with many ovules. Fruit a capsule with 3 to 5 cells. (The St. John's-wort Family.)

19. ACERACEÆ.--Trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small, green, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 to 9. Stamens 8, on the disc. Fruit a samara. (The Maple Family.)

20. GERANIACEÆ.--Herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 5 to 10. Carpels 3 to 5, surrounding a long beak. (The Crane's-bill Family.)

21. BALSAMINACEÆ.--Herbs with simple, alternate leaves; and axillary, irregular, yellow flowers. Sepals 3 or 5, one forming a wide-mouthed spur. Petals 5, four of which are united in pairs. Stamens 5. Fruit a capsule with five elastic valves. (The Balsam Family.)

22. OXALIDACEÆ.--Low herbs, with radical, generally trifoliate leaves; and axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, united at the base. Stamens 10. Ovary five-celled, with many ovules. (The Wood Sorrel Family.)

* * * * *

23. CELASTRACEÆ.--Trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers in axillary cymes. Sepals and petals usually 4. Stamens usually 4, alternating with the petals. Carpels 4. Fruit a fleshy capsule. (Spindle Tree.)

24. RHAMNACEÆ.--Shrubs with simple leaves; small, greenish flowers; and berry-like fruit. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Stamens opposite the petals. Ovary superior, three-celled, with one ovule in each cell. (The Buckthorn Family.)

25. LEGUMINOSÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves, generally pinnate or ternate, often tendrilled; and papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers. Sepals 5, combined. Petals 5, irregular. Stamens generally 10, all, or nine of them united. Ovary superior. Fruit a pod. (The Pea Family.)

26. ROSACEÆ.--Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens many. Carpels 1, 2, 5, or many. (The Rose Family.)

27. ONAGRACEÆ.--Herbs with mostly entire, simple, exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 2 to 4. Petals 2 to 4, twisted in the bud, or absent. Stamens 2 to 4, or 8. Ovary inferior, with carpels 1 to 6 (usually 4), many-seeded. (The Willow-herb Family.)

28. HALORAGIACEÆ.--Aquatic herbs with whorled leaves and minute flowers. Sepals 2 to 4 or absent. Petals 2 to 4 or absent. Stamens 1, 2, 4, or 8. Ovary inferior. Carpels 1 to 4. (The Mare's-tail Family.)

29. LYTHRACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite or whorled, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, and petals 3 to 6. Stamens generally twice as many as petals. Ovary superior. Carpels 2 to 6. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Loosestrife Family.)

30. TAMARISCACEÆ.--Shrub with minute, scale-like leaves; and lateral spikes of small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 to 10, on the disc. Styles 3. (The Tamarisk.)

31. CUCURBITACEÆ.--Rough, climbing herb, with tendrilled, palmately-lobed leaves; greenish, dioecious flowers in axillary racemes; and scarlet berries. Sepals and petals 5, united. Stamens 3. Ovary inferior. Carpels 3. (The White Bryony.)

32. SAXIFRAGACEÆ.--Shrubs and herbs with regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 or 10. Carpels 2 or 4, united. (The Saxifrage Family.)

33. CRASSULACEÆ.--Succulent herbs with simple leaves; and small, regular, starry flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3 to 20, usually 5. Stamens twice as many as the petals. Carpels superior, forming follicles. (The Stonecrop Family.)

34. ARALIACEÆ.--Climbing shrub with clinging rootlets, evergreen leaves, umbels of yellowish flowers, and black berries. Sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, and seeds 5 each. Ovary inferior. (The Ivy.)

35. CORNACEÆ.--Herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves, small flowers, and berry-like fruits. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary inferior. Carpels 2, each with one ovule. (The Dogwood Family.)

36. UMBELLIFERÆ.--Herbs with mostly compound, pinnate leaves, sheathing at the base; and compound umbels of small, white flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two adhering carpels. (The Parsley Family.)

* * * * *

37. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.--Shrubs and herbs with opposite leaves, and conspicuous (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals and petals 3 to 5. Stamens 4 to 10. Fruit a berry. (The Honeysuckle Family.)

38. RUBIACEÆ.--Herbs with whorled leaves; and small, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 6. Carpels 2. (The Bedstraw Family.)

39. VALERIANACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite leaves and small (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, often downy. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 1 or 3. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Valerian Family.)

40. DIPSACEÆ.--Herbs with opposite leaves; and heads of small flowers, mostly blue. Calyx enclosed in a whorl of scaly bracts. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4, free. Ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (The Teasel Family.)

41. COMPOSITÆ.--Herbs with heads of small flowers with tubular or strap-shaped corollas. Calyx absent or represented by a whorl of silky hairs (pappus). Stamens 4 or 5, anthers generally united. (The Daisy Family.)

* * * * *

42. CAMPANULACEÆ.--Herbs with milky sap; alternate, entire, scattered leaves; and usually conspicuous, blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary of 2 to 8 carpels. (The Bellflower Family.)

43. VACCINIACEÆ.--Low (mostly mountainous) shrubs, with scattered, simple, alternate leaves; small drooping, reddish or pink, regular flowers; and edible berries. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. (The Cranberry Family.)

* * * * *

44. ERICACEÆ.--Shrubs or herbs with opposite or whorled, evergreen leaves; and small conspicuous, regular, flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 5 to 10. (The Heath Family.)

* * * * *

45. AQUIFOLIACEÆ.--Shrub with evergreen, spiny leaves; and small, greenish, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Fruit berry-like, with one-seeded stones. (The Holly.)

46. OLEACEÆ.--Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4, sometimes absent. Stamens 2. Fruit a berry or a samara. (The Olive Family.)

47. APOCYNACEÆ.--Slender, prostrate shrubs, with milky sap; opposite, evergreen, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular, purple flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Corolla salver-shaped. (The Periwinkle Family.)

48. GENTIANACEÆ.--Bitter herbs with opposite, simple, entire leaves; and regular, conspicuous flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 10. Carpels 2. Fruit a capsule. (The Gentian Family.)

49. CONVOLVULACEÆ.--Herbs, generally twining, with alternate, simple leaves (sometimes absent); and mostly conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary two-or four-celled. Fruit a four-seeded capsule. (The Bindweed Family.)

50. SOLANACEÆ.--Herbs or shrubs with alternate leaves, and axillary cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary two-celled. Fruit berry-like or a capsule, many seeded. (The Nightshade Family.)

51. SCROPHULARIACEÆ.--Herbs with mostly irregular, lipped flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 2, or 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Figwort Family.)

52. OROBANCHACEÆ.--Fleshy, brown, parasitic plants, with scattered scale-leaves; and mostly brownish, irregular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 5, lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Broom-rape Family.)

53. VERBENACEÆ.--An erect, branched herb, with opposite leaves; and a compound spike of small, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Ovary four-celled. Fruit of 4 nutlets. (The Vervain.)

54. LABIATÆ.--Herbs, mostly aromatic, with square stems, opposite leaves, and whorls or cymes of irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 4 (rarely 2), two longer than the others. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Dead Nettle Family.)

55. BORAGINACEÆ.--Herbs, mostly rough, with alternate, simple leaves; and spikes of conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Carpels 2. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Borage Family.)

56. LENTIBULARIACEÆ.--Insectivorous, marsh herbs, with radical, entire leaves, or much-divided floating leaves with bladders; and conspicuous, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Butterwort Family.)

57. PRIMULACEÆ.--Herbs, mostly with radical leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 9. Stamens opposite the petals. Ovary one-celled, with free central placenta. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Primrose Family.)