Chapter V: Part 5

One of these--the Common Sorrel (_Rumex Acetosa_)--is very abundant in damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the fruit.

The other species--the Sheep's Sorrel (_R. Acetosella_)--is a much smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths, flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit.

Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three flowers of the order _Orchidaceæ_, the general features of which are described in Chapter XVIII; and the reader is advised to refer to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before attempting to identify the present species.

The first is the Twayblade (_Listera ovata_), frequently seen in moist pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes.

The other two belong to the genus _Orchis_. They are the Green-winged Meadow Orchis (_O. Morio_), and the Early Purple Orchis (_O. mascula_), and may be distinguished by the following summary of their characteristics:

The Green-winged Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes. Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common in the North. The flowers appear during May and June.

The Early Purple Orchis.--Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods, flowering from April to June.

Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of these is the Fox-tail Grass (_Alopecurus pratensis_), which grows from one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (_A. agrestis_), a very similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the former.

IX

BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING

The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in our list.

Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold (_Caltha palustris_) of the Buttercup family (_Ranunculaceæ_), which is exceedingly abundant in marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain, flowering from March to June. It is represented on Plate V, and may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two inches in diameter.

A little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac flowers of the Marsh Violet (_Viola palustris_--order _Violaceæ_), which generally make their first appearance in April, and continue until June or July. The plant is much like the well-known Sweet Violet in general appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks. Its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. The flowers are smaller than those of the Sweet Violet, scentless, with pale petals; and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. The plant is rather local in the southern counties of England, but is decidedly abundant in the bogs and marshes of North Britain.

Few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty little Sundews (_Drosera_), so remarkable on account of their carnivorous nature. A description of the three British species will be found in Chapter XXIV, which contains also an account of their peculiar habits.

Coming next to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note two of the Stitchworts or Starworts (_Stellaria_)--slender plants distinguished by their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white, star-like flowers. They have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that splits longitudinally, with many seeds.

One of these is the Glaucous or Marsh Stitchwort (_Stellaria glauca_ or _S. palustris_), which is widely distributed though not very common. The whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a point. Its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the three-veined sepals. They first appear in April, and continue to bloom until August.

The other is the Bog Stitchwort (_S. uliginosa_)--a smooth, slender plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that terminate in a stiff point. In marshy or boggy ground its stems are straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are much shorter, and the plant more tufted. The flowers are much smaller--only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, terminal cymes. Their petals are shorter than the sepals, and are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. This species flowers during May and June.

The Rose family (_Rosaceæ_) includes the Purple Marsh Cinquefoil or Marsh Potentil (_Comarum palustre_ or _Potentilla palustris_)--a stout plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally more or less tinged with purple. The flowers are of a dull purple-brown colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from May to July. The sepals, which are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer, broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. This species is widely distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of England.

In shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty little Golden Saxifrages (order _Saxifragaceæ_), and sometimes the both growing together. One of them--the Common Golden Saxifrage (_Chrysosplenium oppositifolium_), is very abundant, often covering large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. It is a tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or branched near the top, and rooting at the base. The leaves are opposite, almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a few scattered hairs on the upper side. The lower ones are shortly stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. The flowers are very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the upper leaves. They have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals; eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary divided above into two conical lobes.

The other species is the Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage (_C. alternifolium_)--a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. Both species have yellow flowers which bloom from April to July; and both grow to a height of from two to five inches. The latter is much less common than the former, but is very widely distributed.

The Marsh Pennywort or White Rot (_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_) is a peculiar umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. The latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy, and stalked in the centre. The minute white flowers are collected into little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five spreading petals. This plant flowers from May to August.

In the marshes of South Britain we may often meet with the pretty Marsh Valerian (_Valeriana dioica_) of the _Valerianaceæ_. It grows from six to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during May and June, are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. They are mostly unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. All have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes; but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are of a deeper colour. The former have an inferior ovary, with a slender style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the corolla.

The _Gentianaceæ_ is represented in bogs by the common Buckbean or Marsh Trefoil (_Menyanthes trifoliata_), the only member of its family with trifoliate leaves. This plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers, which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. The calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with delicate filaments. The time of flowering is May to July.

In the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the Red Rattle or Marsh Lousewort (_Pedicularis palustris_) which belongs to the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. It has an erect stem, from six to eighteen inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval segments more or less deeply cut. Its rather large crimson flowers are on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together a leafy raceme. The calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. After flowering the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a capsule with a few rather large seeds. This plant flowers from May to September.

Most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species of Willows--those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the genus _Salix_ of the order _Salicaceæ_. Some of them almost invariably establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. One species in particular, the Osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work; but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable twigs for this work.

Nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with undivided scales. The flowers are always unisexual, the male and female blossoms being produced on separate trees. The former have from two to five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. A few of these trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their general features that the identification of species is somewhat difficult for a beginner.

Some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from May to July by the large, bright flowers of the Yellow Iris or Flag (_Iris Pseudacorus_), which belongs to the order _Iridaceæ_. This plant has a thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round stem from one to three feet high. Two or three flowers grow on the stem, each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. The perianth consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. There are three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into two at the tip. The fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long, containing many brownish-yellow seeds.

X

WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER

A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow. Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground. Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the sun during some part of the day.

Plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods, thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or less protected from the heat of the sun.

Our first in this series is the Lime Tree (_Tilia europæa_) of the order _Tiliaceæ_, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated district except in the extreme North. Its leaves are stalked, alternate, heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear during June and July, are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their length to a long, leafy bract. There are five sepals, which fall early; five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into clusters. The blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other insects. The fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled, five-celled, with two seeds in each cell.

A small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (_Tilia parvifolia_), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as _Tilia grandifolia_, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs.

Several species of St. John's-wort (order _Hypericaceæ_) grow in thickets and other wooded spots. They vary considerably in size, as well as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: Their leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or very shortly stalked. The flowers are regular, with five sepals; five petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule with many seeds. No less than four species of the genus (_Hypericum_) come within the province of the present chapter. They are:--

1. The Tutsan (_H. Androsæmum_).--An erect, shrubby plant, from one to three feet high, flowering from June to August, common in the thickets of most of the western and southern counties of Britain. It has several erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily seen when the leaves are held up to the light. The flowers are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact, terminal corymb. The sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long; the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five sets, connected at the base.

2. The Large-flowered St. John's-Wort or Rose of Sharon (_H. calycinum_).--A shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a creeping, woody stock, flowering from July to September. It is not indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and now grows wild in many parts. This species may be distinguished from all other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a half to three inches in diameter.

3. The Common St. John's-Wort (_H. perforatum_).--A very common plant in woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering from July to September. It has short, underground stems, or barren shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and branched towards the top. The leaves are half an inch long, with opaque veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the under side. The yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. Their sepals are narrow, about half the length of the petals. The stamens are in three sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with black dots.

4. The Hairy St. John's-Wort (_H. hirsutum_).--A stiff, erect plant, from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain, flowering in July and August. The stem is round, and clothed with soft hairs. The leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical, tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. The sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals, and fringed with stalked glands. The stamens are in three sets.

The Wood Crane's-bill (_Geranium sylvaticum_--order _Geraniaceæ_), one of the most handsome of our Wild Geraniums, is not found in the South, but is moderately common in parts of North Britain, including North Ireland. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched towards the top. In general form the leaves are heart-shaped or shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. The lower ones are on long stalks; but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. The flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel. The five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched. The plant flowers during June and July.

Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_ we note first the Dyer's Green-weed (_Genista tinctoria_)--a shrubby plant, common in the thickets and bushy places of South Britain, flowering from July to September. The stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet high. The yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small bracts at the base of the calyx. The calyx has five teeth, the three lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments, forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth, about an inch long, and compressed.

In the thickets of most parts of Britain, but more especially those of the eastern counties, we may often meet with the Sweet Milk Vetch (_Astragalus glycyphyllos_) of the same order. It is a prostrate plant, with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from June to August. The flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense, shortly-stalked racemes. The calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary; and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven seeds.

In the same order are two species of Everlasting Pea (_Lathyrus_), both of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. One is the Tuberous Everlasting Pea or Tuberous Bitter Vetch (_L. macrorrhizus_), an erect plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from May to July. Its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. The leaves are pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk terminates in a fine point. The flowers are of a red-purple colour, changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from two to four.

The other is the Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea (_L. sylvestris_), a straggling plant, from two to six feet long, flowering from June to August. It is not so common as the last, but may be found in similar situations. Its stem has very narrow wings; and the leaves have very narrow leaflets, flattened stalks, branched tendrils, and half arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are rather large, of a pale purple colour, with a greenish keel, and a green spot on the large upper petal. They are arranged in loose racemes.

The Wild Raspberry (_Rubus Idæus_--order _Rosaceæ_) is to be found in the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain. It may be easily distinguished from other species of its genus by the following description:--Rootstock creeping, with many suckers. Stems round, erect, with a soft down and numerous weak prickles. Leaves pinnate, with three or five ovate, pointed, toothed leaflets, pale green above, and white and hoary beneath. Stipules small, very narrow and pointed, usually attached part way up to the leafstalk. Flowers white, in long, terminal, drooping panicles. Calyx five-lobed; petals five, short and narrow; stamens numerous; and fruit consisting of a globular cluster of red or yellow, hoary, one-seeded, succulent carpels which usually separate from the conical receptacle when ripe. The bush grows from three to five feet high, and flowers from June to August.

Two species of Willow Herb (order _Onagraceæ_) grow in copses and thickets, and are easily recognised by their rose-coloured flowers with very long, inferior ovaries. One is the beautiful French Willow or Rose Bay Willow Herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_), an erect plant, varying from two to six feet in height, widely distributed, though not very common, flowering during July and August. Its leaves are alternate, narrow-elliptical, entire or with very small teeth, and very shortly stalked. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, numerous, forming a very long, loose, terminal, tapering raceme, with a narrow bract at the base of each pedicel. The calyx is tubular, four-cleft, attached to the top of the long ovary; the corolla consists of four entire, nearly equal, spreading petals; the stamens, eight in number, all bend downwards; and the stigma is deeply divided into four lobes, on a long style which also bends downward. The fruit is a four-celled capsule, two or three inches long, which splits when ripe, its valves curling downwards and exposing numerous minute seeds, each of which has a silky tuft of fine hairs that enables it to be dispersed by the wind. The plant is most frequently seen in damp copses, and among the undergrowth of damp woods.

The second species is the Pale Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_E. roseum_), an erect plant, seldom more than two feet high, found principally in the damp copses of the southern counties, flowering in July and August. Its stem is four-angled, two opposite angles being much more prominent than the other two; and its leaves are opposite, with longer stalks, lanceolate or elliptical, pointed, toothed, smooth, usually about two inches long. The flowers are not nearly so numerous as those of the last species, are only a little over a third of an inch in diameter, and in a short, leafy panicle, drooping while in the bud. The calyx is deeply divided into four sepals about a sixth of an inch long; the corolla consists of four notched petals, a little longer than the sepals; the stamens, ovary, fruit, and seeds correspond in number and character with those of the last species; but the stigma is either entire or divided into four very short lobes.

In the same order we have the Enchanter's Nightshade (_Circæa lutetiana_), distinguished at once from the Willow Herbs by having only two sepals, two petals, and two stamens. It is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, flowering from June to August. Its stem is slender; and the leaves are opposite, long-stalked, ovate and coarsely toothed. The flowers are very small, white, in terminal, leafless racemes, with deeply-notched petals, and pink stamens. The fruit is a little two-lobed capsule with stiff, hooked hairs.

The Cornel or Dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), of the order _Cornaceæ_, is a common shrub in woods and thickets, and is often employed in the making of hedgerows. It grows from five to eight feet high, and flowers during June and July. Its leaves are covered, when young, with fine, silky hairs that lie close on the surface, but these almost entirely disappear later; and towards the end of the summer the leaves assume a deep crimson or purple colour. The flowers are very abundant, of a yellowish white colour, and are arranged in dense cymes, about two inches across, without bracts. The four-toothed calyx and the peduncle are both clothed with a mealy down; and the four petals, about a quarter of an inch long, are narrow and pointed. The fruit is a purple-black, globular, berry-like drupe, containing a stone with one or two seeds.

In very dense woods, where the light is so much reduced that but few flowers will grow, we may generally find the Wood Sanicle (_Sanicula europæa_), a smooth umbelliferous plant with a short, hard rootstock, and a simple stem from one to two feet high. The leaves, which are all radical, are on long stalks, and are palmately divided into three or five shining lobes that are themselves cut and sharply toothed. The flowers are sessile, in little rounded heads; the whole inflorescence forming an irregular umbel or a loose panicle. They are very minute, of a pinkish white colour; and the outer ones of each head usually have no pistil. They bloom during June and July, and are followed later by little prickly fruits about a sixth of an inch long.

In damp woods we commonly meet with the tall, stout, branching Angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_) of the same order (_Umbelliferæ_), with a thick, furrowed stem, two to four feet high, downy above, and usually more or less shaded with purple. Its lower leaves are very large, with stalked, ovate leaflets, from one to two inches long, often three-lobed, and always sharply toothed. The upper leaves are much smaller, with fewer leaflets, and often consist only of a broad sheath with a few small leaflets at its summit. The flowers are white, generally tinged with pink, and form a large terminal umbel of from sixteen to forty rays, with two or three narrow primary bracts, and several fine secondary ones. They bloom during July and August, and are succeeded by flattened fruits with three ribs on the back of each of the two carpels. The carpels are also broadly winged; and, as the wings do not adhere, each fruit is surrounded by a double wing.

The order _Caprifoliaceæ_ includes the Common Elder (_Sambucus nigra_), the white or cream-coloured flowers of which are so conspicuous in our woods and hedgerows in June. This tree grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and its young branches are remarkable for the large quantity of pith they contain. The general form of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are seen in our illustration. Each flower has a calyx with five small teeth; a corolla with a short tube and five spreading limbs; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla; and an inferior ovary. The fruit is a black, berry-like drupe containing (usually) eight little, seedlike stones.

The Guelder Rose or Water Elder (_Viburnum Opulus_), of the same order, is a flowering shrub, usually six or eight feet high, moderately common in moist woods and copses, especially in the South, bearing showy cymes of white blossoms in June and July. The cymes are flat-topped, consisting of numerous flowers, the outer of which are much larger, often nearly an inch in diameter, but without stamens or styles, while the others are perfect, with five stamens and three sessile styles. The fruit is a blackish-red, almost globular, slightly-flattened berry, containing a single seed. The cultivated variety of this shrub, known as the Snowball Tree, has large, globular cymes of flowers, all of which are large and barren.

The Great Valerian or All-heal (_Valeriana officinalis_--order _Valerianaceæ_) is moderately common in moist woods, and is rather widely distributed. It is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, flowering from June to August. There seems to be two distinct varieties of this plant, one with from four to six pairs of leaflets, and the other with from six to ten pairs, in addition to the terminal leaflet in each case. The flowers are small, flesh-coloured or nearly white, in terminal and axillary corymbs. The little inferior ovary is surmounted by a calyx which is compactly rolled in at first, but which expands into a spreading, feathery pappus as the fruit ripens. The corolla is tubular, with five short, equal, spreading lobes. It is not spurred as in the case of the Red Valerian (p. 302), but the base of the tube is pouched on one side. This plant is shown on Plate II, Fig. 1.

We have now to note some composite flowers (order _Compositæ_) of wooded and shaded ground. Of these we will first take the Blunt-leaved or Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard (_Crepis succisæfolia_ or _C. hieracoides_), which is moderately common in the woods of North England and Scotland, but does not occur in the South. It is an erect plant, varying from one to three feet in height, smooth or slightly hairy, flowering during July and August. The fruits (achenes) are marked by many fine, longitudinal ridges, and are surmounted by a dense pappus of soft, white hairs which are a little longer than the fruits themselves. This flower is represented in Plate II, Fig. 3.

In the woods and thickets of nearly all parts of Britain we may see the Saw-wort (_Serratula tinctoria_), a stiff, erect, smooth plant, from one to three feet high, flowering in August and September. The flower-heads are purple or crimson, forming a loose, terminal corymb; and the florets, all of which are tubular, are imperfect, the males and females being generally on different plants. The involucre is oblong in form, more than half an inch long, consisting of many pointed, closely-placed bracts, of which the inner are usually tipped with red; and that of the male heads is somewhat broader than the involucre of the females. The pappus consists of a tuft of simple hairs, most of which are longer than the achene.

The Golden Rod (_Solidago Virga-aurea_) is another abundant flower, found in dry woods and thickets in all parts. It is a tufted plant, with stiff, erect, angular, slightly-branched stems, varying from six inches to two feet in height; and narrow-elliptical leaves, entire or slightly toothed, the lower ones stalked. The flowers are very numerous, of a bright golden yellow-colour, forming a dense, terminal panicle. The heads are not large, and each consists of about twenty tubular disc-florets; half the number of strap-shaped ray-florets; and an involucre of many overlapping bracts. The pappus consists of many simple hairs. This species flowers from July to September.

Two species of Leopard's Bane (_Doronicum_) are occasionally to be seen in damp woods and thickets, especially near villages. They are not indigenous, only occurring as escapes from gardens, but they have now become well established as wild flowers in many parts of Britain. Both are tall, erect plants, from two to three feet high, with large yellow heads surrounded by two or three rows of narrow, acute bracts. Except in colour the heads much resemble the Ox-eye Daisy. In both species the achenes of the ray have no pappus, but those of the disc have a pappus of stiff hairs in several rows. They flower from May to July.

The Great Leopard's Bane (_D. Pardalianches_) has a creeping rootstock and a hollow stem. Its radical leaves are broadly heart-shaped, slightly toothed, on long stalks; and the stem leaves are narrower, entire or toothed, the upper ones small, sessile, embracing the stem; and the lower ones stalked, with a broad expansion at the base of the stalk which clasps the stem. The heads are usually three or four in number, on long leafless peduncles.

The other species, the Plantain-leaved Leopard's Bane (_D. plantagineum_), has, as its name denotes, leaves similar to those of the Plantain. It usually has solitary flower-heads, and is represented on Plate I.

Passing now to the favourite Bell-flowers (Order _Campanulaceæ_), we have to notice four species that are to be found in woods and other shady spots during the summer months. The features common to the four species are:--Leaves alternate. Calyx adhering to the ovary, with a border of five lobes or teeth. Corolla bell-shaped, with five lobes. Stamens five, attached to the corolla by the broad bases of the filaments. Ovary inferior, ripening to a capsule that opens by longitudinal clefts. The species referred to are:

1. The Giant Bell-flower (_Campanula latifolia_). A stout plant, from three to five feet high; with an unbranched, leafy stem; and a leafy raceme of large, deep blue or white flowers that bloom in July and August. Its leaves are large, ovate to lanceolate, acute, doubly serrate, the lower ones stalked and the upper sessile. Each axillary peduncle bears only one flower, the calyx of which has long, narrow segments, and the corolla is hairy within. The capsule is short, opening by slits near the base. This flower is found principally in the North.

2. The Creeping Bell-flower (_C. Rapunculoides_).--A downy plant, with a creeping rootstock; an erect, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and a one-sided raceme of drooping, deep blue flowers that appear in July and August. The leaves are rough and doubly toothed, the lower ones stalked and heart-shaped, and the upper narrow and sessile. The segments of the calyx are long and narrow, and the capsule is globular, opening by small slits near the base. This species is widely distributed, but not very common.

3. The Nettle-leaved Bell-flower (_C. Trachelium_).--A very rough plant, with an angled stem, from one to three feet high, bearing a leafy raceme of large blue flowers from July to October. Its leaves are much like those of the Stinging Nettle, being very rough, bristly, and coarsely toothed. The segments of the calyx are rather broad, and very rough with stiff hairs. This species is very abundant in some localities, and is widely distributed. (See Plate II, Fig. 4.)

4. The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower (_C. hederacea_).--A pretty little creeping plant that grows in moist woods, flowering during July and August. It is very widely distributed, and is a common flower in many parts of Great Britain, more especially in the southern counties. Its prostrate stem is very slender; and the leaves are small, stalked, very broad, and palmately divided into angular lobes. The flowers are of a pale blue colour, solitary on long, threadlike peduncles; and the capsule is globular, opening by three valves at the top.

From May to August is the best season to study the Holly (_Ilex aquifolium_--order _Aquifoliaceæ_). We are all acquainted with this tree in its winter condition, with its bright red or yellow 'berries,' but during the months above named the less familiar flowers are in bloom. The tree is common in the woods of all parts of Britain, and is easily distinguished at all times by its smooth, grey bark, as well as by its thick, glossy, spiny, evergreen leaves, which are placed alternately on the branches, attached by very short stalks. As a rule the leaves have waved margins, and are armed with several very strong spines; but commonly the spines of the upper leaves are much fewer, and are sometimes reduced to a single one at the apex. The little white flowers form dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. Generally they contain both stamens and pistil, but often they are imperfect, the pistillate flowers predominating on some trees and the staminate ones on others. Their parts are arranged in fours, the calyx having four small teeth, and the corolla four spreading lobes, while four stamens are attached to the latter, and the ovary has the same number of cells, and the style terminates in an equal number of small stigmas. The fruits are not really berries, but little, poisonous drupes containing four one-seeded stones.

The Privet (_Ligustrum vulgare_), which forms, together with the Ash, the whole of the order _Oleaceæ_, as far as British species are concerned, is very common in the southern counties, where it is often an escape from gardens, the bush being so largely employed in the formation of hedges; but it is truly wild, and very plentiful on the chalky soils of the south and east of England. Except during very severe winters the old leaves remain until the early spring leaves are well formed, so that the bush is always green. The flowers are white, with a very characteristic odour, and are arranged in dense, terminal, conical panicles. The calyx forms a little cup with four teeth, but soon falls; and the corolla is funnel-shaped, with four spreading lobes at the top of its tube. The stamens are short, attached to the corolla; and the superior ovary ripens to a black, globular berry containing two or four seeds. The bushes are in bloom during June and July.

Three species of Cow Wheat (_Melampyrum_) are to be found in copses and woods during the summer. They belong to the order _Scrophulariaceæ_; and, like other allied plants of this group, are partial parasites (See page 349), deriving a portion of their food from the roots of grasses by means of suckers. They have the following features in common:--Leaves opposite. Calyx tubular, with four narrow teeth. Corolla much longer than the calyx, consisting of a very long tube and two lips, the upper lip undivided, with its sides turned back, and the lower with three spreading lobes. A kind of 'palate' also closes the mouth of the tube. The fruit is an ovate capsule, containing from one to four seeds. The three species referred to are:--

1. The Common Cow Wheat (_M. pratense_).--A smooth, erect plant, from six to eighteen inches high, with spreading, opposite branches; and sessile, narrow leaves, often coarsely toothed at the base. The flowers are pale yellow, over half an inch long, arranged in pairs in the axils of the upper leaves, and all turned towards one side of the stem. The corolla is three or four times the length of the calyx. This plant is very common in moist copses and thickets, and flowers from June to August.

2. The Crested Cow Wheat (_M. cristatum_).--A widely-distributed plant, found principally in the copses and thickets of the eastern and southern counties. Its stem is from six to twenty inches in height; and the leaves are very narrow, and generally entire except in the case of a few of the upper ones, which are slightly toothed at the base. The flowers are yellow, more or less variegated with purple, about half an inch long, and they closely overlap one another in a dense, four-sided spike over an inch in length. Under each flower is a broad, heart-shaped, strongly-toothed, rose-coloured bract. The plant blooms during July.

3. The Wood or Yellow Cow Wheat (_M. sylvaticum_), sometimes known as the Small-flowered Cow Wheat. This is a much rarer plant, and seems to be found only in the hilly woods of Scotland and North England. It is very much like the Common Cow Wheat, but its flowers are of a deep yellow colour, less than half an inch long, with entire bracts, and equal, open lips. The corolla is only twice the length of the calyx, and the lanceolate leaves are very seldom toothed.

The same order (_Scrophulariaceæ_) contains the handsome and favourite Foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_), which grows abundantly in most dry woods and shady wastes, flowering from June to August. Its stout, unbranched stem varies from two to six feet in height, a large proportion being the axis of a long one-sided raceme of beautiful, drooping, purple or, occasionally, white flowers. The fruit is an ovate, pointed capsule that splits into two valves and contains many seeds. It is remarkable that this plant does not grow freely on chalk and limestone soils, yet it will often make a sudden appearance in great profusion as we pass over the edge of a calcareous district. The flower is shown on Plate II, Fig. 2.

Of the order _Labiatæ_ we shall note one species only, and that is the pretty Wood Betony (_Stachys Betonica_), a very common plant in the woods and thickets of the south of Britain. It is a hairy species, with a slender, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and deeply-crenate, oblong leaves. The lower leaves have long stalks, and are heart-shaped at the base; but those of the stem are narrower, sessile or shortly stalked, tapering at the base. The flowers, which bloom from June to August, vary much in colour, ranging from a deep purple or crimson to a rose-pink or (rarely) white; and they form a dense oblong, terminal spike, consisting of whorls of six or more, with a bract at the base of each calyx, and a pair of sessile leaves just below the lowest whorl. The calyx is ribbed, with five very sharp teeth; and the corolla, which is much longer than the sepals, has an erect, oval, upper lip, and a spreading, three-lobed, lower lip. The stamens are in two pairs, immediately under the upper lip; and the fruit consists of four little rounded nuts.

In the dry woods of South Britain we occasionally meet with the Wood Scorpion-grass or Wood Forget-me-not (_Myosotis sylvatica_), of the order _Boraginaceæ_. This plant is very much like the favourite Water Forget-me-not, and has equally large flowers, but it is much more hairy. Its stem is erect, without runners; and the blue flowers form a one-sided raceme without bracts. As the flowers expand the stalk lengthens considerably, with the result that the fruits are very distant. Among other features by which we may distinguish between the Wood Forget-me-not and the commoner Water Forget-me-not we may mention that the corolla of the former is flatter; and the calyx, cleft to its base into narrow segments, is very rounded below, and covered with stiff, hooked bristles. The plant flowers from June to August.

We conclude this chapter with the names of four species of Grasses that are partial to wooded districts, and which flower during the summer months. They are the Millet Grass (_Milium effusum_), the Bearded Wheat (_Triticum caninum_), the Slender False Brome (_Brachypodium sylvaticum_), and the Hairy Brome Grass (_Bromus asper_). The first three of these are represented on pages 148 and 149, and the fourth is shown on Plate II.

XI

WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER

It will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer. Descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the species referred to:

PLANTS OF THE WAYSIDE AND WASTE GROUND THAT BLOOM DURING BOTH SPRING AND SUMMER

Greater Celandine.
Shepherd's Purse.
Yellow Rocket.
Early Winter Cress.
Thale Cress.
Wild Turnip.
Procumbent Pearlwort.
Lesser Stitchwort.
Mouse-ear Chickweed.
Dove's-foot Crane's-bill.
Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill.
Herb Robert.
Black Medick.
Bird's-foot.
Bush Vetch.
Chervil.
Mouse-ear Hawkweed.
Groundsel.
Common Speedwell.
Wall Speedwell.
Field Speedwell.
Gray Field Speedwell.
White Dead Nettle.
Red Dead Nettle.
Cut-leaved Dead Nettle.
Yellow Pimpernel.
Annual Meadow Grass.

The flowers described in the present chapter are those which do not, as a rule, bloom before the month of June.

Our first example is the Wild Clematis, Traveller's Joy, or Old Man's Beard (_Clematis Vitalba_), of the order _Ranunculaceæ_--a climbing shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of England, producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during July and August, and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense clusters of feathered fruits. Its stem is woody and often very thick at the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants, clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are opposite, pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. The latter have four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the persistent style that has become very long and feathered.

The Common Hedge Mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_--order _Cruciferæ_) is a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with hairs that they effectually hold the dust. It bears small, yellow flowers, which appear during June and July; and it may be easily distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering pods, which lie close against the stem. Its stem grows from one to two feet high, and is freely branched.

The Felix Weed (_S. Sophia_) of the same genus is moderately common, grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers from June to August. The stem of this plant is only slightly hairy, slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. In this genus the sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are constricted between the numerous seeds.

The Dyer's Weed, also known as the Dyer's Rocket and the Yellow Weed (_Reseda luteola_), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the Wild Mignonette, and belongs to the same order (_Resedaceæ_), but may be distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. It owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. This is a common wayside plant, especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three feet, flowering during July and August.

Passing to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_, we note the Deptford Pink (_Dianthus Armeria_)--a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute at the tip. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters, with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as the calyx itself. This plant is to be found principally on dry banks and on waste ground, but it is not common.

The Red Campion (_Lychnis diurna_) is common on the banks of wayside ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. It has a hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. The male and female flowers are on separate plants. The former have ten stamens; and the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. In both the calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have spreading, deeply-notched limbs. The plant flowers during June and July.

Three species of Mallow (order _Malvaceæ_) are more or less common by waysides and on waste ground. They are all interesting plants, with large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are palmately lobed and veined. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. The stamens, five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number of stamens with united filaments. The ovary consists of many carpels, with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded parts arranged radially.

The Common Mallow (_Malva sylvestris_) is a strong, erect, downy plant, from two to three feet high, with branched stem. The flowers are axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth.

The Dwarf Mallow (_M. rotundifolia_) is about as common, and grows in similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from six inches to a foot long. The leaves are cordate or almost round, divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. The flowers are smaller than those of _M. sylvestris_, being generally less than an inch in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. Both species flower from June to September.

It is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in totally different ways, the one (_M. sylvestris_) by the aid of insects, and the other (_M. rotundifolia_) probably almost always self-pollinated. In both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves with pollen. In _M. sylvestris_, however, the stamens are mature before the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. But later the styles bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from other flowers. Further, the pollen cells of this species are covered with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy legs of bees.

The anthers and stigmas of _M. rotundifolia_ are both matured together; and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. Further, if we watch the flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit the flowers of _M. sylvestris_ freely, while they are seldom attracted to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of _M. rotundifolia_.