Chapter IX: Part 9

The same order includes the Sheep's-bit (_Jasione montana_), also known as the Sheep's Scabious. It certainly resembles a Scabious in general appearance (see Fig. 5 of Plate VI), with its dense clusters of blue or deep lilac flowers, but may be readily distinguished from it by the united anthers of its five stamens, and by the absence of the involucel that surrounds the individual flowers of the Scabious flower-head. The dense cluster of flowers, surrounded by a whorl of many ovate bracts, might also be mistaken for that of a Composite at first sight; but here again we find exclusive distinguishing features, for the flowers of the cluster are not sessile on a common receptacle; and the fruits, instead of being one-seeded achenes, are two-chambered capsules. The plant is from six to twelve inches high; and its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, blunt, and hairy. The flower-heads are hemispherical, about half an inch in diameter. Both calyx and corolla have five narrow, spreading lobes. The plant is common on heaths, and flowers from June to September.

We now come to those interesting plants known collectively as Heaths, and which add so much beauty to our heaths and moors. They belong to the order _Ericaceæ_, and are all readily distinguished by their bushy appearance, hard woody stems, and small, simple leaves arranged in pairs or whorls. The flowers, too, are very characteristic, each one having an inferior calyx of four sepals; a bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, persistent corolla, with five lobes; eight stamens free from the corolla; and a four-chambered ovary that ripens to a capsule.

The Cross-leaved Heath (_Erica Tetralix_) is common all over Britain, especially so in the West. It is a wiry little shrub, from a foot to eighteen inches high, much branched at the base. Its leaves are short, narrow, downy above, fringed with stiff hairs, and arranged in whorls of four, each whorl forming a cross. The drooping flowers, which appear during July and August, are usually rose-coloured, occasionally white, and are arranged in close, terminal, one-sided clusters.

The Ciliated Heath (_Erica ciliaris_), perhaps the most beautiful of the British species, is found only in the West of England, but is really abundant on some of the Devon and Cornwall moorlands. It is of a somewhat straggling nature, and its ovate leaves, which are downy above, and fringed with stiff hairs, are in whorls of three or four. The flowers are sometimes nearly half an inch long, of a bright rose or crimson colour, and are arranged in broken, one-sided racemes. The corolla is pitcher-shaped, with four lobes round the narrow mouth. The plant reaches a length of from twelve to eighteen inches, and flowers from June to September.

Our last example of this genus--the Bell Heather or Fine-leaved Heath (_E. cinerea_)--is, perhaps, the commonest of all, for it abounds on the moors and heaths of nearly all parts of Britain. It is a very tough and wiry shrub, from one to two feet high, with narrow leaves in whorls of three or four, and smaller leaves in their axils. The flowers vary in colour, being either purple, crimson, rose, or occasionally white. They are in dense, leafy racemes, not one-sided, but rather regularly whorled. The time of flowering is from July to September.

In the same order is the Common Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_)--a straggling shrub, from one to three feet high, bearing rose-coloured, lilac or white flowers from July to September. This shrub may be identified at once by its leaves, which are very small, and closely overlapping in four rows. Its flowers are small, drooping, shortly stalked, each with two pairs of small bracts at its base; and are arranged in irregular, leafy racemes on the topmost branches.

Still in the same order (_Ericaceæ_), but quite distinct from the Heaths, are a few moorland shrubs the berries of which are largely eaten by the country-folk. They belong to the genus _Vaccinium_, and have scattered, deciduous or evergreen leaves. We have noticed that in the heaths the ovary is superior, but in the present genus it is inferior; that is, it is situated below the calyx and corolla, which parts are attached to its upper border. The calyx has four or five lobes; and the corolla, which is bell-shaped or pitcher-shaped, has the same number of lobes or teeth. The stamens, eight or ten in number, are usually rendered peculiar by the tubular bristles that extend upwards from the anther cells. The berries are globular or nearly so, and contain several seeds. Some species of this genus are rare, but three, at least, may be included here. They are--

1. The Whortleberry or Bilberry (_Vaccinium Myrtillus_).--A smooth shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, common everywhere except in some of the eastern counties, flowering from April to June. Its stem is erect or spreading, branched, green, and sharply angular. The leaves are shortly stalked, ovate, serrate, seldom more than an inch long; and the flowers are nearly globular, with small teeth, drooping on short stalks, and placed singly in the axils of the leaves. They are of a greenish rose or flesh-colour, often tinged with red, and have a very waxy appearance.

2. The Great Bilberry or Bog Whortleberry (_Vaccinium uliginosum_).--A smaller and more woody shrub, from six to ten inches high, growing only in the moorland bogs of North Britain. Its stem and branches are round or scarcely angular, and usually procumbent and crooked. The leaves are small, obovate or round, entire, thin, deciduous, with the veins strongly marked on the under side; and the flowers are globular, of a pale pink colour, smaller than those of the last species. This species flowers during May and June.

3. The Red Whortleberry or Cowberry (_V. Vitis-idæa_).--A straggling, much branched, and woody shrub, from six to eighteen inches high, found chiefly on the mountainous heaths of the North. Its leaves are evergreen, obovate, dotted beneath, with the margins slightly rolled back; and the flowers are bell-shaped, of a pale pink or flesh-colour, arranged in rather dense, drooping clusters. The latter, which bloom from June to August, are followed by red, globular berries.

On wet, marshy heaths we occasionally meet with the Marsh Gentian (_Gentiana Pneumonanthe_). It is a very local plant, growing chiefly, though not exclusively, in the northern and midland counties of England. Its stem is erect, stiff, leafy and unbranched, usually from six to ten inches high; and its leaves are sessile, linear, obtuse, rather thick, the lower ones broader than the upper. The flowers, which bloom during August and September, are represented on Plate V.

In the same order (_Gentianaceæ_) is the Autumn or Small-flowered Gentian (_Gentiana Amarella_)--a little erect plant, from three to twelve inches high, common on dry heaths and stony pastures. Its stem is square, very leafy, simple or branched, often of a blue-green or purple colour; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, ovate or lanceolate. The flowers are of a pale purple colour, from half to three-quarters of an inch long, arranged in an oblong, leafy cluster. The calyx is divided quite half way down into five unequal, narrow segments; and the corolla has a broad tube with four or five ovate lobes that spread only in the direct rays of the sun. The time of flowering is August and September.

One of the Dodders--the Lesser Dodder (_Cuscuta Epithymum_)--is essentially a plant of heaths and moors, where it is parasitic on Heaths, Thyme, and other shrubby plants. It is described in Chapter XXIII, where will also be found a short account of its growth and parasitic habits.

Our only example of the _Scrophulariaceæ_ as far as this chapter is concerned--the Eyebright (_Euphrasia officinalis_)--is also a partial parasite, and is referred to, with other plants of the same nature, in Chapter XXIII. It is a little plant, the general appearance of which is shown in our illustration. It varies from one to eight inches high, and bears little lilac, lipped flowers, streaked with purple, with a rather large yellow spot at the base of the lower lip.

One of the Mints--_Mentha Pulegium_ (order _Labiatæ_)--well-known as a garden herb under the name of Pennyroyal, is to be found on damp heaths. Though not very common, it is widely distributed, occurring in nearly all parts of Great Britain. It is very aromatic, and is largely cultivated for use as a remedy for colds. The flowers are of a lilac colour, arranged in dense, distant whorls in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is downy without, hairy at the throat within; and the corolla has almost equal lobes, the upper of which is notched. The plant flowers in August and September.

In the same order is the Wild Thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_)--a little, wiry, prostrate plant, with an aromatic odour, very abundant on the dry heaths of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its stem is thin but hard, and much branched, the numerous flowerless branches usually forming a dense tuft close to the ground. The flowers are purple, in whorls of five or six in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is lipped, of a deep red colour, and its mouth is closed with hairs after the corolla is shed. The corolla is of a paler colour, and indistinctly divided into two lips, the upper of which is erect and notched, while the lower is cleft into three lobes. The time of flowering is from June to August.

The Wood Sage or Wood Germander (_Teucrium Scorodonia_) is very abundant on damp heaths, and is also commonly seen in hedgerows and on banks, especially in hilly and heathy districts. It is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a hard, hairy, slightly-branched stem. Its paired leaves are stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, downy, and much wrinkled like the leaves of the true Sages. The flowers are yellowish white, arranged in pairs on terminal and axillary racemes, with a small bract at the foot of each short flower-stalk. Although not very conspicuous, they are very attractive to bees, providing abundance of nectar. There is no true upper lip to the corolla, the upper part being deeply cleft, with a small lobe on each side; and the stamens and stigma project beyond the petals. This plant flowers during July and August.

On moist heaths, especially in the west of Britain, we commonly meet with the Lesser Skull-cap (_Scutellaria minor_), another of the Labiates. It is a little plant, seldom more than six inches high, with pale pink flowers that bloom from July to October. The stem is rather slender, and branched; and the paired leaves are broadly ovate below, narrower above, obtuse, very shortly stalked, and either entire or slightly toothed. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch long, shortly stalked, and usually placed singly in the axils of the leaves. The calyx has two lips, the upper of which bears, on the middle of its back, a prominent hollow scale; and the corolla has a long tube with two small lips, the lower of which is divided into three lobes.

The Dwarf Silky Willow (_Salix repens_--order _Salicaceæ_) is very common on heaths. It is a small, straggling shrub, from one to three feet high, sometimes erect, but more commonly procumbent and rooting at the base, with slender branches. Its leaves are often less than an inch in length, oblong or narrow, with recurved margins, shining above and silky below. When young, the leaves are silky on both sides; and the young twigs and the buds are also clothed with a silky down. The flowers are imperfect, and are in short, sessile, erect, oblong catkins, which appear in April and early May, before the leaves. The male and female flowers grow on different shrubs; but in both cases the catkins are about half an inch long, with a few leafy bracts at the base, and the flowers are intermixed with silky scales. The capsules split when ripe, liberating numerous minute seeds that are tufted with long, white, silky hairs.

The Juniper (_Juniperus communis_), one of the few British conifers, is not uncommon on dry, gravelly or chalky downs, more especially in the North. It is a profusely-branched, evergreen shrub, either erect or procumbent, and usually from one to five feet high. Its leaves are very narrow, half an inch or less in length, concave above, terminating in a very sharp point, and arranged three in a whorl. The male and female flowers grow on separate shrubs, and are clustered in minute catkins, about a twelfth of an inch long, sessile in the axils of the leaves. The fruit is a bluish-black, berrylike cone, about a third of an inch in diameter. The Juniper flowers during May and June.

Passing now to the _Orchidaceæ_ we have to note two species, the first of which is the Autumnal Lady's Tresses (_Spiranthes autumnalis_), a moderately common plant on the dry downs of South Britain, flowering from August to October. It has two or three thick, oval tubers; and a slender stem, from four to eight inches high, with sheathing, acute scales. The radical leaves, four or five in number, are about an inch long, ovate, sharp, and form a tuft by the side of the stem. The flowers are small, white, scented, and form a single, spiral line on the stem; but while each flower is turned to one side, its bract is erect on the other side of the stem. The sepals and petals are much alike. The upper sepals are joined to the petals, and the lateral ones curve over the base of the lip of the corolla.

The other plant of this order is the very common Spotted Palmate Orchis (_Orchis maculata_), abundant on the moist heaths and commons of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to August. Its root has two or three flattened tubers with long, finger-like lobes; and the stem is solid, erect, from six inches to more than a foot high. The leaves are ovate below, narrow above, and usually marked with many dark spots. The spike of flowers is dense, oblong or pyramidal in form, and two or three inches long. At the base of each flower is a bract usually shorter than the ovary. The flowers are pale purple, lilac, or (occasionally) white, and are generally conspicuously marked with irregular lines and spots of a deeper tint. The sepals are spreading, about a quarter of an inch long; and the petals are arched over the column. The lip is broad, deeply three-lobed, more or less toothed, either flat or with the lateral lobes slightly turned back. The spur is slender and a little shorter than the ovary. This Orchis is represented on Fig. 6 of Plate VI.

Our single example of the _Liliaceæ_ is the Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus aculeatus_), the only British monocotyledonous shrub. It is of a very dark green colour, varies from one to four feet in height, and is occasionally met with on the wooded heaths of the southern counties. Its rigid, evergreen, leaflike appendages, which are ovate in form, terminating in a sharp spine, are not really leaves, but leaflike branches or _cladodes_; for, it will be observed, they bear the flowers and fruits, which are attached to their centres. The only leaves possessed by the plant are the minute, deciduous scales, from the axils of which the cladodes grow. The flowers are white, very small, with a deeply six-cleft, persistent perianth, each one attached to the centre of a cladode by a very minute stalk. They are always on the upper side of the cladode, though it generally happens that they are turned downwards by a twisting of the base of the leaflike branch. The flowers are always imperfect, the male and female blossoms growing on separate shrubs, and both have a small bract at the base. The ovary of the latter develops into a rather large, scarlet, berry-like fruit containing one or two seeds. The flowers appear during March and April.

Two of the Rushes (order _Juncaceæ_) are very common on heaths and moors. One of these is the Heath Rush (_Juncus squarrosus_), which appears on Plate VI. This is a rigid Rush, varying from four to ten inches high, flowering in June and July. Its stems are stout, solid, and generally leafless; and the leaves are narrow, grooved, usually less than half the length of the stem. The flowers are brown, either distinct or in clusters of two or three, arranged in a compound raceme, with a perianth of shining segments membranous at the margins, and about a sixth of an inch long. The capsules are blunt, but terminate in a pointed bristle.

The other is the Field Woodrush (_Luzula campestris_), a small plant, usually from four to six inches high, flowering from March to June, and often very abundant among the grass of hilly pastures and heaths. Its leaves are fringed with long, soft, white hairs; and the flowers, which are of a very dark brown colour, are arranged in three or four round or oval spikes. The segments of the perianth are very sharp, about an eighth of an inch long, with membranous margins; and the capsules are blunt.

We conclude this chapter with a brief notice of two of the Grasses of heaths and downs. One of these is the Common Quaking Grass or Totter Grass (_Briza media_).--A very pretty, erect grass, rather rigid, from six to eighteen inches high, common on dry downs except in the extreme North of Britain, flowering during June and July. Its stems are tufted, or sometimes slightly creeping; and its leaves are narrow and flat. The spikelets are round or broadly ovate, nearly a quarter of an inch long, more or less tinged with purple, on the long, slender branches of a loose, spreading panicle three or four inches long. The broad glumes are all similar in shape, but decrease in size upwards, and are not bristled.

The other is the Common Mat Grass (_Nardus stricta_), a densely tufted, wiry grass, from four inches to a foot in height, common on heaths and moors, flowering in June and July. The leaves are very fine and stiff, quite bristle-like. The flowers are in a one-sided spike, from one to three inches long, the one-flowered spikelets being placed alternately in two rows, in the notches of the central axis. The spikelets are often of a reddish or purplish colour, and each has a single, narrow, pointed glume, about a third of an inch long, an inner glume with a short bristle, three stamens, and a single style.

XVII

IN THE CORN FIELD

The flowers included in the present chapter are to be found principally in cultivated fields; but since they are more particularly associated with corn crops, or occur so commonly in those fields in which grain is one of the products included in the rotation adopted, we separate them from the other flowers of the field, and consider them under the above head.

It will be observed that the majority of the flowers thus dealt with are summer-bloomers that flower while the ears of corn are filling out, and consequently are in fruit at the time of harvest. Hence, when the corn is cut, their seeds are shaken from the ripe fruits, or the fruits are themselves levelled to the ground, with the result that those which are not ploughed too deeply into the soil spring up almost in the same position in the following season.

Starting with the species of the Buttercup family (order _Ranunculaceæ_), we take first the beautiful Pheasant's Eye (_Adonis autumnalis_), which is sometimes seen among the corn, especially in the fields of the southern counties. The plant is not a native, but has become well established as a wild flower in several parts, though it is common in only a few localities. It is erect, from six to twelve inches high, and flowers in summer and autumn. The coloured illustration on Plate VII, Fig. 6, renders a written description unnecessary.

The little Mouse-tail (_Myosurus minimus_) of the same order is a very different kind of plant. It seldom exceeds a height of five or six inches, and is commonly only two inches high. Its leaves are all radical, very narrow, fleshy, and measure only from one to three inches, including the stalk; and the little yellowish-green flowers, which bloom from April to June, are solitary on radical stalks. Each flower has five spreading sepals which are prolonged downward at the base into a short spur; five very narrow, tubular petals; a few stamens; and a spike-like cluster of many carpels in the centre. As the fruit ripens the cluster of carpels lengthens into a slender spike from an inch to an inch and a half long. This species is rather common in the South and South-East of England, and is to be seen most frequently in moist fields.

The Corn Crowfoot (_R. arvensis_) is a slightly hairy plant, with a branched stem from six to eighteen inches in height. The whole is of a pale green colour, and the leaves are deeply cut into narrow, lobed segments. The flowers are pale yellow, about half an inch in diameter, with spreading sepals; and are usually placed opposite the leaves. Their carpels are few in number, comparatively large, flattened, and covered with hooked spines. This is an abundant species, especially in the southern counties, and is most common in weedy fields in which corn-crops have been previously raised. It flowers from May to July.

The same order (_Ranunculaceæ_) includes the Field Larkspur (_Delphinium Ajacis_) which sometimes grows wild in corn-fields. It is not indigenous, but has been introduced from South Europe; and the wild plants are probably escapes from cultivation. The stem is from nine to eighteen inches high, with a few spreading branches; and the leaves are all deeply cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are blue, pink or white, and are arranged in a long, terminal raceme. The five sepals are coloured, the posterior one prolonged into a narrow, hollow spur about half an inch long. There are only two petals, and these are united into a narrow spur which lies within that of the calyx. The fruit consists of a single, downy follicle that contains several seeds. This plant flowers during June and July.

We have now to notice a few of the favourite Poppies (order _Papaveraceæ_); and although these are generally easily distinguished, even by the tyro, from the flowers of other orders, we think it advisable to call attention to the leading features of the group. These plants have a milky sap, and leaves without stipules. Their flowers are large, regular, on long stalks, and droop when in the bud. There are only two sepals, and they generally drop very early. The petals, four in number, are very thin and delicate, crumpled in the bud; and the stamens are numerous. The ovary is peculiar, consisting of one cell that is partially divided by a number of membranes (_placentas_) which pass from the wall towards the centre. It is surmounted by a disc on which are several radiating stigmas, corresponding in number with the membranes within. The fruit opens when ripe by the formation of pores just under the edge of the disc.

The most abundant species is undoubtedly the Common Red Poppy (_Papaver Rhæas_), which is to be found in almost every corn-field, as well as in other fields and waste places in cultivated districts, flowering from May to July. It is from one to two feet high, covered with rather stiff spreading hairs; and its leaves are pinnately divided into narrow, pointed lobes which are themselves more or less cut. The beautiful, rich scarlet flowers are about three inches in diameter, often with a black patch at the base of each petal, and are solitary on long peduncles that are covered with hairs. The fruit is almost globular, tapering towards the bottom; and on its disc are from eight to twelve radiating stigmas.

The Long-headed Poppy (_P. dubium_) is a very similar plant, but is generally rather more slender, with hairs that do not spread so much; and its leaves are often more deeply cut into narrower lobes. Its flowers are a little smaller, with two opposite petals larger than the other two; and the hairs of the peduncles lie close against the surface. The fruit is oblong, tapering towards the bottom, the length being nearly three times the greatest width. This poppy also flowers from May to July. It is represented in Fig. 1. of Plate VII.

A third species--the Long Prickly-headed Poppy (_P. Argemone_), also known as the Pale Poppy, is a small, weak plant, seldom exceeding nine inches in height, with leaves divided into a few narrow segments. The flowers are of a pale red colour, usually less than two inches in diameter; and, like those of the commonest species, have usually a dark patch at the base of each petal. The fruit is narrow-oblong, tapering below, in fact, almost club-shaped, and is clothed with a few stiff, bristly hairs. The time of flowering is the same as that of the preceding species.

In the corn-fields of several parts of England we may meet with the White or Opium Poppy (_P. somniferum_) which is largely grown in warmer countries for the opium it produces, and which was probably introduced into Britain from the Mediterranean region. It is generally about two feet in height, and quite smooth with the exception of a few spreading, stiff hairs on the flower stalks. The whole plant is of a glaucous green colour. The flowers are large, generally of a bluish white colour, often with a purple patch at the base of each petal; and the fruit is large, globular and smooth. This species flowers from June to August.

The pretty little Fumitory (_Fumaria officinalis_--order _Fumariaceæ_) is abundant in most of the cornfields and other cultivated places of most parts of Britain, flowering from June to September. It is a very variable plant, quite smooth, and of a delicate, pale green colour. Its stem varies from six inches to over two feet in length, sometimes erect, with spreading branches, but often climbing among the neighbouring vegetation, supported by the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are pinnately divided into stalked leaflets which are further cut into three-lobed segments; and the flowers are in racemes that are either terminal or opposite the leaves. At first the racemes are short, but they lengthen out considerably as upper flowers open and the lower ones fruit. Each flower has a short pedicel that arises from the axil of a whitish or coloured bract; and the two small sepals are either white or coloured like the bracts. The corolla is oblong, tubular, formed of four petals in two pairs, with a short, blunt spur at the base; and its colour is very variable--usually cream-coloured or pink, and often tipped with crimson.

Some of the Mustards are very common weeds in corn-fields. They belong to the genus _Brassica_, of the order _Cruciferæ_, and are distinguished by their long siliquas, almost cylindrical in form, terminating in a 'beak' which is formed entirely of the persistent style, or of this together with a modified portion of the fruit containing one or more seeds.

One of the commonest of these is the Wild Mustard or Charlock (_Brassica arvensis_ or _B. Sinapis_), a very abundant weed in most cultivated fields, probably introduced originally from South Europe. It is a very coarse plant, with scattered, bristly, spreading hairs, growing from one to two feet high, and bearing racemes of yellow flowers that generally exceed a diameter of half an inch. The leaves are ovate, with short, stiff hairs; all are pinnately lobed, and the lower ones have generally a large oval lobe, with coarsely-toothed segments, and a few narrower segments along the stalk. The fruits are spreading, many-angled pods, usually about an inch in length, constricted between the seeds when ripe, with a beak about a third the length of the whole pod enclosing a single seed at its base. The plant flowers from May to August.

The White Mustard (_Brassica alba_ or _Sinapis alba_) is not so common; but it is somewhat largely cultivated for its seedlings, which are used, with those of cress, as salad; and the plant is not unfrequently found as a weed in corn-fields and on other cultivated ground. The whole plant is clothed with rather stiff hairs that are directed downwards, and its height varies from one to two feet. Its leaves are pinnately divided into ovate, coarsely-toothed segments, the terminal one largest. The flowers are bright yellow, about half an inch in diameter, in racemes. The pods are usually near an inch long, on spreading stalks; with a stout, flattened beak, longer than the pod itself, containing a single seed. They are constricted between the seeds, and both valves and beak are clothed with stiff, whitish hairs. The plant flowers during June and July.

A third member of the same genus--the Black Mustard (_Brassica nigra_ or _Sinapis nigra_)--is also cultivated for its seeds, which are used in the preparation of table mustard, and it is also a moderately common weed of cultivation in many parts. It is a hairy plant, from one to three feet high. Its lower leaves are rough, and deeply divided into a large terminal and small lateral lobes; and the upper ones are small, very narrow, smooth and undivided. The flowers are yellow, usually less than half an inch across, in long, narrow racemes; and the shortly-stalked pods are four-angled, smooth, and about half an inch long. They do not spread much, and the short beak consists only of the narrow style. This species flowers from June to August.

The Wild Radish or White Charlock (_Raphanus Raphanistrum_) is a common corn-field weed, somewhat resembling the mustards just described in general appearance, but its pods are distinctly constricted between the seeds, and often split when ripe into from three to seven one-seeded joints. The plant is bristly, and grows from one to two feet high, flowering from May to September. The petals are either white with purplish veins, or pale yellow, or lilac; and the pods, over an inch long, are tipped by the conical style, which is about twice as long as the last joint.

Coming now to the order _Caryophyllaceæ_ we have to note the pretty Corn Cockle (_Lychnis Githago_), which is commonly seen in the midst of the corn, often growing so tall that its pale purple flowers peep above the ears. Its stem is clothed with long, soft, white hairs; and the leaves are all long, narrow and entire. The flowers, which appear during July and August, are usually over an inch in diameter, and are solitary on long, leafless peduncles. This flower appears on Plate VII.

The same order includes the Corn Spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a low, procumbent plant, with small, white flowers that bloom from June to August. Its slender stem varies from six to eighteen inches long, and the narrow, whorled leaves from one to two inches. The flowers are only a quarter of an inch in diameter, with sepals usually a little shorter than the petals.

In the order _Linaceæ_ we have the Common Flax or Linseed (_Linum usitatissimum_), which is cultivated in some districts, and often appears as a weed in fields. It is an erect, smooth plant, with a slender stem about a foot high, and very narrow, entire, acute leaves, about an inch long. The flowers are in a loose, terminal corymb, and have five acute sepals; five bright blue petals over half an inch long, which fall early; five perfect and five imperfect stamens; and an ovary with five styles. It flowers during July. (See Plate VII.)

The Shepherd's Needle or Venus's Comb (_Scandix Pecten-Veneris_) of the order _Umbelliferæ_ derives its name from the long, flat, needle-like beaks of the fruits that are placed almost parallel like the teeth of a coarse comb. The plant is erect, branched, from three to twelve inches high; and the general character of its leaves and inflorescence may be gathered from our illustration. The flowers are small, white, with larger outer petals; and the carpels of the fruit are cylindrical, about a third of an inch long, with beaks about an inch and a half. The plant flowers from June to September.

Of the order _Rubiaceæ_ we shall include the common Field Madder (_Sherardia arvensis_), a little plant, varying from five to ten inches high, the minute lilac flowers of which may be seen from April to October. Its branched stems are often decumbent; and the little, narrow, sharply-pointed leaves, rough on the edges, are placed in whorls of from four to six. The umbels are very small, terminal, and surrounded by a leafy involucre that is divided into several lobes longer than the flowers. The corolla consists of an exceedingly slender tube, at the top of which are four spreading lobes; and the fruit is crowned by the five or six teeth of the calyx, which enlarges as the former ripens.

The Field Knautia or Field Scabious (_Knautia arvensis_ or _Scabiosa arvensis_), shown on Plate VII, is very common on cultivated ground, particularly in corn-growing districts. It is a slightly-branched plant, from one to four feet high, clothed with stiff, bristly hairs. Its lower leaves are stalked, simple, narrow, and usually but little cut; and the upper ones sessile, broader at the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut. The flower-heads are large, lilac, on long peduncles. The outer florets are much larger than the inner, and all have four-lobed corollas. The fruit is angular, and is surmounted by the eight or ten bristles of the calyx. This plant flowers from June to August.

Two of the Sow Thistles (order _Compositæ_) have already been noticed among the flowers of waste places (p. 179), and a third, known as the Corn Sow-Thistle (_Sonchus arvensis_), falls within the range of the present chapter, being a very common corn-field weed. It is an erect plant, from one to four feet high, with a hollow, angular stem, branched only towards the top. Its lower leaves are large, stalked, more or less divided into triangular, sharply-toothed lobes that are curved downwards; and the upper ones are sessile, less divided, with broad lobes which clasp the stem. The flower-heads are bright yellow, large, and arranged in a loose, terminal corymb. Their stalks and bracts are rough with stiff brown or black hairs; and the pappus of the wrinkled fruits consists of a dense mass of white, silky hairs. The plant blooms during August and September.

The Bluebottle or Cornflower (_Centaurea Cyanus_) is a pretty cornfield Composite, not uncommon in many parts, blooming from June to August. The plant, represented on Plate IV, is covered with loose, cottony hairs, and grows from one to two feet high. The heads of flowers are about an inch in diameter, solitary on long, terminal stalks, surrounded by an oval involucre of closely-overlapping bracts with sharp points and toothed, membranous margins. The receptacle is flat, with silvery bristles between the florets. All the florets are tubular; the central ones of a bluish-purple colour, with purple anthers; and the outer ones much larger, curved, irregular, and bright blue. The fruit is surmounted by a pappus of short, simple hairs.

One of the most beautiful of the corn-field flowers is the Corn Marigold or Yellow Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum segetum_), easily distinguished by its rather large flower-heads, solitary on terminal peduncles, with bright golden-yellow ray and disc. It grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and flowers from May to July. It may be identified by the aid of the coloured illustration on Plate VII.

The Corn Chamomile (_Anthemis arvensis_), of the same order, is not unfrequently seen in corn fields, flowering from June to August. It is much like the Scentless Mayweed (p. 188) and the Common Chamomile (p. 268) in general appearance, but may be easily distinguished with a little care. It is a rather coarse plant, more or less clothed with a silky down; and its freely-branched stem is usually erect, and from one to two feet high. The leaves are pinnate, with leaflets divided into very narrow, almost hairlike segments; and the flower-heads are rather large, with white ray and yellow disc, solitary on the tops of leafy stalks. The involucre bracts are acute; the receptacle conical; and ray florets always possess a style.

The Stinking Chamomile or Stinking Mayweed (_Anthemis Cotula_) is another similar corn-field plant, but it may be readily recognised by the minute glands dotted over its surface, the acrid secretion of which emits a f[oe]tid odour when rubbed, and often blisters the hand. The plant is generally smooth, with an erect, branched stem, from nine to fifteen inches high; and pinnate leaves with leaflets divided into short, narrow, pointed lobes. The flowers are similar to those of the previous species, on the tops of long, leafy stalks; but the receptacle, at first convex, lengthens to a tall cone; and the white ray-florets have no style. The involucre bracts are also very narrow, bristly at the top; and the fruits are rendered rough by numerous little glandular projections. This plant flowers from June to September.

The Corn Bellflower or Wild Venus's Looking-glass (_Campanula hybrida_), of the order _Campanulaceæ_, is not uncommon in the cornfields of the chalky districts of South and East England. It is an erect plant, from six to ten inches high, bearing purple, blue, or (occasionally) white flowers from July to September. In addition to the general features shown in our illustration we may note that its long, inferior ovary is three-angled; and that the fruit splits, when ripe, by the formation of slits near the top.

In the order _Boraginaceæ_ we have the Small Bugloss (_Lycopsis arvensis_), a branched plant, from six inches to two feet in height, covered all over with stiff bristles that are swollen at the base. Its leaves are oblong or very narrow, wavy, and sometimes toothed; the upper ones sessile and often clasping the stem; and the lower frequently shortly stalked. The flowers are small, pale blue, in simple or branched, one-sided spikes. They have a deeply-cleft calyx of five segments; and the species may be distinguished from other, somewhat similar plants of the same order by the form of the tube of the corolla, which is always bent in the middle. This plant is very common in the corn fields of most parts; and flowers during June and July.

Our next flower is the pretty little Scarlet Pimpernel or Poor Man's Weather Glass (_Anagallis arvensis_) of the Primrose order (_Primulaceæ_), which is very common in cornfields and on other cultivated ground, flowering from May to very late in the autumn. The stem of this plant is procumbent and much branched, the branches sometimes reaching a length of considerably more than a foot; and its leaves are opposite, sessile, broadly ovate, undivided, and dotted beneath. The little flowers are solitary in the axils of the leaves, on long, slender peduncles that are always curved backwards as the fruits ripen. The calyx is deeply cleft into five pointed segments; and the bright scarlet (occasionally pink or white) corolla, fringed with minute hairs, spreads its five lobes only in sunny weather. The fruit is a little globular capsule, enclosed in the persistent calyx, splitting transversely into two hemispheres when ripe.

The Climbing Bistort (_Polygonum convolvulus_--order _Polygonaceæ_), also known as the Climbing Buckwheat, Climbing Persicaria, and Black Bindweed, is a very troublesome corn-field weed, with the climbing habit of the Convolvulus, often strangling the plants round which it twines its angular stem. It varies from one to four feet in height; and its alternate leaves are heart-shaped or arrow-shaped, pointed, with short membranous stipules at the base of the stalk. The flowers are small, pale green, in little loose clusters of from four to twelve. The lower clusters are stalked in the axils of the leaves, and the upper ones form irregular, terminal racemes. The five segments of the calyx are bluntly keeled, and occasionally winged; and the three outer ones closely envelop the fruit--a triangular nut. The plant flowers from July to September.

At least two or three of the Spurges (_Euphorbiaceæ_) are commonly seen in cultivated fields, but one in particular--the Dwarf Spurge (_Euphorbia exigua_)--is common in corn fields. It is a slender, smooth plant, usually from two to ten inches high, with several ascending stems diverging from near the base. The little yellow flowers are in terminal umbels of from three to five rays, sometimes very much contracted; and their glands (see p. 207) are crescent-shaped, with their fine points turned outwards. The time of flowering is July to October.

Our last example of the corn-field plants is the Wild Oat Grass or Havers (_Avena fatua_)--an erect grass, two or three feet high, with rough leaves, and stem hairy at the joints. Its flowers form a loose, spreading panicle, from six to nine inches long; with three-flowered spikelets, about an inch long, on very slender stalks, erect at first but afterwards drooping. The outer glumes are about three quarters of an inch long, tapering to a bristly point, often tinged with purple; and the inner ones, two or three in number, are a little shorter, cleft at the top into pointed lobes, and covered outside with yellowish-brown hairs. The awn is about twice as long as the spikelet, twisted at the base, and usually bent near the middle. This grass flowers during June and July.

XVIII

ON THE CHALK

While some flowers are so universally distributed that they may be described as existing almost everywhere, others are restricted to certain kinds of localities, outside which they seldom occur. This restriction is sometimes merely one of light and shade, the same species growing almost equally luxuriantly in open spaces, or, in shady places, regardless of other conditions. Some plants, however, are particularly partial to certain conditions of soil, situation, or climate, and are consequently more strictly confined to limited districts.

We have already referred to several species which are essentially flowers of the woods, but even these are not distributed evenly in wooded districts; for while some seem to be more universally scattered throughout our wooded parts, others show a decided partiality to particular soils, being found exclusively, or almost so, either in sandy woods, clayey woods, or woods in limestone districts, &c. In fact, the nature of the soil is such an important factor in determining plant distribution that we naturally associate many species with the particular rock strata on which we almost invariably find them.

So intimately is the distribution of plants connected with that of the geological strata that when, in the course of a day's ramble, we find a more or less sudden change in the nature of the flora, we may be almost sure that there is a corresponding change in the nature of the rocks or soil over which we have strayed; and the young botanist will find much to interest him in the study of this relation between vegetable life and geological structure. Of course we do not mean that the botanist must necessarily be also a geologist, but that he should, at least, be always ready to observe the nature of the habitats of the flowers he finds, noting particularly the kind of soil on which they grow.

Chalky districts are notably attractive to the lover of flowers; for, not only do they yield a number of species that are almost essentially the offspring of calcareous soils, but also produce other blossoms, often in rich profusion, that are less restricted in their habitats.

In the present chapter we shall note the principal flowers that grow principally or entirely in calcareous districts, the first being the Pasque Flower (_Anemone Pulsatilla_--order _Ranunculaceæ_), rare, it is true, but too beautiful to be omitted from our selection. This flower, shown on Plate VIII, Fig. 5, may be seen on some chalky hills during May and June. It is of a silky nature, and the lovely purple blossoms often reach a diameter of an inch and a half. The leaves are doubly or trebly pinnate, with very narrow segments which increase in length after the flowers have faded. The bracts, which are some distance below the flower, have also linear segments; and the flowers droop while still in the bud, but the peduncle becomes erect as they expand. The stamens are yellow, and the fruits are provided with feathered hairs.

On chalky, sandy, and other dry soils we may meet with the Round Prickly-headed Poppy (_Papaver hybridum_--order _Papaveraceæ_), very much like the Common Poppy in general appearance, but readily distinguished by its general hairy character, and, more especially, by the globular, furrowed fruit covered with spreading bristles. The flowers vary from one to two inches in diameter, and the crimson or deep scarlet petals are often black at the base.

The Bitter Candytuft (_Iberis amara_--order _Cruciferæ_), which is so well known as a border-flower of our gardens, grows freely in some of the chalk districts of the South and East of England. Unlike most of the Crucifers, the flowers are not symmetrical, the two outer petals being much larger than the others. The inflorescence is a raceme, which, like that of the Wallflower, becomes longer as the flowering proceeds; and the colour of the petals is white, lilac or red. The height of this plant varies from six to nine inches, and the flowers bloom during July and August.

The Wild Mignonette (_Reseda lutea_--order _Resedaceæ_) is very common in some chalky districts, generally in fields and other open ground, and may be easily recognised by its close resemblance to the well-known Sweet Mignonette (_R. odorata_), which is so highly valued as a garden flower on account of its pleasant perfume. It is of a shrubby nature, from one to two feet high, with scattered, stipuled leaves, the lower of which are pinnate, while the upper are three-lobed. The flowers are irregular, yellow, and arranged in short, conical racemes. The six sepals are unequal and linear; and the petals, also six in number, are very unequal, while the posterior one is divided into many parts. The flowers bloom throughout the summer.

One of the most characteristic flowers of the chalk is the pretty Rock Rose (_Helianthemum vulgare_--order _Cistaceæ_), which is often so abundant that it completely covers large patches of banks and pasture-land. The plant is of a procumbent nature, with woody stems, and opposite, flat, oval or oblong leaves, green above and hoary beneath. The yellow flowers are from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in racemes. There are five sepals, two of which are very small; and the numerous stamens are sensitive, spreading out and lying on the petals when the flower is squeezed. The time of flowering is from June to September.

An allied species--the Hoary Rock Rose (_H. canum_ or _H. marifolium_)--may be found in the limestone districts of the West of England, flowering from May to July. The plant is very similar to the last, but the leaves are not stipuled, are smooth or hairy above, and very hoary beneath. The flowers, too, are much smaller.

A species of Violet--the Hairy Violet (_Viola hirta_--order _Violaceæ_)--may be found in some limestone and chalk districts, and also on some dry soils removed from calcareous rocks. It has no runners like those of other species, and its cordate leaves are very hairy, on petioles covered with spreading hairs. The flowers are scentless, pale violet or white, with bracts below the middle of the peduncle; and the spur of the corolla is long, blunt, flattened, and hooked.

Two species of Flax (order _Linaceæ_) are to be found on chalky soils. One--the Perennial Flax (_Linum perenne_)--grows in hilly districts, but is not at all common. It is a slender plant, with numerous wiry stems from one to two feet high; and sessile, linear, acute leaves. The petals are of a beautiful sky-blue colour, but so lightly attached that it is difficult to secure a perfect specimen. The other species--the Narrow-leaved Flax (_L. angustifolium_)--is moderately common on calcareous hills of the South and West of England. It is very similar to the last, and grows to about the same height, but its many stems are more irregularly branched, and the alternate leaves are linear-lanceolate. The corolla is of a lighter lilac-blue colour. _L. perenne_ blooms during June and July, and the narrow-leaved species from June to September. The latter is shown on Plate VIII.

Quite a number of species of leguminous plants (order _Leguminosæ_), may, as a rule, be met with on dry soils, but only two common ones may be described as particularly partial to chalk and limestone localities. These are the Tufted Horse-shoe Vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_) and the Sainfoin or Cock's-head (_Onobrychis sativa_). The former, represented on Plate VIII, is a low, smooth, prostrate plant, six to eighteen inches long, with yellow flowers that bloom from May to August. This plant is sometimes confused with the Bird's-foot Trefoil, which it rather closely resembles in general appearance, but it may be readily distinguished by the pinnate leaves and the peculiar form of the pods. The latter are flattened, and break up, when ripe, into from three to six one-seeded, horse-shoe-shaped segments--a feature which has given rise to the popular name.

The Sainfoin is often cultivated in the South-East of England as fodder for cattle, but may frequently be found growing wild. It is a very pretty, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with dense racemes of rosy-red flowers beautifully striped with a darker tint. The stem is stout and downy, and the pinnate leaves have membranous stipules and numerous oblong leaflets which terminate abruptly in a point. The pod is compressed, semicircular in form, indehiscent, and toothed along the lower edge. This species flowers during June and July.

On some chalky heaths the True Sweet-briar (_Rosa rubiginosa_--order _Rosaceæ_) is a common shrub, growing from three to six feet high, and flowering during June and July. It is an erect and compact bush, with numerous prickles of varying shapes--the larger ones being hooked, while the smaller are straight and very unequal. The leaves are compound and stipuled, and the leaflets are rounded at the base, downy, and doubly serrate. The flowers often grow singly, but more commonly from two to four together; they are of a deep rose colour, and the persistent sepals are pinnately divided. The fruit is at first pear-shaped, but afterwards becomes almost globular, and turns red when ripe.

In similar situations we may find the Lesser Burnet or Salad Burnet (_Poterium Sanguisorba_) of the same order. This plant is so different in general appearance from the majority of the Rose family that the amateur would hardly associate it with the others. The flowers are small, and collected together in dense, purple cymes on the top of long, angular stalks. They have no petals, and the four overlapping sepals are usually deciduous. The stamens, five to thirty in number, are pendulous on long, slender filaments; and the upper flowers display their crimson stigmas before the lower ones produce their stamens. The stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches in height; and the pinnate leaves have many small, sessile, oblong leaflets with coarsely-serrate edges. This plant flowers during June, July, and August.

The Bedstraw Family (order _Rubiaceæ_) is represented on the chalk by the Rough-fruited Corn Bedstraw (_Galium tricorne_), which is common in fields. It is a spreading plant, with procumbent stems, one to three feet long; and small, long, narrow leaves, rough with recurved prickles, arranged in whorls of from six to eight. The flowers are small and white, grouped in little cymes of three. The fruit is comparatively large, and granulated, but not bristly, and it droops by the bending of the pedicel. The plant flowers from June to October.

The Red Spur Valerian (_Centranthus ruber_--order _Valerianaceæ_) is a glaucous, leafy plant (see Plate VIII), sometimes growing to a height of two feet or more, often to be seen in chalk-pits and limestone quarries, and frequently on old walls. It is not indigenous, but is cultivated largely as a garden flower, and has now become naturalised. Its corolla, which is sometimes white, has five unequal lobes, a long, flattened tube, and a slender spur. The plant flowers from June to September.

Of the Composite flowers we shall note two species, the first being the Woolly-headed Plume-thistle (_Carduus eriophorus_), common in chalky fields, where it throws up its large, cottony heads to a height of from three to five feet during July and August. In order to distinguish it from other similar thistles we must note that its stem is not winged, and that the deeply-divided leaves, with bifid lobes, half clasp the stem at the base; also that the involucre bracts are lanceolate, with long, reflexed spines. The heads of this thistle are of a pale purple colour, of a globular form, two to three inches in diameter, and covered with a thick, cottony growth.

Our other example of the Composite flowers is the Ploughman's Spikenard (_Inula Conyza_), which is common on chalky banks and pastures, flowering from July to September. It is an erect, downy plant, from two to five feet high, with oval, lanceolate, downy leaves of a dull green colour. The upper leaves are entire and sessile, while the lower are toothed and stalked. The numerous flower heads are of a dull yellow colour, with leaflike bracts, arranged in a branched corymb. The involucre bracts are linear and reflexed, and the ray florets are inconspicuous.