Chapter VII: Part 7

The Lesser Calamint (_C. Nepeta_) is a very similar plant, by some held to be merely a variety of _C. officinalis_. Its leaves are shortly stalked, but slightly toothed, and only about half an inch in length. The flowers are about as long as the leaves, arranged in whorls of eight or ten, with corolla about half as long again as the calyx. In both species the mouth of the calyx is hairy, but the hairs are much more prominent in the Lesser Calamint than in the last. Both plants are frequently seen on sunny waysides, flowering during July and August.

The Balm (_Melissa officinalis_) is a common garden herb in some parts, and in the South of England it is now fairly established as a wild flower, though, at present, it is not often found very far from the habitations of man. It is a hairy plant, much like a Calamint in general appearance, growing from one to three feet high, and bearing white flowers in July and August. Its leaves are stalked, ovate, acute, toothed or crenate, of a pale green below; and the flowers are shortly-stalked, in few-flowered, axillary whorls.

The Black Horehound (_Ballota nigra_), shown on Plate III, Fig. 2, is a coarse, hairy plant, with an unpleasant odour, commonly seen on roadsides and wastes, flowering continuously from the beginning of June to September or October. Its erect stem often exceeds three feet in height, and branches more or less freely. The purple flowers are in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, and beneath them are several narrow, stiff bracts. The calyx is about a third of an inch long, green or purple-green in colour, with ten prominent ribs, and five broad teeth which usually terminate abruptly in a fine, stiff point. The corolla is of a purple colour, twice as long as the calyx, with an arched, oval upper lip; and a slightly longer lower lip of three segments, the middle one of which is the largest.

THE HEDGE WOUNDWORT.

Our last example of the wayside Labiates is the Hedge Woundwort (_Stachys sylvatica_)--a very abundant and pretty plant that grows most luxuriantly in damp, shady places, such as the borders of ditches, the edges of woods, and shady banks and hedgerows. Its square stem is solid and stout, straight and erect, and more or less branched. All the leaves are stalked, the upper ones being narrow and entire, while the lower are large, ovate or cordate, with a crenate or toothed edge and a very pointed apex. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are in distant whorls of from six to ten, in the axils of the upper leaves, forming long spikes. The calyx is bell-shaped, with ten ribs, and five spreading teeth which are pointed, but not stiff; and the corolla, the tube of which is longer than the calyx, is of a dark, red-purple colour, prettily variegated with white on the lower lip. This plant varies from one to three feet in height and has a very unpleasant odour.

We next take a few examples of the Borage family (order _Boraginaceæ_), all of which are herbs more or less rough with coarse hairs, having alternate, simple leaves, and flowers in one-sided spikes or racemes which are rolled back while in bud. In all of them the calyx has five divisions or teeth, and the corolla consists of five united petals of equal or nearly equal size. There are five stamens within the tube of the corolla, and the fruit consists of four nutlets enclosed in the persistent calyx.

One of these--the Field Scorpion Grass (_Myosotis arvensis_)--is often called the Forget-me-not, but it usually grows in dry waste places, while the true Forget-me-not is found in wet situations. The flowers of this species are also very much smaller. The stem of the plant is thin, and bears small, oval, hairy leaves. The small blue corolla has short, spreading, concave segments, and is surrounded by a calyx that is cleft to the middle, and covered with hooked hairs. The sepals spread while the flower is open, but assume an erect position when in fruit. As a further means of distinguishing between this and other similar species of the same genus we should note that the peduncle is longer than the calyx, and that the style is very short. The plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the summer.

The Gromwell or Grey Millet (_Lithospermum officinale_) is a stout plant with several erect, branched stems. The flowers are small, of a pale yellow colour, in leafy racemes. The calyx is hairy and very deeply cleft into five segments; and the corolla, which is about the same length as the calyx, is funnel-shaped, with small scales in the throat of its tube. This plant derives its generic name of _Lithospermum_ from the nature of its fruit, which consists of white, stony nutlets with a smooth and polished surface. Its height is from twelve to eighteen inches; and the flowers appear during June and July.

Our next species--the Borage (_Borago officinalis_)--is not indigenous, but is found wild in many parts, frequently in great abundance. It is a very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, bearing bright blue flowers from June to August. Its stem has spreading branches, and the leaves are obovate, narrowing at the base into the stalk. The upper leaves are narrower than the lower ones, and have shorter petioles. The flowers are of a blue colour, or sometimes almost white, and are drooping on rather long pedicels. The segments of the corolla are spreading and very pointed; and the dark anthers are very conspicuous in the centre of the flower.

The two British Alkanets (_Anchusa_) are interesting plants, though not very common. They are coarse and hairy, and bear large, blue, bracteate flowers, distinguished by a deeply five-cleft calyx; a corolla with five spreading lobes, and a straight tube closed at the mouth by blunt, hairy scales; and five stamens included within the tube. The fruit consists of rather large wrinkled nuts.

One species, though generally known as the Common Alkanet (_Anchusa officinalis_), is really a rare plant, occurring only as an escape from cultivation in the neighbourhood of towns and villages. It has an angular stem; narrow leaves--the lower ones very long, on long stalks, and the upper ones smaller; and forked, one-sided, spikes of sessile or shortly-stalked flowers of a rich blue colour. The calyx is bristly, longer than the corolla, and cleft into narrow divisions. This plant grows from one to two feet high, and flowers during June and July.

The other species--the Evergreen Alkanet (_Anchusa sempervirens_)--is not uncommon in some southern and south-western districts. It is a stout, very bristly plant, from one to two feet high, with rather large, blue flowers in short, opposite spikes. It is shown on Plate III.

Our last flower of the Borage family is the Hound's-tongue (_Cynoglossum officinale_), which is moderately common on waste ground, flowering during June and July. This is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a very unpleasant odour. Its stem is stout, branched and hairy; and the leaves are thickly covered with soft down. The lowest leaves are oval, with long stalks, often ten or twelve inches in length; but the upper ones become smaller and narrower, with shorter stalks, till towards the top they are very narrow, sessile, and clasp the stem. The flowers are in racemes, with short pedicels, and have no bracts. The segments of the calyx are narrow and pointed; and the small corolla is of a reddish purple colour. The fruit is covered with little spines and is about a quarter of an inch in diameter.

On dry waysides the Buck's-horn Plantain (_Plantago Coronopus_--order _Plantaginaceæ_) is common. It may be readily distinguished as a plantain by its slender, cylindrical spikes of small flowers, and its spreading tuft of radical leaves. This species has a thick rootstock, and its leaves are either linear and undivided, or, more commonly, cut into very narrow segments. The flowers are green, with broad, hairy sepals, the whole spike measuring from one to two inches in length. They bloom during June and July.

The plants which form the genus _Chenopodium_, of the order _Chenopodiaceæ_, are essentially plants of the wayside and waste ground, and of these we shall have to note several species. Most of them are distinguished by the dusty mealiness of their leaves, though a few do not possess this feature. In general they are characterised by alternate, flat leaves; and small, green flowers in little sessile clusters, forming spikes in the axils of the upper leaves. The little flowers usually have a perianth of five segments which more or less enclose the fruit; also five stamens, and two or three styles. The following summary of the characters of these plants will enable the reader to identify them:--

1. Stinking Goose-foot (_Chenopodium olidum_ or _C. Vulvaria_.)--A procumbent or spreading plant, with a granular, mealy surface and a nauseous odour resembling that of stale fish, especially when rubbed or bruised. Stems from six inches to a foot or more in length, and much branched. Leaves stalked, small, ovate, and entire. Flowers in dense, leafless, axillary and terminal spikes which are shorter than the leaves. Moderately common in many parts, especially in the eastern counties. Time of flowering--August and September.

2. Many-seeded Goose-foot (_C. polyspermum_).--A procumbent or erect, spreading plant, without mealiness or nauseous odour. Stem much branched. Leaves ovate or elliptical, entire, green, less than two inches long. Flowers in axillary and terminal, leafless spikes, with a calyx that does not cover the fruit. Common in parts of England, flowering during August and September.

3. Upright Goose-foot (_C. urbicum_).--An erect plant, with a stout stem and few branches. Leaves green on both sides. Lower leaves on long stalks, broad, ovate or triangular, with bases narrowed towards the stalk in such a manner as to approach a rhomboidal form, two or three inches long, and irregularly toothed or lobed. Upper leaves narrower, nearly entire, and acute. Flowers in small, dense clusters, forming rather long, erect spikes. The green perianth does not completely cover the fruit. Common on roadsides and waste ground, flowering in August and September.

4. White Goose-foot (_C. album_).--A very common plant, varying in colour from a pale green to a mealy white. Stem stout, erect, from one to three feet high. Lower leaves stalked, ovate or rhomboid, more or less toothed or angular, but entire at the base. Upper leaves lanceolate, entire. Spikes of flowers irregularly clustered, leafy, and usually branched; the upper ones forming a long panicle, intermixed with the upper leaves. Perianth entirely covering the fruit.

5. Fig-leaved Goose-foot (_C. ficifolium_).--by some regarded as a distinct species, but by others included among the varieties of _C. album_. It closely resembles the latter in general appearance, but its lower leaves are divided into three unequal lobes, and are somewhat spear-shaped.

6. Red Goose-foot (_C. rubrum_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet high, with smooth, triangular, irregularly-toothed leaves, resembling those of the Upright Goose-foot. The spikes, also, closely resemble those of the same plant, but the flowers have generally only two or three segments to the perianth, and these often turn red as the fruit ripens. The flowers appear during August and September. This species is moderately common in most parts, and especially near the sea, where it may be seen growing on the shingle very close to the water's edge.

7. Mercury Goose-foot, Allgood, or Good King Henry (_C. Bonus-Henricus_).--An erect plant, from one to three feet high, growing from a thick, fleshy root like that of the Dock. Leaves stalked, triangular, acute, wavy or toothed, of a dark green colour. Upper leaves smaller, and almost sessile. Flowers in clustered, compound spikes, forming a terminal panicle, leafy below. Fruit completely enclosed in the perianth. This plant was formerly cultivated as a potherb, and is now commonly found on waste ground near villages. Time of flowering--June to August.

In the same order we have the Common Orache (_Atriplex patula_)--a very variable plant, from a few inches to three feet in height, with erect or prostrate stem, and more or less mealy in appearance. Lower leaves triangular, with spreading lobes at the base. Upper leaves narrower, and entire or slightly toothed. Flowers in simple spikes, forming leafy, terminal panicles. They are of two kinds--male and female, either mixed, or collected in separate clusters. Segments of the perianth united, pointed, sometimes toothed, and spotted above. The plant flowers from July to September, and is abundant in most parts, especially near the sea.

The order _Polygonaceæ_ also includes several wayside plants which may be easily distinguished as a group by the following characters:--At the bases of the alternate leaves are membranous stipules that form a sheath round the stem. The flowers are small, arranged in clusters in the axils of the leaves, or in terminal spikes or racemes. The fruit is a small nut, enclosed more or less in the persistent perianth.

Three of the plants to which we refer belong to the genus _Polygonum_, in which the sheathing stipule is usually fringed at the edge; and the small flowers are either green or red, with a perianth of five segments, and stamens not exceeding eight in number. The little nuts, too, are either flattened or triangular. The three species may be identified by the following summary of their leading features:

1. The Spotted Persicaria (_Polygonum Persicaria_).--A very common wayside plant, and a weed of almost all cultivated soils, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering from July to October. The leaves have, usually, a dark-coloured patch in the centre; and the stipules are fringed at the top with fine, stiff hairs. The flowers are rose-coloured, with more or less green, arranged in short axillary or terminal spikes without any leaves; and the nuts are rather thick, but flattened, smooth, and glossy.

2. Pale-flowered Persicaria (_P. lapathifolium_).--Very similar to the Spotted Persicaria, and sometimes regarded as a variety of that species; but it differs in that its leaves are never spotted, and the lower stipules are not fringed with hairs. The peduncle and perianth, which are smooth in _P. persicaria_, are here rough, being dotted with small, projecting glands; and the styles, which are united to about half way up in the last species, are quite free in the present one. The flowers are pink, with more or less green, and do not usually bloom after August; and the plant often attains a length of three or four feet.

3. Knot-grass or Knot-weed (_P. aviculare_).--A very common procumbent weed, with wiry stems from one to two or three feet long. The leaves, seldom as much as an inch in length, are narrow, oblong, and flat; and the stipules are white, membranous, more or less cut at the edges, with a few veins. The flowers are small, very variable in colour, arranged in short-stalked clusters of about three or four in the axils of nearly all the leaves; and the fruit is a triangular nut, shorter than the segments of the perianth. This plant flowers from July to September. An erect variety, growing to a height of two feet or more, may be seen in cornfields.

The same order includes the well-known Docks (_Rumex_), which differ from _Persicaria_ as follows:--The root is very thick, and grows to a great depth; the stems are erect and furrowed; and the thin membranous stipules, though never fringed with hairs, often become more or less torn. The flowers are small, green, in axillary clusters or terminal racemes, often turning red as the fruit ripens. The perianth is deeply divided into five segments, three of which become enlarged and close over the triangular nut. Two species of this genus are abundant on waysides. They are:--

1. The Broad-leaved Dock (_Rumex obtusifolius_).--A stout plant, two or three feet high, and slightly branched. The lower leaves are ovate, cordate at the base, blunt, often eight or nine inches long; and the upper ones narrow and pointed. The flowers are perfect, reddish green, in distant whorls, forming a terminal raceme which is leafless above. The inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, ovate, distinctly toothed, with a long point. Time of flowering--July to September.

2. The Curled Dock (_R. crispus_).--Very similar to the Broad-leaved Dock in size and habit, but flowering somewhat earlier. The lower leaves are much narrower, six to eight inches long, lanceolate, pointed, and wavy at the edges. The upper leaves are small and narrower, passing gradually into still smaller bracts towards the lower flowers. The flowers are in crowded whorls, on slender pedicels which are longer than the perianths; and the inner segment of the perianth is enlarged, cordate, but not toothed.

We have now to note two species of Spurge (_Euphorbia_) that grow by the wayside; but before doing so it will be well to make ourselves acquainted with the general characters of the interesting group to which they belong. The Spurges are herbs with a milky juice, and a stem which is usually unbranched below, bearing alternate leaves. The flowering branches, towards the top of the plant, generally radiate from one point, forming an umbel of from two to five or more rays that proceed from the axil of one or more leaves. Each ray is usually forked, and sometimes repeatedly so, with a pair of leaves at each angle, and a little head of yellowish-green flowers between the branches. Each flower-head is surrounded by a small cup of united bracts, inside which is a whorl of little yellow or brownish glands, placed horizontally. In the centre of the head is a single female flower, consisting of a three-celled ovary, with a three-cleft style, mounted on a stalk of such a length that the flower droops over the edge of the cup. Around this female flower are from ten to fifteen little male flowers, each consisting of a single stamen with a minute scale at its base. The fruit contains three seeds, one in each carpel.

The Sun Spurge (_Euphorbia Helioscopia_) is a common species, varying from six to eighteen inches high, flowering from June to October. Its stem is generally simple, but sometimes branched at the base; and the leaves are obovate or broadly oblong, without stipules, serrate, and narrowed down at the base to a short stalk. The floral leaves are very broad--almost round--and edged with very small teeth. The umbel consists of five rays, each of which is forked, with very short branches; and the glands within the cup are nearly round. The fruits are quite smooth, and the seeds have a netted surface.

The other species--the Petty Spurge (_E. Peplus_)--is a smaller plant, seldom exceeding a foot in length, with an erect or decumbent stem branching at the bottom. The stem-leaves are oval or obovate, entire, shortly-stalked and placed alternately; and the floral leaves are cordate or broadly ovate. The flower-heads are small, surrounded by crescent-shaped glands with long points; and the carpels of the fruit have rough keels or wings.

Passing to the Stinging Nettles (order _Urticaceæ_), we have to deal with three herbs that are remarkable for the stinging hairs which clothe both leaves and stem. The leaves of all are opposite, and the flowers imperfect. The male flowers have four stamens, and a small, green perianth of four segments; while the females consist of an ovary with a tufted stigma, surrounded by a perianth of four segments the two inner of which are larger, or of two segments only. The fruit is a small, flattened nut, enclosed in the persistent perianth. The distinguishing characters of the three species are as follows:

1. The Small Nettle (_Urtica urens_).--An erect herb, from one to two feet high, with leaves and stem smooth with the exception of the stiff, stinging hairs. The leaves are thin, elliptical, deeply and regularly toothed; and the flowers are in unbranched axillary spikes which are shorter than the petioles, the males and females being intermixed. This is a common species, flowering from June to September.

2. The Great Nettle (_U. dioica_).--A dark green herb, from one to four feet high, more or less clothed with soft downy hairs in addition to the stiff, stinging ones. The lower leaves are ovate or cordate, coarsely toothed; and the upper ones narrower. The spikes of flowers are branched, longer than the petioles, in the axils of the leaves. The flowers are very similar to those of the Small Nettle, but the males and females are usually on separate plants. This is a very common species, flowering from June to September.

3. The Roman Nettle (_U. pilulifera_).--A coarse, erect plant, from one to two feet high, with stinging hairs more powerful than those of the other species. The leaves are ovate or cordate, deeply and regularly toothed. The male flowers are in clusters along the peduncles, which are often as long as the leaves; and the females are in globular heads at the top of stalks from half an inch to an inch in length. The heads of fruits are about a third of an inch in diameter, thickly covered with stinging hairs. This plant flowers from June to September. It is not so abundant as the other nettles, and is found principally in the neighbourhood of villages, especially in the eastern counties of England.

Although the Hop (_Humulus Lupulus_) does not sting, the whole plant is rough with stiff hairs resembling those of the nettles, and it is placed in the same order. It is a climber, and clings to the hedgerow shrubs by twining its long stems, which always turn in the same direction as the sun. Its leaves are opposite, stalked, broadly heart-shaped in general form, but cut into three or five sharply-toothed lobes. The flowers, like those of the nettles, are imperfect, and the male and female blossoms grow on separate plants. The former are in lax panicles, in the axils of the upper leaves: they are small, of a yellowish green colour, each consisting of five stamens surrounded by a perianth of five segments. The females are arranged in rounded heads or spikes on short stalks in the axils of the leaves. The heads are made up of a number of closely-placed bracts, each with two little flowers at its base; and each flower consists of an ovary, enclosed in a scale, with two long, narrow stigmas. After fertilisation the scales of the head grow very large, forming very conspicuous 'cones' in which the little fruits lie concealed. The Hop flowers from July to September, and is common in hedgerows and thickets.

Of the several wayside Grasses we have space for the mention of but one species--the interesting Canary Grass (_Phalaris canariensis_). It is a native of South Europe, introduced into this country and cultivated for its seed (canary seed), but is now often seen growing wild in waste places. It is represented on p. 209.

XIV

MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES--SUMMER

In the present chapter we shall briefly describe a considerable number of flowers which are to be seen in fields and pastures during the summer months; but we must remind the reader that many of the species previously mentioned in Chapter VIII as flowering in similar situations in the spring, continue to bloom during the whole or a portion of the summer. A list of these is given below; and it should be noted that the flowers described in this chapter are those which do not generally commence to bloom till the month of June.

SPRING FLOWERS OF MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM IN THE SUMMER.

Creeping Buttercup.
Bulbous Buttercup.
Field Penny Cress.
Wild Pansy.
Ragged Robin.
Spotted Medick.
Netted Medick.
White Clover.
Purple Clover.
Earthnut.
Daisy.
Dandelion.
Yellow Rattle.
Field Louse-wort.
Henbit Dead Nettle.
Common Sorrel.
Sheep's Sorrel.
Twayblade.

The Upright Buttercup or Meadow Crowfoot (_Ranunculus acris_) is often confused with the two similar species (_R. repens_ and _R. bulbosus_) already described in Chapter VIII, but it may be easily distinguished from the former by the absence of creeping stems, and from the latter by the spreading calyx and by the fibrous root without any bulbous swelling. The whole plant is covered with soft hairs more or less spreading; and it varies in height from six inches to three feet according to the nature of the soil in which it grows. Its leaves are all stalked with the exception of the few upper ones, and are very deeply divided into three, five, or seven radiating segments which are again cut into three lobes with acute divisions. The flowers are rather large, on long terminal stalks, with a calyx of five yellowish-green, concave sepals; and a very bright yellow corolla. The carpels are ovate, slightly flattened, smooth, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are also smooth. The plant flowers during June and July.

Another 'Buttercup'--the Pale Hairy Crowfoot (_R. hirsutus_) is to be seen in our pastures; and though not so common as the three just mentioned, it is very generally distributed in England and the South of Scotland. It seldom exceeds a foot in height, and flowers from June to the end of the summer. Its stem is erect, hairy, and freely branched; and its leaves are much like those of the Bulbous Buttercup (p. 110). The flowers, however, are smaller and more numerous than those of the latter, and are of a paler yellow colour; but the sepals are bent back on the flower-stalk as in this species. The fruits are rough when quite ripe, with little tubercles along the margins.

Cruciferous flowers are not at all abundant in fields and meadows during the summer months, but one species--the Gold of Pleasure (_Camelina sativa_)--may be seen in the flax-fields of South Britain and Ireland during June and July. The plant has a simple or slightly branched stem, from one to three feet high; and its leaves are all sessile, narrow, arrow-shaped, either entire or slightly toothed, with pointed lobes at the base. The flowers are small, yellow, arranged in a long, loose raceme; and the fruits are oval siliquas, with convex valves, a distinct central vein, and edges flattened into a narrow wing.

The order _Caryophyllaceæ_ is represented in pastures by the Bladder Campion (_Silene inflata_ or _S. cucubalis_)--a flower that is easily recognised among the Campions and the Catchflys by the globular calyx. The stem of the plant is semi-erect, branched below, and from two to three feet high. The leaves are sessile, smooth, oblong, usually acute, and placed in pairs on the jointed stem. The flowers are rather large, arranged in lax, terminal panicles, and often droop slightly. The calyx is globular, veined, and about half an inch or more in diameter; and the five petals, which are deeply cleft into two lobes, have each a scale at the base of the spreading limb. The plant is very widely distributed over Britain, and is very common in some districts, flowering during June and July.

The same order contains the White Campion (_Lychnis vespertina_)--a hairy plant, with a branched stem from one to two feet high, and rather large white or very pale pink flowers that open in the evening. It is abundant in most parts of Britain, and flowers during June and July. Its leaves are oval or oblong, usually pointed, and tapering towards the base. The flowers are in loose cymes, and imperfect; the staminate and the pistillate ones being usually on different plants. The calyx is generally more than half an inch long, hairy, with ten ribs and five narrow teeth. It is tubular at first, but becomes broadly oval, with a contracted mouth, as the fruit ripens. The five limbs of the corolla are spreading and rather deeply cleft into two parts; and the fruit is a capsule that splits at the top by ten teeth which remain erect or curve only slightly outwards. The plant is found principally in fields and in open waste ground.

Our fields and pastures are particularly rich in flowers of the Pea family (order _Leguminosæ_) during the summer months; and of these we shall first note the pretty Kidney Vetch or Lady's Fingers (_Anthyllis Vulneraria_), which is common in the dry pastures of most parts of Britain. The whole plant is covered with short silky hairs which lie close against the surface; and the stem, from six inches to over a foot in length, is either erect or spreading. The leaves are pinnately divided into several entire leaflets which are half an inch or more in length, the terminal leaflet of the lower leaves being generally much larger than the others. The flowers, which bloom from June to August, are usually clustered into two dense heads at the tip of each stalk, with a deeply-divided bract at the base of each head. The calyx is densely covered with silky hairs; and the small corolla varies in colour from pale yellow to red.

In the neighbourhood of cultivated fields we may frequently meet with the Lucerne or Purple Medick (_Medicago sativa_). This is not a British plant, but it has been introduced and largely cultivated, and is commonly found as an escape. It has an erect stem, from one to two feet high; and the flowers bloom during June and July, followed by smooth, spirally-twisted pods of two or three coils. This plant appears on Plate IV, Fig. 2.

In the genus _Melilotus_, of the same order, we have to note three species, all of which agree in the following particulars:--They have trifoliate leaves; and small, white or yellow flowers in long racemes on axillary peduncles. The calyx has five teeth, and the corolla falls after it fades. The stamens are ten in number, the upper one quite free, while the filaments of the other nine are united into a split tube that surrounds the ovary. The pod is only a little longer than the calyx, rather thick in proportion to its length, with only one or two seeds, and it does not split when ripe. The three species referred to may be identified by the following descriptions:--

The Common Melilot (_Melilotus officinalis_) is a smooth plant, with a branched stem from two to four feet high; and long-stalked leaves with roundish or oval leaflets, and narrow, pointed stipules. The flowers are very numerous, yellow, about a quarter of an inch long, in long racemes. The petals are equal; and the hairy pods are only about a sixth of an inch long.

The Field Melilot (_M. arvensis_) is very similar, but not so tall, and the flowers are less numerous. The 'keel' is shorter than the other petals; and the pods are ribbed and blunt. The third species--the White Melilot (_M. alba_)--is also very similar, but it has white flowers, in which the 'standard' or upper petal is the longest. All three species flower from June to August, but only the first may be described as common.

The genus _Trifolium_, containing the Clovers and Trefoils, resembles _Melilotus_ in its trifoliate leaves, five-toothed calyx, and in the arrangement of the stamens; but it differs in that the stipules adhere to the leaf stalks, and the corolla often persists round the ripened fruit. Several species of this group are common in fields and pastures.

One of these is the Clustered Clover or Smooth Round-headed-Trefoil (_Trifolium glomeratum_)--a smooth plant, with purple or pink flowers, found principally in the dry pastures of South and East England, flowering during June and July. Its spreading stems are from six to twelve inches long; and the heads of flowers are small, sessile, globular, and either axillary or terminal. The calyx is ten-veined, shorter than the corolla, with five pointed teeth which bend outwards as the fruit ripens.

The Strawberry Trefoil (_T. fragiferum_) has long-stalked, axillary heads of rose-coloured flowers which become very compact and strawberry-like when fruiting, at which time they are half an inch or more in diameter. Its creeping stem roots at the nodes; and the leaves are long-stalked, with toothed leaflets. Each head is surrounded below by a whorl of lobed bracts about as long as the calyces which become swollen after flowering. This is common in England, and flowers during July and August.

The Hare's-foot Trefoil (_T. arvense_) is a slender, erect or sub-erect plant, covered with short, soft hairs, flowering from June to the end of the summer. Its stem is branched, from six inches to a foot in length; and the heads of flowers, on long, terminal or axillary stalks, are at first nearly globular, but afterwards cylindrical and about three quarters of an inch long. The flowers are small, pink, with corolla shorter than the calyx. The latter has five very long, feathery teeth, giving the whole head of flowers a soft and feathery appearance. The plant is abundant, especially in the southern counties of England.

The Crimson Clover (_T. incarnatum_) was introduced into England and cultivated as fodder, but it is often found wild as an escape from cultivation. The plant is erect, varying from six inches to two feet in height, and is covered with soft, silky hairs. It flowers in June and July. The corolla, which is much longer than the calyx, is sometimes almost white. This flower is shown on Plate IV.

One of the commonest flowers of this genus is the Hop Trefoil (_T. procumbens_)--a slender plant, with erect or sub-erect stem much branched below. Its leaflets are obovate or obcordate, and toothed; and the flower-heads are dense, globular, on long axillary stalks, each consisting of about forty bright yellow flowers. When fruiting the heads are turned downwards, and the pods are then covered by the persistent, brown corollas. This species flowers from June to August.

The Lesser Yellow Trefoil (_T. minus_) is very much like the last, and flowers at the same time, but is more slender and more procumbent; and its flower-heads, which consist of from ten to twenty pale yellow flowers, are on stiff peduncles.

Our last example of the _Leguminosæ_ is the Meadow Pea or Meadow Vetchling (_Lathyrus pratensis_), which is a very common flower of moist pastures. The plant is straggling, with a weak, angled stem that supports itself by interlacing with the surrounding herbage, aided by its branched tendrils. Its stipules are large, narrow-oval in form, with an arrow-shaped base. The compound leaf has only one pair of lanceolate leaflets, the remaining leaflets having been modified into tendrils for the support of the plant. The long axillary peduncles each bear a one-sided raceme of from six to ten yellow flowers, which are followed by rather large, smooth pods. The plant flowers from June to September.

The order _Rosaceæ_ contains the Great Burnet (_Sanguisorba officinalis_), the only British representative of its genus. It is very much like the Lesser Burnet (p. 301) in general appearance, but much taller and larger. It is a smooth plant, with an erect stem from one to two feet high, the upper part of which is almost leafless. The leaves are mostly radical or on the lower part of the stem, and are pinnate, with from seven to thirteen oval or oblong, toothed leaflets. The long peduncles each bear an oval head of crowded flowers of a dark purple colour. Each flower has a calyx of four coloured lobes, enclosed within bracts; and four stamens. There are no petals. The plant is moderately common in the damp meadows of England and South Scotland, and flowers from June to August.

The Lady's Mantle (_Alchemilla vulgaris_) is a common plant in the hilly pastures of North England, but is much less frequent in the South. It varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and bears loose, terminal clusters of small yellowish-green flowers from June to August. The little flowers have a free calyx of eight segments in two whorls of four, the outer ones smaller than the inner; no petals; a few stamens; and an ovary of one or two one-seeded carpels enclosed in the tube of the calyx.

In moist meadows and other damp places we commonly see the fragrant Meadow Sweet or Queen of the Meadows (_Spiræa Ulmaria_), of the same order. This is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, bearing densely-crowded cymes of small, creamy-white flowers from June to August. Its stem is rather thick, often reddish in colour; and the leaves are large, pinnate, with from five to nine ovate, irregularly-toothed leaflets, two or three inches long, and also several smaller leaflets at the base of the stalk or between the larger ones. Each of the little flowers has a five-lobed, free calyx; five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary that ripens into from five to eight little twisted capsules.

The Burnet Saxifrage (_Pimpinella Saxifraga_), of the order _Umbelliferæ_, is a common plant in dry pastures, and is very generally distributed. Its stem is from one to two feet high, and but little branched; and the leaves are very variable in form--the radical ones usually pinnate, with from three to nine oval or round leaflets that are either lobed or deeply toothed; and the upper also pinnate, with the segments of the leaflets few and very narrow. The umbels are terminal, with from eight to sixteen slender rays, and no bracts. The flowers are small and white, and appear from July to September.

The Wild Carrot (_Daucus Carota_) of the same order is also common in pastures. It is an erect plant, with a tap root, and a branching stem from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are two or three times pinnate, with segments pinnately divided into narrow lobes. The upper leaves are much smaller, with narrower divisions. The umbels are large and terminal, on long stalks. The rays are numerous and crowded; the middle ones being shorter, with pale purple flowers; and the outer ones longer, with white flowers. After flowering the rays close together, forming a dense, globular mass, or an inverted cone, concave at the top, thus more or less covering the fruits, in which they are aided by the long, narrow lobes of both the primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are covered with little hooked prickles.

The Devil's-bit Scabious (_Scabiosa succisa_--order _Dipsaceæ_) is very common in the pastures of almost all parts of Britain, and much resembles the Field Scabious (p. 290) in general habit. Its stem is erect, branching, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are stalked, ovate or oblong, and generally quite entire; and the stem-leaves, which are few, are of the same general form, but are sessile, and sometimes slightly toothed. The heads of purple-blue flowers are on long peduncles, and each one is surrounded at the base by about three whorls of bracts which decrease in length inwards, the outer and longest being about as long as the flowers. The flowers of the head are all nearly of the same size and form. Each one is enclosed in a tubular whorl of united bracts with small teeth. This whorl might easily be mistaken for a calyx by those who are not acquainted with the general features of the flowers of this order, but the calyx is really combined with the ovary, its four bristly teeth being very conspicuous round the top of the fruit. The corolla is tubular, deeply cleft into four lobes; and four stamens are inserted into its tube. The fruit is small and seedlike, and does not split. This plant flowers from July to September or October.

Coming now to the _Compositæ_, we have a considerable number of meadow flowers to describe; and we assume that the reader has already made himself acquainted with the nature of the flowers of this order as given on p. 175. If such is not the case, we advise him to refresh his memory with regard to them, in order that the terms used in the following descriptions may be thoroughly understood.

Our first species is the Rough Hawkbit (_Leontodon hispidus_), which is very abundant in all parts of Britain except the extreme north, its rather large, yellow flower-heads being often mistaken for those of the Dandelion that are frequently seen in company with them on pasture land. Its specific name is due to the short, stiff hairs, often more or less branched, that clothe all parts of the plant. The leaves are all radical, long and narrow, decreasing in width towards the base, and either coarsely toothed or deeply cut into pointed lobes. The flower-stalk widens immediately below its solitary head, which is surrounded by hairy bracts--two or three whorls of short ones without, and a whorl of long ones within. All the florets are ligulate or strap-shaped, and yellow. The fruits are long achenes, narrower towards the top; and the pappus consists of a few short, outer hairs, surrounding about twice the number of brown, feathered ones three or four times as long. The flower stalks vary from a few inches to a foot or more in height, and the flowers bloom from June to September.

Equally abundant is the Autumnal Hawkbit (_Leontodon autumnalis_), which is also found in pastures. It is a very similar plant in many respects, but may be easily distinguished by its smaller heads of flowers on branching stalks. The flowering stems are erect, from six to eighteen inches high, each with one or two branches bearing a few small scales and a single head of flowers. The involucre consists of several rows of smooth, closely-overlapping bracts, and is narrowed at the base into the enlarged upper part of the stalk. The florets are all ligulate, as in the last species; and the pappus consists of brown, feathery hairs, all of the same length. The flowers appear during August and September.

The Meadow Thistle (_Carduus pratensis_) is abundant in some of the southern counties of Britain and Ireland, but is rarely seen in the north. Nearly all the leaves of this plant are radical, and these are long, narrow, and covered with cottony hairs. The few leaves of the stem are narrow, with short teeth that are only slightly prickly. The stem itself grows from twelve to eighteen inches high, and is usually unbranched, with a single head of flowers; sometimes, however, it has one or two branches, each terminating in a flower-head. The involucre is globular in form, covered with cottony hairs, and composed of closely-placed bracts. The flowers are purple. The plant grows chiefly in moist pastures, and flowers from June to August.

The Black Knapweed or Hardhead (_Centaurea nigra_) is a very common flower of meadows and pastures, flowering from June to September. Its stem is erect, tough, branched, from a few inches to three feet in height. The leaves are long and narrow; the upper ones entire or nearly so, and clasping the stem; and the lower coarsely toothed or divided into lobes. The flower-head has somewhat the appearance of a purple thistle, but the involucre is not prickly. The latter consists of an almost globular mass of closely-overlapping bracts, the visible portions of which are dark brown or black fringes. The florets are generally all equal, but the outer ones are sometimes larger than the others, and sterile.

The Great Knapweed (_Centaurea Scabiosa_) is a somewhat similar plant, but usually larger, its stout, branched stem being generally two or three feet high. It may be easily distinguished by its larger flower-heads, the outer, neuter florets of which are considerably enlarged. As a rule the florets are all purple, but occasionally all are white, or the outer ones white and the others purple. The bracts of the involucre are broad, with a green centre and a dark, downy margin. The fruit is surmounted by a pappus of stiff, bristly hairs of about its own length. This plant is common in the south of Britain, and flowers during July and August.

Two species of Fleabane have to be noticed. They belong to the genus _Inula_, and are distinguished by a distinct division of the flower-head into disc and ray, and also by two minute 'tails' at the bottom of the anthers.

One of these is the Common Fleabane (_I. dysenterica_)--a woolly plant, abundant in the moist pastures of the southern counties, flowering from July to September. Its erect stem is loosely branched, from six inches to two feet high. The leaves are oblong and wavy--the lower ones stalked, and the upper clasping the stem with rounded lobes at the base. The flower-heads are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, arranged singly on the tips of the branches, or on stalks arising from the axils of the upper leaves. The florets of the ray are spreading, and much longer than those of the disc; and the fruits have a minute cup at the top, from the inside of which spring the hairs of the pappus. The smoke arising from the burning Fleabanes was supposed to kill fleas and other vermin; and the specific name _dysenterica_ is due to the fact that this species has been used as a medicine in cases of dysentery.

The Small Fleabane (_I. Pulicaria_) is a similar plant, but smaller (from six to twelve inches high) and less woolly. Its flower-heads are yellow, much smaller, on terminal and axillary stalks; and the florets of the ray are only slightly longer than those of the disc. The hairs of the pappus are not surrounded at the base by a little cup, but by a few minute and distinct scales. This species grows in the south-eastern counties of England, and flowers during August and September.

The White Ox-eye Daisy (_Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_) is one of the largest and most conspicuous of our composite flowers, and is abundant in dry pastures all over Britain. The plant is generally smooth; and its erect stem, either simple or slightly branched, is from one to two feet high. The lower leaves are obovate, coarsely toothed, on long stalks; and the upper ones are narrow and sessile, with a few teeth. The flower-heads are large, and placed singly on long, terminal stalks. The bracts are closely overlapping, with narrow, brown margins; the ray florets white, strap-shaped, over half an inch long; and the disc florets numerous and tubular. The flowers bloom from June to August.

Our last composite flower is the Sneezewort (_Achillea Ptarmica_), which is common in the hilly pastures and meadows of most parts of Britain. It has an erect stem, one to two feet high. The leaves are sessile, narrow, with fine, regular teeth, and a smooth surface. The flower-heads are arranged in a loose, terminal, flat-topped corymb. Each is surrounded by an involucre of overlapping bracts; and consists of numerous little disc-florets, intermixed with small scales, and about twelve short, broad, white florets of the ray. The time of flowering is July and August.

The Common Centaury (_Erythræa Centaurium_), of the order _Gentianaceæ_, is a very common plant in dry pastures. Its stem is erect, simple below, freely branched towards the top, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are ovate, spreading and closely placed below, narrow and more distant above. The flowers are rose-red or pink, in a dense corymb, with a calyx of five very narrow segments, and a corolla consisting of a narrow tube and five spreading lobes.

Of the order _Convolvulaceæ_ we shall note one species--the Small Bindweed (_Convolvulus arvensis_), so well known as a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. It has a creeping rootstock, and a twining stem, from a few inches to two feet in length, that sometimes climbs, but more commonly trails along the ground and over low-growing plants. The leaves are stalked, arrow-shaped, about an inch and a half long, with sharp, spreading lobes at the base. The axillary peduncles are usually forked, with a single flower on each of the two branches; and there are two small bracts at the angle of the fork, and another one or a pair above these, but some distance below the flower, on each branch. The calyx is very small, but the salver-shaped corolla is usually over an inch in diameter, either pink or pinkish white. The plant flowers from June to August.

The Meadow Clary (_Salvia pratensis_--order _Labiatæ_), shown on Plate IV, Fig. 6, is a rather rare plant, apparently to be seen only in the dry fields of Oxfordshire, Kent, Surrey, and the extreme south-west of England; but it is one of the most handsome of the Labiates. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high. The radical leaves are large, stalked, ovate or cordate, toothed, and much wrinkled; and the stem-leaves few, ovate or lanceolate, acute, the upper ones sessile. The flowers are arranged in whorls of from four to six at regular distances, the whole forming a long, simple or branched spike. The calyx is divided into two lips, the upper of which has often three small teeth, while the lower is divided into two lobes; and the corolla is of a bright blue colour, about three times as long as the calyx, with a long, arched upper lip and a three-lobed lower lip. There are two stamens, each with a fertile and an abortive anther connected by a thin stalk which is fastened to the short filament in such a manner that it rocks. This plant flowers from June to August.

The peculiar arrangement of the stamens above described is sufficient in itself to distinguish the genus _Salvia_ from all the other Labiates, and the importance of the peculiarity in connexion with the pollination of the flower is so interesting that we may well spend a few minutes in studying it before passing on to other species. In the first place it should be mentioned that the stamens of _Salvia_ are mature before the stigma, and that, as a consequence, self-pollination is impossible. The lower, abortive anthers of the two stamens are joined together and form a little valve which closes the throat of the corolla tube. Each one, however, has a notch in its inner side, and the two notches, meeting in the middle, form a little hole. When a bee visits the flower, it alights on the lower lip of the corolla, and thrusts its tongue through the hole to reach the nectar at the base of the tube. In doing this it pushes the abortive anthers backwards, and the upper, fertile anther cells, which rest under the arched upper lip, are thus made to swing downwards and forwards so that they touch the bee's back; and, if they are ripe, to deposit some pollen. After the pollen has been thus removed, the style lengthens and curves downward, bringing the stigma, which is now mature, to the position previously occupied by the fertile anther cells at the time they were made to swing downwards by the bee. Thus, if a bee which has previously visited a flower with mature anthers now comes to one in which the stigma is ripe, the pollen dusted on its back by the former is rubbed against the stigma of the latter, and cross-fertilisation is the result.

The Common Marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_) is an aromatic plant that often grows in great abundance on dry hilly pastures, especially in limestone and chalky districts. Its stem is thin and hairy, a foot or more in height; and the leaves are stalked, ovate, blunt, slightly toothed, downy, and about an inch in length. The flowers, which bloom from July to September, are of a rosy purple colour, in numerous globular clusters, the whole inflorescence forming a leafy panicle. The overlapping bracts are about as long as the calyx, and usually tinged with red or purple; the calyx has five, short, equal teeth, and is very hairy in the throat; the corolla is about twice the length of the calyx, and has four lobes, the upper of which is a little broader than the others; and the stamens are in two pairs, one pair longer than the other. It will be noticed that some of the flowers are larger than others, and that these are perfect, while the smaller ones have no stamens.

In the same order (_Labiatæ_) there is the Self-Heal (_Prunella vulgaris_), a very common plant in moist meadows, flowering from July to the end of the summer. The lower portion of the stem of this plant usually rests on the ground and roots at the nodes, but from this arises the erect branches, four to ten inches high, bearing pairs of oval or oblong, slightly-toothed leaves; and a dense terminal spike of whorled flowers immediately above the last pair. The lipped corolla is of a violet or purple colour, usually about half an inch long. During the flowering stage the spike is very short, but as the fruits ripen it lengthens out to about an inch and a half or two inches.

Coming now to the Plantains (order _Plantaginaceæ_) we have two species to note, both of which are very abundant on pasture land. One is the Greater Plantain (_Plantago major_)--a very low plant, with a short, thick rootstock, and a radical cluster of spreading or ascending leaves with grooved stalks. These leaves are ovate, nearly as broad as long, and traversed by five, seven, or nine strong parallel veins which converge into the stalk at the base. Each little flower of the long, slender spike has four sepals; a corolla with a tube and four spreading lobes; and four stamens that project beyond the corolla. The fruit is a small capsule which splits transversely when ripe. The plant flowers from June to August.