Chapter VI: Part 6

The third species referred to is the Musk Mallow (_M. moschata_), so called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant, especially when rubbed or crushed. It is often seen in hedgerows, but is not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather partial to gravelly soils. The plant is hairy, of a pale green colour, with an erect stem from two to three feet high. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the stem. The fruit is hairy. A white variety is occasionally seen, and this is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. The time of flowering is July and August.

Some three species of Geranium (order _Geraniaceæ_) have already been described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers.

The first of these is the Round-leaved Crane's-bill (_Geranium rotundifolium_), which rather closely resembles the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. It is a downy plant, growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in June and July. The flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour; and the petals are _not_ notched. This species is represented on Plate III, Fig. 1.

In dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the Bloody Crane's-bill (_Geranium sanguineum_), which, though not common, is very widely distributed in Britain. It has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven deeply-cut segments. The flowers are solitary, dark crimson (occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. This species flowers during July and August.

The Small-flowered Crane's-bill (_G. pusillum_) also resembles the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller--about a third of an inch in diameter--and of a pale lilac colour. The stems are prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves roundish and deeply lobed. The sepals terminate in a sharp point, and the petals are notched. This is a very common species, which flowers throughout the summer.

British wild flowers of the Geranium family are divided into two groups, known popularly as the Crane's-bills and the Stork's-bills, the former constituting the genus _Geranium_, of which several flowers have been described; and the latter forming the genus _Erodium_. These two groups are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily distinguished by the aid of the following notes:--The flowers of the Crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the Stork's-bills are rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. In the former there are ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. Further, in the genus _Geranium_ the persistent styles are straight, while in the Stork's-bills they are twisted spirally.

The manner in which the seeds of Stork's-bills are dispersed is particularly interesting:--When the fruit is ripe the carpels separate, and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the wind. The carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style, the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper part is straighter but bent to one side. Now, these styles are hygroscopic--that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of the atmosphere as regards moisture. This may easily be shown by placing the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the style is free and serves as a little pointer. If now the open mouth be placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position.

Again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper (not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it to travel along. Thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the Stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant, but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and the seed thus naturally buried.

There are three British Stork's-bills, of which only one may be described as common. This is the Hemlock Stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places, especially near the sea. Its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. The petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall.

Passing now to the order _Leguminosæ_, we deal first with the exceedingly pretty and common Bird's-foot Trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble the toes of a bird. Its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term _trefoil_ suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they might be mistaken for stipules. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red. They are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles and short pedicels.

The genus _Vicia_, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known as Tares. These are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary clusters. Their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened.

Two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of which--the Hairy Tare (_Vicia hirsuta_)--is very common in fields and hedges, flowering from June to August. The stems of this plant are slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses, often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. The leaves have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. The pods have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile.

The other Tare referred to is the Slender Tare (_V. tetrasperma_), found principally in the South of England. It owes its specific name to the fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. It is more slender and much less branched than the Hairy Tare, and its leaves have generally only from three to five pairs of leaflets. The flowers are pale blue, appearing from June to August, and are generally solitary or in pairs, on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. The pods are smooth.

The same genus includes the Tufted Vetch (_Vicia Cracca_)--a very common plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of bluish-purple flowers from June to August. Its climbing stem is very weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. The leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. The racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. The pods are smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight seeds.

Of the order _Rosaceæ_ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first example being the Common Avens, also called the Wood Avens and the Herb Bennet (_Geum urbanum_), which is common on banks and hedgerows. This is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers, from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. The numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means by which the seeds are distributed. A variety of the Common Avens occurs with drooping flowers.

The Dog Rose (_Rosa canina_) is one of the prettiest and most abundant flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout June and July. The bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems, often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved prickles. The flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several one-seeded carpels with free styles. The carpels are very hairy, and are enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the ripening is complete.

The Silver Weed (_Potentilla anserina_), of the same order, is one of the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. It has a creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate leaves. The leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath (and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs.

Two of the Cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. These are the Hoary Cinquefoil (_Potentilla argentea_), and the Creeping Cinquefoil (_Potentilla reptans_). The first of these is a partially prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. The leaflets are rendered white beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their edges are curled backwards. The flowers, which bloom in June and July, are yellow, small, and clustered.

The Creeping Cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and forms new roots at the nodes. Its leaves are digitate and long-stalked, with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. The flowers are yellow, solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals.

On banks we frequently meet with the Agrimony (_Agrimonia Eupatoria_), a slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow flowers during June and July. This plant may be readily identified by means of our illustration.

One of the Willow Herbs--the Broad Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (_Epilobium montanum_)--is common on roadside banks, flowering during June and July. Its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute, with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the principal veins, which are more or less downy. The plant grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which droop when in the bud. It belongs to the order _Onagraceæ_; and, like the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens, and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a large number of little, tufted seeds.

The order _Crassulaceæ_ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with small, regular, star-like flowers. Some of them are well known as Stonecrops and House-leeks. Those of the Stonecrop group usually have cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in two whorls.

One member of this group--the Orpine or Livelong (_Sedum Telephium_)--is not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from gardens. Its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate edges. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes.

We have now to consider several species of the order _Umbelliferæ_--a group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to note minute details of structure in order to determine a species.

The leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in umbels. In a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are compound--that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the main peduncle, and thus form the _primary umbel_, give rise to the lesser stalks of the _secondary umbels_, which are similarly arranged and bear the flowers. There are often bracts at the base of the primary umbel, in which case they are termed the _primary bracts_; and there are frequently _secondary bracts_ or _involucels_ at the bases of the secondary umbels.

The flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the ovary. There are also five petals, which generally have their points turned inwards; and five stamens. The inferior ovary consists of two united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and the stamens, and bears two styles.

Special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for purposes of identification. The two carpels are close together, with their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis called the _carpophore_. As the fruit ripens, the carpophore often divides, from above downwards, becoming Y-shaped; and the carpels, thus separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. Each carpel is marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them (_primary ridges_) being more prominent than the four intermediate or _secondary ridges_. The ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly facilitated; and between the various ridges are the _furrows_ of the fruit. In addition to these features, there are often narrow, light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of the fruit. There are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow oil-sacs or _vittæ_. Each carpel contains only one seed.

As to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that the stems of the _Umbelliferæ_ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often _decompound_ (compound, with compound leaflets).

Our first example of this family is the common Hemlock (_Conium maculatum_) of hedges and waste ground--a very graceful plant, with a much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. It is distinguished by a foetid odour and poisonous properties. Its stem is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted with purple or red. The flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts _on one side_ of the secondary umbels. The fruit is short, swollen, and slightly flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittæ, have each five thick, waved ridges. The Hemlock flowers during June and July.

Several of the common umbelliferous plants are called the Fool's Parsley by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is correctly applied only to _Æthusa cynapium_, a smooth, leafy plant, with an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. The plant grows from a foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during July and August, and is common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. It may be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side of each secondary umbel.

On roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet with the Wild Parsnip (_Pastinaca sativa_). This is an erect, downy plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet high. Its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing petioles. The umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts; and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing flattened, winged fruits. The flowers bloom during July and August.

The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed (_Heracleum Sphondylium_) is somewhat similar in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of four or five feet. Its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a reddish white colour, and have unequal petals.

The Upright Hedge Parsley (_Torilis Anthriscus_ or _Caucalis Anthriscus_) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from two to three feet high. Its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. The white or pale pink flowers are arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are armed with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. This is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from July to September.

Our last example of the _Umbelliferæ_ is the Rough Chervil (_Chærophyllum temulum_), which is very common in hedgerows, among the undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. It has a slender stem, from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple, and rendered rough by short hairs. The leaves, which are also rough and spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. The flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud. The bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards.

Passing now to the order _Caprifoliaceæ_, we have to deal with the well-known and favourite Honeysuckle or Woodbine (_Lonicera periclymenum_), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant flowers. It is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. The beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united petals form widely-gaping lips. The plant blooms from June to September, and displays its crimson berries in the autumn.

Two other species of Honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of these is common. One is the Upright Honeysuckle, which has an erect stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The other is the Perfoliate Honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their bases, with the stem running through them. In this one the flower-heads have no stalks.

In the Bedstraw family (order _Rubiaceæ_) we have two very common, hedgerow plants--the Great Hedge Bedstraw (_Galium Mollugo_) and the Goose-grass or Cleavers (_G. Aparine_). The first is a very straggling plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a length of four or five feet. Its leaves are elliptical, with apex terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less forward. They are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes six. The little white flowers, which bloom during July and August, are arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are either horizontal or bent downward. The fruit is smooth.

The Goose Grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also known as the Cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of animals. Its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other hedgerow plants. The leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. The whole plant is rough with hooked bristles.

We conclude this chapter with a description of the common Teasel (_Dipsacus sylvestris_) of the order _Dipsaceæ_. This is really a very graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes reaching six feet or more. Its stem is very stout and prickly; and its large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs. They are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which the rain-water collects. The reservoirs so formed often contain drowned insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been washed down the stem by the rain. Their dead bodies decompose, giving rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally discolour the water. These products are valuable as plant food, and it has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. The flowers of the Teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. The flowers are of a pale purple colour. They commence to open near the middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand both upwards and downwards from this level. The flowers are not conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation.

XII

WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (_Continued_)

COMPOSITE FLOWERS

There are so many flowers of the order _Compositæ_ in bloom by the wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a chapter entirely to them.

This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little flowers or _florets_ that are sessile on a common _receptacle_, as in the case of the Daisy, the Dandelion, and the Thistles.

The florets of each head or _capitulum_ are generally arranged into two well-defined sets--the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from the edge of the disc. These two sets are often of different colours, as in the Daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray florets are white or pink.

In some of the Composites all the florets of each head are perfect, while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. Then, as regards the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil; pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets, possessing neither stamens nor pistil. In some few cases all the florets of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. In all cases the capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often closely overlapping.

The florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many, however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of the ovary. Such a whorl is known as the _pappus_, and it frequently enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. The hairs of the pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the summit of a slender stalk, as in the Dandelion. Further, the hairs which constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered.

The corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with as many teeth; but it is often _ligulate_ or strap-shaped, in which case the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the tip.

Where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube within the tube of the corolla.

Fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the composite flowers:--The anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which, as yet, is immature. The style then lengthens, pushing its way up through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the tufts of hairs on its surface. At this stage a dense cluster of pollen cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects which visit the flowers. The upper part of the style now divides into two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces which form the inner sides of the fork. It will thus be seen that the florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower.

Our first example of this order is the Yellow Goat's-beard (_Tragopogon pratensis_), also known as Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. This is a common wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. The flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at the top. The bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter usually close about the middle of the day. The fruit is long and narrow, with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. The flowers bloom during June and July.

The Bristly Ox-tongue (_Helminthia echioides_ or _Picris echioides_), also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a milky sap. The stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two to three feet high. The leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones _auricled_ or eared. The heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets, surrounded by five large cordate bracts. The fruit is brown, curved, with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. This species flowers from June to September. It is shown on Plate III.

In the same genus we have the Hawkweed Picris (_P. hieracoides_) which bears yellow flowers from June to September. Its stem, more slender than that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are lanceolate and toothed. There are numerous heads of flowers, about an inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles.

The Strong-scented or Acrid Lettuce (_Lactuca virosa_) is moderately common on dry wastes. It is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant, with a milky juice. Its erect stem grows to a height of three or four feet. Its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins, and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. The lower leaves are frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed auricles which clasp the stem. The heads of flowers are small, pale yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. The bracts overlap, the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. Each head contains only a few florets. The fruit is flattened, black, with a beak as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. The flowers appear during July and August.

Another Lettuce, known as the Prickly Lettuce (_L. Scariola_), is somewhat rare. It is really less prickly than the last species, but is equally tall, and flowers during the same months. Its leaves are erect, lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the stem. The fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak of the same length.

Two species of Sow-thistle (genus _Sonchus_) are included among our wayside Composites. They are erect, succulent plants, from two to three feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid leaves. Their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom during the whole of the summer. Each head is surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. The fruits are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs.

One species is known as the Sharp-fringed Sow-thistle or the Common Milk-thistle (_S. oleraceus_). Its leaves are sometimes deeply divided, but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp prickles. The upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading, arrow-shaped ears. The stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is ribbed and transversely wrinkled.

The second is the Common Sow-thistle (_S. asper_)--a very similar plant, but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously toothed, with _rounded_ ears. In this one the fruits are also ribbed, but they are not wrinkled transversely.

The Smooth Hawk's-beard (_Crepis virens_) has a furrowed, branched stem, from a few inches to three feet in height. Its spreading radical leaves are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves are narrow and sagittate. The numerous small heads of yellow flowers are panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. The heads are surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after flowering. The fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky hairs. This plant flowers during July and August. It is very common on waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on the roofs of country cottages and out-houses.

The genus _Hieracium_ (Hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner, but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its division into species. According to some authorities these latter amount to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the British members into no less than thirty-three species.

All the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:--They have a milky sap. The leaves are nearly all radical. The flower-heads are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts. The receptacle is pitted. The fruit is not beaked, and its pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which are simple and of unequal lengths.

One species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the Shrubby Hawkweed (_H. boreale_). It grows from two to four feet high, and bears a corymb of many yellow heads, from July to September. Its stem is hairy below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. This species has no radical leaves. The stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. The peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish green colour.

The Nipplewort (_Lapsana communis_) is another very common Composite of waysides and wastes. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. The leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. The flower-heads are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. The involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. The fruits are flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. The flowers may be seen from July to September.

The Chicory or Succory (_Cichorium Intybus_) is a local plant, but often very abundant where it exists. It has a long tap root; and a strong, erect, bristly and sticky stem. The lower leaves are spreading and hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. The upper leaves are lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. The flower-heads are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few are terminal. The involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. The florets are large; and the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower part of the involucre. The time of flowering is from July to October.

Our next species is the Burdock (_Arctium Lappa_), familiar as a wayside plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre bracts. It is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that often exceed a foot in length. The upper leaves are smaller, and broadly ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. All the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. The flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. The florets are purple, and all equal in size. The fruits are large, and bear a short pappus of stiff hairs.

We now come to the interesting group of Thistles, all distinguished by their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. There are no ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length.

Our first example is the Welted Thistle (_Carduus crispus_ or _Carduus acanthoides_), which is a common plant in the South of England, but much less abundant in the North. In general appearance it closely resembles the Musk Thistle (p. 266), but is usually taller. The stem is covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the leaves. The flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads, which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked prickle. The pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. The above is the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very variable species. The plants vary from one to three feet in height, and flower from June to August.

Throughout the summer we may meet with the Spear Thistle (_C. lanceolatus_), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste places. The plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in height, with a winged, prickly stem. The leaves are cut into short, narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. They are covered above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes terminate in stiff spines. The involucre is oval in form, covered with cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff, spreading spine. The flower-heads are few in number, with purple florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter.

Another common species is the Creeping Thistle (_C. arvensis_), which has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems from two to four feet in height. The stem is not winged, but the prickly leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases. The leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly, and cut into numerous narrow lobes. The flower-heads are small, arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous, closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. The flowers are always imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate plants. The heads of the male plants are globular in form, with spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. The pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the fruit ripens. This species flowers during July and August.

The Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgare_) is common in the hedgerows of most localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter taste of its leaves and flowers. It has a creeping root; an erect, strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy; and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid segments. There are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large flat-topped corymbs. This plant is common in most parts of Britain, grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during August and September.

The Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) is a very common roadside plant in most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. It has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from two to four feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. They are green and smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. The flower-heads are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long, terminal panicle. Each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or including a few without stamens. They are oval in form, and of a reddish or yellowish-brown colour. The plant blooms throughout the summer.

In the same genus is the Absinth or Wormwood (_A. Absinthium_), which is not so tall or so slender as the last species, from which it may readily be distinguished by its powerful aroma and bitter taste. The whole of the plant is whitish with a close, fine down; and the erect stems, from one to two feet high, are stiff and hard. The leaves are very similar to those of the Mugwort, but are much broader, are silky on both sides, and the narrow lobes of the leaves are blunt at the tips. The flower-heads are also similarly arranged, but they are almost globular in form, very silky, and more or less drooping. The florets are numerous, and of a dull yellow colour, the central ones being mostly fertile, while the outer, without stamens, are small, and often barren. The plant flowers during August and September, is not so common as the last species, but is abundant in districts near the sea.

One of the most conspicuous flowers of the summer is the Common Ragwort (_Senecio Jacobæa_). It belongs to the same genus as the Groundsel, but differs in having very showy, terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow flowers with spreading rays. Its erect stem does not branch, as a rule, except near the top, and reaches a height of from one to three or four feet. The outer bracts of the involucre are small and few in number, and both these and the inner ones are generally tipped with black. Occasionally we may meet with plants of this species in which the flower-heads have no ray, but in general the ray is well-formed, and consists of about twelve narrow or oblong florets.

The Common Feverfew (_Matricaria Parthenium_ or _Chrysanthemum Parthenium_) is a very abundant wayside flower, of which a double variety is commonly grown in gardens. The plant reaches a foot or more in height, and flowers freely from July to September. The stems are erect and branched; and the leaves are stalked and pinnately divided into ovate or oblong, lobed, toothed segments. The numerous flower-heads are arranged in a corymb, and are about half an inch in diameter, with white ray and yellow disc. The plant may be distinguished from similar species of the same genus by the little toothed border on the summit of the ripe fruits, and by the strong and somewhat pleasant odour of all its parts.

Even more common, in most places, is the Corn Feverfew or Scentless Mayweed (_M. inodora_), which flowers from June to the end of the summer. Its stem is erect, with spreading branches; and the sessile leaves are two or three times divided into narrow, almost hair-like segments. The flower-heads are much larger than those of the last species, sometimes reaching a diameter of about two inches, and are solitary. The involucre is brown, with a membranous edge; the ray white, and the disc yellow. It is sometimes confused with the Wild Chamomile, but may be distinguished by the shape of the receptacle, which is hemispherical, and not so conical as in _Chamomilla_.

Our last example of the Composites of the wayside is the Yarrow or Milfoil (_Achillea millefolium_)--a plant that might be mistaken by the beginner for one of the Umbellifers when seen at a distance; but a closer examination will show not only that the level-topped inflorescence is a dense, terminal corymb, but also that the flowers are collected into little heads, each of which consists of a few white or pink, pistillate ray-florets, surrounding a little cluster of tubular, perfect, yellow florets of the disc. The leaves are narrow oblong, and very finely cut into many hair-like, branching segments. The whole plant has a strong and rather pleasant odour. It grows from six to eighteen inches high, and flowers from June to September.

XIII

WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER (_Continued_)

Continuing our list of the numerous wayside flowers of the summer months, we take first the Rampion Bellflower or Ramps (_Campanula Rapunculus_), of the order _Campanulaceæ_. The flowers of this order are usually easily distinguished by their bell-shaped corolla, mounted on an inferior ovary, and by their general resemblance to the Canterbury Bells so familiar to us as favourite garden flowers. The Rampion is to be seen on some of the sandy or gravelly wastes of the South of England during July and August, but is rather local in its distribution. It has an angled, erect stem, from two to three feet high, rough with stiff, white hairs. The stem leaves are narrow, pointed, and usually entire; but the lower leaves are broader, with slightly-scalloped edges, on long stalks. The blue flowers are arranged in erect terminal racemes, either simple or branched, each flower having a short stalk. In order to distinguish between this and other species of the same genus we should note that the segments of its calyx are narrow and entire; and that the corolla is divided deeply into five narrow, pointed segments.

The Great Bindweed (_Convolvulus sepium_) of the order _Convolvulaceæ_, is very conspicuous in most hedgerows, and is probably so well known that a description need hardly be given for purposes of identification, but we must call attention to a few interesting features that might be overlooked. It is both a creeper and a climber, for it has a creeping rootstock that enables it to travel considerable distances below the surface of the ground, and a twining stem, usually four or five feet long, by which it climbs over the surrounding plants or shrubs. The large, white flowers, which bloom from June to August, are arranged singly on short stalks. Each has a pair of rather large bracts which completely hide the calyx, and which might at first be mistaken for the calyx itself.

The Small Bindweed is, perhaps, more commonly seen in fields than in hedgerows, and is included among the field flowers on p. 228; and the Dodders, belonging to the same order, are described with the other parasitic plants in Chapter XXIII.

The four British plants of the order _Solanaceæ_ are all wayside species, flowering from June onwards, and may be considered together here. They possess the following features in common:--The leaves are alternately arranged, without stipules. The flowers are regular, with a five-toothed or five-lobed calyx, and a corolla of (usually) five united petals which are folded in the bud. The number of stamens correspond with that of the lobes of the corolla, and the ovary, which is two-celled, ripens into a berry containing several seeds, except in the Henbane, where it forms a capsule.

The Henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_) is an erect plant, with a branching stem from one to two feet high, and the whole is more or less coarse and hairy, with a viscid touch and an unpleasant odour. The flowers are of a dingy yellow colour, and are arranged, with very short stalks, in one-sided, leafy spikes which are curved backwards before the flowers are open. The calyx is at first short, but grows longer, as the fruits ripen, until it is about an inch long. It has prominent veins, and its five lobes are stiff and bristly. The dingy corolla also reaches a length of an inch or more, and is distinctly marked with dark bluish veins. This plant flowers from June to September, and is moderately common in waste places, especially near houses.

The other three flowers of this order referred to are all known as Nightshades, and two of them belong to the genus _Solanum_, in which the flowers are arranged in few-flowered terminal or lateral cymes, on short stalks. The corolla has scarcely any tube, and the flowers are easily distinguished by the peculiar arrangement of the five anthers, which are on very short filaments, and are placed close against the style in such a manner as to form a compact cone in the centre of the flower.

One species--the Black Nightshade (_S. nigrum_)--is rather local in its distribution, but often very abundant where it occurs, appearing as a common weed on cultivated soils. It is an erect, spreading herb, either quite smooth or slightly hairy, growing from six inches to two feet high, with swollen angles on its branching stem. Its leaves are stalked, ovate, more or less wavy, with large angular teeth; and the small, white flowers are on short lateral stalks. The fruit is a small, round, black or scarlet berry. This species may be seen in flower from June almost to the end of the year.

The other species--the Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet (_S. Dulcamara_)--is much more common, and may be seen straggling among the hedgerow shrubs almost everywhere. It is a woody climber that supports itself by means of its zig-zag stem, and often reaches a height of six feet or more. The flower seems to be very well known, but is often, if not generally, spoken of as the Deadly Nightshade, which is a much rarer species with quite a different habit and appearance. The leaves are stalked, and usually more or less heart-shaped. Sometimes they are entire, but frequently there is a small lobe on each side of the base. The flowers, though rather small, are very pretty, the conspicuous cone of yellow anthers forming a bright centre to the spreading purple corolla. They bloom from June to September; and towards the end of the season the bright red fruits may be seen in abundance while the flowers are still appearing.

The true Deadly Nightshade or Dwale (_Atropa belladonna_), of the same order, is a very local plant, occurring principally in waste places in the South of England. It is an erect, branching herb, either smooth or slightly downy, reaching a height of two or three feet, and flowering from June to September. The leaves are large stalked, ovate, and entire; and each one has, usually, a smaller leaf, growing from the same point on the stem and looking like a stipule. The flowers are very different in general appearance from those of the other nightshades. They are large--about an inch long, and solitary, on short stalks, in the axils of the leaves or in the forks of the stem. The calyx is a broad bell, deeply cut into five lobes; and the corolla is a deep, regular bell, of a pale purple colour, with five short, broad lobes. The fruit is a large, poisonous berry, almost globular, but flattened above.

On waysides and in neglected fields we meet with the very common Red Bartsia (_Bartsia Odontites_) of the order _Scrophulariaceæ_. This is a small, tough plant (see Plate III), from six inches to a foot or more in height, rather downy, with spreading branches. It may be readily recognised by its several one-sided spikes of numerous purple-red flowers, with a bell-shaped, four-pointed calyx, and a corolla that is divided into a longer upper, and a shorter lower, lip. The leaves are long and narrow, with a few teeth; and the fruit is an oblong capsule. The above description applies to the most usual form of this plant, but it is a very variable species, especially as regards the form of the leaves and the branching of the stem.

The Yellow Toadflax (_Linaria vulgaris_), of the same order, is a very pretty plant, from one to three feet high, exceedingly common on banks, hedges, and the borders of fields, bearing dense, terminal racemes of yellow flowers from June to October. Its calyx is small, and deeply divided into five segments; and the corolla, which has a long pointed spur at the base, is closed above by the bright orange 'palate' of the lower lip.

In the order _Verbenaceæ_ we have the common Vervein (_Verbena officinalis_), a common plant in the dry wastes of the South of England, and moderately frequent in some other parts. This is a smooth, erect plant, with long, spreading, wiry, four-angled stems; and small, lilac flowers in long, slender spikes. There are but few leaves towards the top of the plant, and these are narrow and sessile, while the lower leaves are broader, stalked, and coarsely toothed. When the flowers first appear they are close together, but the spike increases in length as the flowering proceeds, so that the lower flowers and fruits become more distant. Each flower has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular corolla with a short tube and five unequal lobes. The Vervein grows from one to two feet high, and flowers from July to September.

Passing now to the Labiates, we deal first with two species of Calamints (genus _Calamintha_), which are to be distinguished from the other genera of the order by their axillary cymes of flowers, with calyx and corolla both lipped, and the upper lip of the latter erect and flat.

One of these, the common Calamint (_Calamintha officinalis_), is a hairy plant, with an erect, branched stem, one or two feet high, and stalked, ovate, toothed leaves. The whorls of flowers are compound, in forked, axillary cymes. The calyx is tubular, with thirteen ribs and five pointed teeth. The three upper teeth are united at their base to form the upper lip, while the other two, longer and narrower, form the lower. The corolla is almost twice as long as the calyx, with an upper, erect lip, and a lower lip with three broad lobes. The stamens are four in number, in pairs, under the upper lip.