Chapter C: THE MACDOUGAL TYPE.—The most important form of modern roaster (1)

furnace, and that most generally employed, is the MacDougal type. The first furnace on this principle was invented by Parkes in 1860. The design embodied two hearths, one above the other. Vertically down the centre of these passed a spindle, supporting arms from which were suspended the ploughs, and the rotation of this spindle carried the arms over the beds.

As devised by Parkes, various mechanical difficulties were found, and the working was intermittent, but the principle was recognised as important. MacDougal in 1873 introduced his modification of the furnace, primarily for the roasting of pyrites, at a Liverpool works, and this form has now supplanted many of the older types for copper ore roasting, and is in operation at most of the new smelting works.

_Principles of the MacDougal Type._—The furnace consists of an iron cylinder lined with brick. Six circular hearths are constructed inside, one above the other, and the vertical spindle carrying the arms and ploughs for each hearth passes through the centre of the furnace. The ore is ploughed towards openings on each hearth, which communicate with the hearth below; the charge thus travelling from the outer edge towards the centre, through the central opening to the middle of the next floor, then outwards to the openings at the edge, and so on. The original MacDougal furnace was 12 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. It was improved by Herreshof in the direction of better rabbling mechanism and greater ease of repair. The central spindle was an air-cooled shaft, the supporting arms were made so as to be easily removable from the shaft to facilitate repairs, and the furnace was enlarged. Herreshof used air-cooling for the spindle and arms, as shown in Fig. 20.

Evans, and subsequently Klepetko, in working the furnaces in Montana, introduced, in about 1892, various marked improvements. The dimensions were increased, enlarging the output. The spindle and arms were water-cooled, which improvement removed much of the great difficulty in working the MacDougal furnace, where the rapid wearing out of working parts, and the difficulty of their removal, repair, and renewal interfered greatly with efficient working.

Many of these troubles have now been overcome in the Evans-Klepetko type, and in the still further improvements since made at Anaconda. The general arrangement of the floors, spindles, arms and other details shown in the Herreshof furnace (Fig. 20) are preserved in the Evans-Klepetko and similar types of roaster; the chief alterations are in matters of detail, the results of which have however, been important.

Furnaces of this improved kind are now used all over the West; there are 64 at Anaconda, Mont.; 32 at the International Smelter, Tooele, Utah; 24 at Garfield, Utah; 16 at Steptoe, Nevada; and also at Balakala, Cal., Cerro de Pasco, Peru, and other large smelting centres.

_Important Advantages._—Of the marked advantages of this type of furnace, the following are perhaps the most striking and important:—

(1) There is a great saving of floor space by having the six
hearths one above the other.

(2) The use of a central common spindle carrying the arms
and ploughs simplifies the mechanism.

(3) The form is convenient for the compact arrangement of
a roasting plant of many units for feeding, discharge,
and supervision.

(4) Very little heat is lost by radiation, as the heat
passes mostly from one hearth to another.

(5) Very little fuel is required, none with heavy sulphides
(except for starting), as the heat of oxidation of the iron
and sulphur usually yields a high enough temperature to keep
the operation going. The fuel costs are lower than in other
types of roaster.

(6) Thorough rabbling, greater uniformity and better mixing
of product, continuous and regular feed and discharge are
obtained.

(7) The roasting is thorough, and perfect control of the
degree of oxidation is ensured by adjusting the rate of
passage of the ore through the furnace, which is regulated
by varying the ore feed and the speed of rotation of the
rabbles.

(8) Great saving in labour costs and difficulties. The
labour in roasting plants is extremely arduous, on account
of the high temperature of the material, and is dangerous on
account of the atmosphere.

=The Evans-Klepetko-MacDougal Roasting Furnace Plant at Anaconda.=—The roasting plant at Anaconda formerly consisted of 56 Brückner cylinders, which were eventually all scrapped and replaced by new plant of the MacDougal type, subsequently greatly modified and improved as one difficulty after another had to be overcome.

The saving in working costs resulting from this replacement of the Brückners by MacDougal roasters is reckoned at about 5 cents (2½d.) on every ton of calcines treated.

The roasters are arranged in four rows of 16 each, running east and west. The charge cars travel along tracks at a height of 20 feet above, discharging into rows of bins, one situated over each calciner.

_Details of Furnace._—Height, 18 feet 3½ inches; diameter, 16 feet. Six hearths. The spindle is made in three lengths, each to carry the arms for two hearths; it is 18 inches in diameter and is water-cooled. The rabble arms are 6 feet long, half round, and flanged on the lower side; they too, are hollow and water-cooled. The rabble-blades were formerly cast in one piece with base plate, so as to slide on to the arms, but are made now with detachable blades, which slide into grooves on the base plate, so as to facilitate removal for repairs; the blades are 6 inches square and 1½ inches thick (Fig. 32).

The arms on separate floors are set alternately at right angles. Of the two arms for each floor, one carries six blades, the other seven, so that the furrows resulting from one set of blades are turned over by the other. The blades are set so as to direct the ore from the outer to the inner edge or _vice versâ_, according to the particular hearth. The spindle and connections are protected from falling ore by shields which are bolted on. The rabbles move slowly, making a 2½-inch furrow in a 5-inch layer of material.

_Capacity._—40 to 45 tons per day each, reducing the sulphur in the charge from 30 per cent. to about 8·0 per cent. The output of the plant is about 3,000 tons of calcines daily.

_System of Working._—Since reverberatory furnaces are used essentially as remelting furnaces only, the roasting plant is operated so as to yield a product of such composition as will directly produce a suitable matte and slag on melting in the reverberatories. The fluxes required for the calculated reverberatory charge are, therefore, sent through the roasters mixed with the fine concentrate; such practice possessing many advantages. The charge thus consists of fine concentrate from the concentrator settling tanks, and screened lime-rock flux (too fine to be used in the blast furnaces). The limestone lightens the charge, decreases the tendency to clotting of the pure sulphides, chemically assists oxidation, preheats and thoroughly mixes the flux, and ensures a uniformly mixed charge for the reverberatory furnaces; whilst the extra cost involved is but very small.

Three per cent. of lime is used; 40 tons of concentrates, 1¼ tons of lime-rock, and 1¼ tons of flue-dust being charged per twenty-four hours per furnace, through an automatic gravity feed, the opening of which is closed and opened by an eccentric. The speed of the eccentric and the extent of the opening are adjustable.

_Working._—Charge contains 25 to 35 per cent. sulphur.

_1st Hearth._—Temperature about 230° C. (black heat). This is practically a drying floor, and the wet ore wears the rabbles away rather quickly. Special forms of plough are being introduced. About 4 per cent. of sulphur is driven off from the pyrites.

_2nd Hearth._—Hotter; not quite red, except near outer edge. About 5 per cent. of sulphur burnt off.

_3rd Hearth._—Bright red heat (about 700° C.). Sulphur can be seen burning off the ridges of calcines, with a blue flame. 5 per cent. of sulphur eliminated. There is some clotting, and the sinter sticks to the rabble-blades, and has to be barred off occasionally.

_4th Hearth._—Bright red heat (about 750° C.), uniformly bright, but the flame has ceased. Sulphur loss, 4 per cent.

_5th Hearth._—The hottest (800° C.). Bright red.

_Bottom Hearth._—Cooler, dark red (about 650° C.). The doors on this floor are left open. The charge is guided towards openings at the outer edge to discharge chutes whilst still red hot, and it is fed from here whilst hot into the reverberatory furnace-bins.

Efficient dust catchers and settlers are essential on the roasting plant. The gases escaping at a temperature of about 315° C. contain 2 per cent. of SO_{2} by volume, 5 per cent. by weight. The ore takes 2¼ hours to pass through the furnace. Practically no fuel is required except to warm up the roaster on commencing work.

_Labour._—The requirements are small. There is one general foreman for the plant, and two helpers for each set of four furnaces. The conditions are rather trying, especially during the discharge of the calcines into the reverberatory charge cars.

ROASTING ORES POORER IN SULPHUR, IN MACDOUGAL ROASTERS.—The Anaconda concentrates carry sufficient sulphur (33 per cent.) to supply all the heat necessary for carrying out the roasting operations. When the sulphur is below this requisite quantity, some extra heating may be required, though, on the other hand, the reduction which is necessary in the sulphur contents is lessened, depending, of course, on the proportions of copper and iron in the charge. At Garfield, Utah, where the concentrate only contains 20 per cent. of sulphur, the fuel required for all roaster purposes is equivalent to 0·2 per cent. of the charge, one of the calcines’ outlets being converted into a fireplace. Here the output per furnace per day approaches 55 tons, roasting the sulphur from 20 per cent. down to 10 to 11 per cent. The flue-dust losses at this plant are 6 per cent., so efficient dust catching appliances are essential.

=The Costs of Roasting in the MacDougal Furnace.=—Ricketts has recently published a valuable analysis of the costs of the roasting operations at the Cananea Smelter. The figures must, however, be understood to apply strictly to the conditions prevailing at this particular camp.

The roaster plant consists of 32 improved MacDougal furnaces. The charge supplied to the roasters assays—

Copper, 5·2 per cent.
Iron, 28·4 "
Sulphur, 29·9 "
Silica, 23·6 "
Alumina, 3·7 "

whilst the product (“calcines”) has an average composition of

Copper, 6·3 per cent.
Iron, 34·5 "
Sulphur, 7·7 "
Silica, 28·6 "
Alumina, 4·4 "

The plant operated on the following quantities of material, from February to July, 1911, inclusive:—

Concentrates, 32,929 short tons = 76·08 per cent. of charge.
Fine sulphide ores, 9,590 " = 22·16 " "
Limestone, 762 " = 1·76 " "
—————— ——————
Total charge, 43,281 " = 100·00 " "
Weight of “calcines”
produced, 35,533 " = 82·10 " "
—————— ——————
Shrinkage, 7,748 " = 17·90 " "
====== ======

The total costs of roasting (from roaster charge-bins to reverberatory furnace) worked out at 38·45 cents per ton, the distribution of these costs being as follows:—

Total Costs. Cost per Dry Ton.
Sampling, $222·62 $0·0051
Bedding, 2,016·27 0·0466
Reclaiming, 3,072·71 0·0710
Operating furnaces, 7,680·58 0·1775
Hauling calcines, 911·01 0·0210
General expenses, 1,639·99 0·0379
———————— ——————-
Total direct costs, $15,543·38 $0·3591
Cost of flux, 1,097·85 0·0254
———————— ——————-
Total costs, $16,641·23 $0·3845
========== =======

ANALYSIS OF COST—
(1) _Operating_—
Labour, $7,398·56 $0·1709
Power, 1,577·64 0·0365
Fuel, 773·08 0·0179
Water, 78·71 0·0018
Sundries, 10·30 0·0002
Flux, 1,097·85 0·0254
—————————— ——————-——
$10,936·14 $0·2527

(2) _Repairs_—
Labour, $2,507·35 $0·0579
Shop expense, 361·00 0·0083
Supplies, 2,836·74 0·0656
———————-—— ————-——
Total costs, $16,641·23 $0·3845
========== =======

References.

Peters, E. D., “Principles” and “Practice of Modern Copper Smelting.”
Cloud, T. C., “The M‘Murty-Rogers Process for Desulphurising Copper
Ores.” _Trans. Inst. Min. and Met._, vol. xvi., 1906–7, p. 311.
Hofman, H. O., “Recent Progress in Blast Roasting.”
_Bulletin Amer. Inst. Min. Eng._, No. 42, June, 1910.
Austin, L. S., “The Washoe Plant of the Anaconda Copper Mining
Company.” _Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng._, vol. xxxviii.,
1906, p. 560.
Rickets, L. D., “Developments in Cananea Practice.”
_Engineering and Mining Journal_, Oct. 7th, 1911, p. 693.
Redick F. Moore, “Recent Reverberatory Smelting Practice.”
_Engineering and Mining Journal_, May 14th, 1910, p. 1021.

See also—

Pulsifer, H. B., “Important Factors in Blast Roasting.”
_Met. and Chem. Eng._, 1912, vol. x., No. 3, March,
pp. 153–159. (With good Bibliography.)
Editorial Correspondence, “Sinter-Roasting with Dwight-Lloyd
Machines at Salida, Col.” _Ibid._, 1912, vol. x., No. 2,
Feb., p. 87.
Dwight, A. S., “Efficiency in Ore-Roasting.” _School of
Mines Quarterly_, 1911, vol. xxxiii., No. 1, Nov., pp. 1–17.

LECTURE V.

REVERBERATORY SMELTING PRACTICE.

Functions of the Reverberatory Furnace — Requirements
for Successful Working — Principles of Modern
Reverberatory Practice — Operation of Modern Large
Furnaces — Fuels for Reverberatory Work; Oil Fuel;
Analysis of Costs — Condition of the Charge.

=The Functions of the Reverberatory Furnace.=—The reverberatory is essentially the furnace for the smelting of fine material, as the comparatively still atmosphere, the absence of blast, and the opportunities for settling prevent the heavy losses by dust which necessarily accrue with the other types of smelting furnace. The atmosphere of the furnace is practically neutral, it therefore exercises little influence on the reactions taking place in the charge, and the reverberatory is, in consequence, mainly a melting furnace.

Its functions are:—

(_a_) To allow of the formation, from the mixture of sulphides
and oxides in the roasted materials from the calciners,
of a copper matte and a slag.
(_b_) To maintain such a high temperature as to render these
products perfectly fluid, and thus to allow the matte and
slag to settle and separate thoroughly.

In spite of the neutral atmosphere, however, the smelting of the roasted materials usually results in a higher concentration than would be expected from the calculation of the sulphur, copper, and iron in the charge. The reason of this is that the smelting operation results in some further elimination of the sulphur, which causes the production of a higher grade matte. This additional elimination of sulphur in the reverberatory furnace smelting of the roasted charge is due to the reactions which take place on melting, between the oxides, sulphates, and sulphides of copper, all of which exist in the products from the roasters. These reactions are expressed by the equations—

Cu_{2}S + 2Cu_{2}O ➡ 6Cu + SO_{2}
Cu_{2}S + CuSO_{4} ➡ 3Cu + 2SO_{2},

which indicate a further addition of copper to the matte, and a corresponding loss of sulphur. Thus a typical reverberatory charge of the following composition:—

Silica, 27·2 per cent.
Iron, 31·0 "
Lime, 2·3 "
Sulphur, 8·4 "
Copper, 8·3 "

should theoretically yield, on melting down, a matte running—

─┐ ┌─ ─┐ ┌─
[8]Cu (8·3) -> Cu_{2}S 10·4 │ │ Cu 8·3 │ │ Cu 30 %
├─ = ─┤ S 8·4 ├─ or ─┤ S 30 %
S (8·4−2·1) -> FeS 17·6 │ │ Fe 11·3 │ │ Fe 40 %
─┘ └─ ─┘ └─

In actual practice however, the matte resulting from the reverberatory smelting of the charge had the composition—

┌─
│ Cu 45 per cent.
─┤ S 27 "
│ Fe 28 "
└─

the 3 per cent. loss of sulphur causing a 15 per cent. increase in the copper contents of the matte.

Experience in the working of the plant enables the management to determine this important factor with fair accuracy, and thus from a knowledge of the composition of the roaster product, to regulate and control the grade of the matte produced at the reverberatories. In modern reverberatory practice, therefore, the control of the furnace products is carried out at the roasting plant, and the reverberatory furnace has simply to melt the charge and ensure good settling.

_Anaconda Practice_ affords a good illustration. The foreman of the reverberatory furnaces simply charges what is sent him from the roasters, and practically nothing else is put in,[9] his duty being to smelt this mixture and to obtain from it a clean slag and fluid matte. He is not responsible for the grade of the matte, and if this is not satisfactory, some change is made in the working at the roasters. The reverberatory foreman does not learn the composition of the materials passing into his furnace until he is furnished with the daily assay reports on the following day.

Reverberatory smelting is essentially a British process, developed in Wales, as already explained, owing to a plentiful supply of good furnace coal yielding a long flame, and also of good refractory material. Many Swansea workmen were, in the early days of American development, and are still, employed in charge of such copper furnaces, and it is largely due to British technical skill and to American genius for organisation and development that reverberatory smelting in the large furnaces at modern works has become so very successful.

=The Principles of Modern Practice.=—Success in modern reverberatory work has been due to the recognition of the fact, that with the maintenance of constant high temperature on large masses of material, thorough fusion and separation of the products can be very efficiently conducted.

=The Requirements for Successful Reverberatory Work.=—Since the action in the furnace is performed mainly by the effects of heat, it is necessary that—

A. The melting should be as rapid as possible.
B. The losses of heat during melting should be reduced
to a minimum.

The temperature required for the formation of slag and for obtaining a thorough fluidity of the materials is from 1,400° to 1,600° C., and the methods of achieving the proper conditions can best be stated as the avoiding of all circumstances likely to cool the furnace or to interfere with the melting down of the charge.

A. To ensure rapidity of melting, it is essential that a very large quantity of coal shall be burned as rapidly as possible. This requires—

i. A large grate area.
ii. A good draft.
iii. The firing and grating to be conducted so as to
interfere as little as possible with the regularity
and degree of heating.

In localities where a supply of suitable coal is not available, other methods of heating, such as the use of oil or gaseous fuel, are necessary.

B. To prevent heat losses as much as possible, it is necessary—

i. To avoid leakages of cold air into the furnace.
ii. To prevent radiation of heat through walls and roof.
iii. To prevent the hearth from being cooled by the
withdrawal of heated charges and the substitution
of fresh and cold ones.
iv. To utilise the heat of the already melted charge
for the heating up of the fresh ore.
v. To avoid as much as possible, waste of heat by the
escaping gases.

A. FOR RAPIDITY OF MELTING.

A. i.—_Enlarged Grate Area._—In the older methods of working, there was a general tendency to employ a furnace of standard size, and improvements in the economy of the process were in the direction of reducing the fuel bill as much as possible for the given size of furnace. This was effected by keeping the grate area fairly small.

In modern practice, economical working still involves having the ratio of size of hearth to size of fire-box as large as possible, but instead of reducing the dimensions of the fire-grate to suit the hearth, a large grate is built to commence with, and the hearth is constructed of such a size as will utilise all the heat available. From this principle of burning a large quantity of fuel and melting with it as much charge as possible, the efficient and economical working of large furnaces has been developed.

A grate area of about 28 square feet is now regarded as the minimum for economical work at modern smelters, and fire-boxes up to 128 square feet in area are usual in practice.

In small fire-boxes, only small quantities of fuel can be burned at once, and in consequence, fresh firing is continually required, which interferes greatly with the work of the furnace and decreases the rapidity of heating. Each addition of cold fuel has a cooling effect on the fire and furnace gases, the temperature in the hearth being found to drop for a period of five or ten minutes by as much as 100° C., the flame becoming smoky, red, and cold. A similar time is required for the original temperature to be attained once more. Cold air is also admitted every time the fire-box doors are opened for charging.

The advantages of large grate area therefore include:—

(_a_) Much less cooling of the furnace by frequent
additions of fuel.
(_b_) Higher temperatures, owing to the increased
calorific intensity of large quantities of fuel
burned at once.
(_c_) Less blanketing of the fire by fuel additions.
(_d_) Less chance of the whole of the grate area
being clinkered up at once, and in consequence,
less likelihood of interference with the rapid
combustion of the fuel.

The most rapid and economical smelting at the present day requires that at least 0·7 lb. of coal be burned per minute per square foot of hearth area.

A. ii.—_Draft._—The charge in a reverberatory furnace hearth is melted chiefly by the heat from the hot gases passing over it, and in giving up their heat to the charge, the gases become cooled down. The heating of the charge is made continuous by the continual addition of fresh fuel in the fire-box, and by the drawing of the flames over the hearth by means of flues situated at the other end of the furnace and leading to the stack. The flues and stack must be large enough to cause sufficient draft through the furnace for the heated gases to be drawn over the charge with sufficient rapidity, and much unsuccessful work has been due to the fact that these requirements have not been fulfilled. There should be a suction equivalent to at least 1 inch to 1·5 inches water pressure up the stack, this being readily measured by water-manometers—a feature of modern working.

Reverberatories may be worked either by forced or natural draft, the latter being usually preferred, though it necessitates a large stack and spacious flues.

Forced draft by fan or blower under the fire-grate has been in use at several smelters, the ashpit then being closed. It was at one time adopted at Anaconda, but was given up later. The use of forced draft has the advantage that leakages of cold air into the furnace are to a large extent prevented, hot gases tending to be forced out rather than cold air drawn in, but the objections to its use include the facts that—

(_a_) Special power and machinery are required.
(_b_) The intense action near the fire-bars produces,
from the ash of the coal, a massive clinker in a
semi-fused condition, difficult to deal with.
(_c_) It is stated by smelters to have a cooling action
near the fire-bridge.

A. iii.—_Firing and Grating._—This question is closely connected with the dimensions of the grate, since the use of a small fire-box necessitates methods of firing and grating which are not conducive to the most rapid and efficient combustion of the fuel. In addition to the cooling action of frequent fresh fuel charges in the small fireplace, attendant disadvantages include the closing up of the spaces in the grate by which air enters for burning the fuel, and the consequent necessity for frequent grating with small beds of fuel, which entails numerous objections.

The addition of fresh coal to the fire causes the production of large quantities of volatile hydrocarbons which require an increased air supply for proper combustion, and this air admission is just prevented by the blanketing action of the fresh fuel added. This is indicated by the red smoky flame, and means waste and cooling. The difficulty is overcome by the arranging of a series of air-holes at the fire-box end of the furnace, near the fire-bridge, and by the opening of these directly after firing, the volatiles are immediately burnt up. This is an important feature in successful working, and with a large fire-grate and this air-admission, the effect of adding even 1½ tons of fuel on to the fire at once causes little difference in the furnace temperature. The flame is observed through a window let into the off-take flue, which allows of the changes in appearance being noted by the fireman on the fire-box platform.

The fire is kept moderately shallow, to allow of rapid burning of the fuel, though deep enough to keep up the enormous body of heat necessary in the furnace.

B. THE PREVENTION OF HEAT LOSSES.

B. i.—_Avoiding Leakage of Cold Air._—The admission of cold air was the cause of much waste in the older processes of working. Each time the doors were opened, either at the fire-box, or during charging on to the hearth, large quantities of cold air were admitted; air entered through the working door whilst slag was skimmed off, whilst matte was being tapped, and whilst the furnace hearth was being clayed; all of which operations occupied considerable time. The doors were opened during the levelling down of the fresh charges, and at later periods when the charge was stirred and the half-fused masses sticking to the bottom were worked up.

In modern practice, an essential feature of working is to keep all the doors closed as much as possible, and, as will be indicated shortly, every means is taken to eliminate the heat losses from the causes just referred to. Air leakage is also occasioned by bad grating, which causes the formation of channels in a few parts of the bed of fuel, admitting excess of air at these places, instead of causing it to come regularly through the bed in all parts. Channelling is now checked by the drop of suction-pressure in the flues, as registered by the manometer.

B. ii.—_Prevention of Radiation through Walls and Roof._—Such heat losses are now minimised by thickening these parts, and blanketing the outside of the roof with sand, keeping the construction together by very heavy bracing.

B. iii.—_Prevention of Cooling of the Hearth on Withdrawal and on Charging._—By far the most important cause of heat losses in working was occasioned by the withdrawal of the whole of the melted products, the charging of fresh cold ores, and the efficiency of the furnace was very greatly reduced in consequence. In the older methods, fully three-quarters of the time and fuel, and almost all the labour, were spent in manipulating the charges and bringing them up to the point of fusion, the actual smelting operation being responsible for but a small proportion. The withdrawal of the hot slag and matte abstracts much of the heat of the furnace, and the cold charge which is fed in, not only cools the furnace hearth on which it rests, but being a poor conductor, prevents the heat from again penetrating through it to the hearth and to the undermost portion of the charge. It has been estimated through the use of pyrometers, that the temperature in the furnace after such withdrawal and recharging may drop to less than 700° C.—a dull red heat—and there is no way under such circumstances of heating up the hearth again, except by conduction through the charge. Some hours’ hard firing were thus required to bring the furnace to the desired temperature again, after which it was necessary to re-open the working doors, in order to stir the materials so as to prevent the half-fused masses, still lying on the hearth, from sticking to it. This also occasioned delay in the operations, and caused much waste of fuel, heat, and labour.

B. iv.—_Utilising the Heat of Melted Charges for the Heating of Fresh Additions._—All the above difficulties, and many others, have been overcome by maintaining a deep pool of hot molten matte in the furnace, and by feeding hot charges upon this matte layer. These are two of the most vital and successful changes introduced into modern reverberatory practice, and will be reviewed in detail subsequently.

B. v.—_Utilising the Heat of the Escaping Gases as much as possible._—Improvements in this direction have been brought about—

(_a_) By constructing the furnace of as great a length as
will allow of maintaining the charge in a sufficiently fluid
state to permit of its being tapped from the furthermost end
of the furnace.
(_b_) By using the still hot escaping gases under boilers.

=Modern Reverberatory Practice.=—The requirements for the successful operation of the reverberatory furnace, and the methods for ensuring its efficient working which have just been reviewed, involve the application of the following principles, which are the essential factors in modern reverberatory smelting practice:—

1. The grade of the furnace products is controlled at the roasters.
2. The melting must be as rapid as possible.
3. The employment of very large furnaces.
4. The use of a heated matte-pool in the furnace.
5. The charging of hot calcines.
6. The regulation of the furnace working by draft pressures.
7. The continuous working of the furnace.
8. Modified constructional details.

1. _Control of Furnace Products at the Roasters._—This feature has already been indicated in dealing with roasting practice. The importance of this system in the economy and efficiency of the furnace working is very marked.

(_a_) The roasting plant affords the most ready means of control over the desired sulphur elimination, this being its sole function. The modern roaster is so designed as to allow of almost perfect regulation in this respect, since amount of feed and rate of passage of the sulphides through the furnace are under perfect control.

(_b_) The work of the reverberatory is thus confined to one object only, that of rapid melting down, to which the foreman can give his sole attention free from the necessity of manipulating the grade of the matte at the same time.

In modern work it is usual to pass the whole of the charge (concentrates as well as flux) intended for the reverberatories, through the roasting plant. The advantages of such procedure are—

(i.) The flux is preheated at little extra expense,
there being usually plenty of heat to spare for
this, and the roaster capacity is not unduly
decreased.
(ii.) Intimate mixing of the charge is assured, and
this greatly facilitates the fusion and reaction.
(iii.) More rapid and thorough roasting is effected,
since the presence of the inert flux prevents
clotting or undue sintering of the sulphides in the
roaster.
(iv.) The charge is found to be in a much better
condition, both physically and chemically, for
successful reverberatory smelting.

Lime in the roaster charge appears to assist the thoroughness of the roast, whilst an incipient slag formation is commenced owing to the juxtaposition of basic oxides and silica, in the hotter parts of the roaster furnace.

2. _Rapidity of melting_ is an indispensable feature of modern work. The conditions necessary for rapid melting have been reviewed above.

3. _Use of Large Furnaces._—Reverberatory furnaces appear to have replaced the blast furnace in Great Britain somewhere about 1700, and by 1854 they were in general use in this country. At this period the usual dimensions were, for the hearth 13 feet by 9 feet, with a fire-box 4 feet by 4 feet, the furnace having a capacity of 12 tons per twenty-four hours. In Great Britain the size increased very slowly, and it was in the United States of America that the important increase in dimensions and in enormous outputs were developed. The work was commenced systematically in about 1878 by Richard Pearse (a Swansea-trained metallurgist) at the Argo Smelter in Colorado. Table V. indicates the gradual improvements in practice resulting from these developments (see also Fig. 23, p. 90).

TABLE V.—DEVELOPMENT IN SIZE OF THE REVERBERATORY FURNACE.

─────┬─────────────┬────────────────┬─────┬───────────┬──────────────
│ Fire─box │ Hearth │ │ │ Tons Ore per
Year.│ Dimensions. │ Dimensions. │Stack│ Capacity. │ Ton Coal.
─────┼─────────────┼────────────────┼─────┼───────────┼──────────────
1878,│4' 6" × 5' │ 9' 8" × 15' │2' 9"│12 tons. │2·4 tons.
1882,│4' 6" × 5' │10' 4" × 17' 10"│2' 9"│17 " │2·43 "
1887,│4' 6" × 5' 6"│12' 8" × 21' 2"│3' 0"│24 " │2·67 "
1891,│4' 6" × 6' │14' 2" × 24' 4"│3' 0"│28 " │2·8 "
1893,│5' × 6' 6"│16' × 30' │3' 6"│35 " (43)‡│2·7 " (3·3) ‡
1894,│5' × 6' 6"│16' × 35' │4' 0"│ (50)‡│ (3·7) ‡
1903,│5' 6" × 10' │20' × 50' │5' 5"│ (70)‡│ (3·1) ‡
1910,│8' × 16' │19' × 116' │ .. │ (275)‡│ (4·66)‡
─────┴─────────────┴────────────────┴─────┴───────────┴──────────────
‡ The charges of calcines were fed whilst still red hot.

This practice has been continued in modern smelter work, the developments being in the direction of attempting to melt the largest possible quantity of charge in one furnace as rapidly as possible. This has been found to depend upon the rapidity with which the fuel is burned, and the enlarging of the fire-box had a specially important influence in effecting this rapidity of combustion.

Then, with the size of grate fixed and the most efficient burning of the fuel arranged for, the capacity of the furnace depends simply on increasing the area of the hearth to as great an extent as the heat generated is capable of maintaining at the desired temperature.

The breadth of the furnace is however, limited by—

(_a_) The span of arch which can be supported in the
construction.
(_b_) The length of the tools which can be conveniently
managed.

The maximum width so far found satisfactory is about 19 feet, so that this dimension being fixed, the furnace capacity is enlarged by increasing the length, and this is limited only by the distance from the fire-box to which the flame can maintain the temperature necessary for keeping the charge in a state of perfect fluidity. For many years the length was regarded as limited to 50 feet, smelting about 2·7 to 3·0 tons of charge per ton of coal, but E. P. Mathewson, at Anaconda, finding the escaping gases still very hot, gradually increased the length of the hearth, first to 60 feet, then to 80 feet, and finally up to 116 feet, when the furnace smelted 4·83 to 5·0 tons of charge per ton of coal. The gases then left the furnace at a temperature of about 950° C., and contained sufficient heat to fire two Stirling boilers, each of 375 H.P. Every furnace thus provided about 600 H.P. from this waste heat, and the gases finally escaped at a temperature of 320° C.

The capacity of these large furnaces is about 270 to 300 tons of charge per day, and in addition to the economy and efficiency resulting from the treatment of such large quantities of material at once, there are the further great advantages in that—

(_a_) Settling of matte and slag is much more perfect
when such large quantities of fluid material are
stored.
(_b_) Tapping of matte and slag is easier and more
efficiently conducted.

About 110 feet appears to be the practicable maximum for furnace length, and reverberatories of this size are being constructed wherever circumstances permit, several new smelters having erected such furnaces—there are eight at Anaconda, Mont.; two at Garfield, Utah; five at Tooele, Utah; four at Cananea, etc. The length of the hearth is naturally dependent upon the character of the fuel, particularly the length of flame given out on burning. Bituminous fat coals are the most suitable for this purpose, and in localities where such fuel is not available, the use of liquid fuel has now been successfully adopted.

4. _Maintaining a Heated Matte Pool in the Furnace._—This is probably the most important and beneficial advance made in reverberatory practice.

In certain stages of the old Welsh process, a store of matte was retained in the furnace after skimming off the slag, but the object was to collect a sufficiently large quantity of matte in the furnace for convenient tapping out.

The modern practice has several objects and possesses enormous advantages—

(i.) It assists efficient settling.
(ii.) It conserves the heat inside the furnace.
(iii.) It presents a highly heated surface
for the fresh charge to fall upon, and thus greatly
increases the rapidity of melting, by ensuring that
the charge is heated both from above and from below.
(iv.) It prevents the sticking of half-fused charges
to the furnace bottom, the removal of which masses
would necessitate much labour, and occasion cooling
of the furnace by the opening of working doors.
(v.) It preserves the furnace bottom.

Liquid matte has practically no action on the siliceous material of the hearth, and so presents an inert mass between the bottom and the charge. This charge consists of calcines (mainly oxides of iron), which would, during the process of melting down, slag with and corrode the furnace hearth were it not protected by the matte layer.

(vi.) It allows of continuous charging and withdrawal
of materials, and of continued high temperature
in the furnace, thus protecting the furnace
lining from much wear and tear. Nothing damages
furnace linings more than exposure to changes of
temperature, on account of the continual expansion
and contraction of the brickwork and the low
thermal conductivity of the silica. Furnace linings
wear out much more from such action than from long
exposure to continued high temperature.

(vii.) There is effected an enormous saving of time,
fuel, and labour by maintaining a constant high
temperature, instead of having to heat the furnace
up again after each tapping and charging, as was
the case with the older methods of working.

(viii.) The levelling of the charges in the furnace is
greatly facilitated. The charges would otherwise
pile up under the charging hoppers, and form
heaps which are not only difficult to melt down,
but which tend to stick to the furnace bottom,
requiring time and arduous labour for their
removal. In modern practice, charges in quantities
of 10 to 15 tons at a time maybe dropped in, these
merely spread themselves out on the bath of molten
material and float down in a thin stream towards
the skimming door at the end, and they generally
melt and disappear when half-way down the furnace.

By this means, the working doors at the side need practically never be opened for manipulating the fresh charges.

5. _The Charging of Hot Calcines._—This improvement was also introduced by Pearse, and possesses very many advantages; he was able to increase the furnace output by 23 per cent. with the aid of this device.

Instead of allowing the materials from the roasters to cool down, they are taken straight from the roaster bins to the hoppers which feed the reverberatory furnace, where they retain much of their heat until charged into the furnace, being then still red hot as a rule. Much time and fuel is thus saved owing to the charge requiring less heating up, and the cooling action of charging is diminished.

A charge of 15 tons is completely melted within an hour.

6. _Regulation of Furnace by Draft Pressure._—It has already been pointed out that rapid combustion of fuel, and consequently rapid melting, is greatly assisted by good draft through the furnace. In modern practice, where the factors, such as charge composition, nature of fuel, and furnace proportions, have been satisfactorily arranged for independently, the actual working of the furnace is regulated by the draft pressures. These are registered automatically by water-manometers arranged at various points. One usually communicates with the furnace, above the fire-bridge; another is connected to the down-take flues. The indications of these instruments enable a record to be kept of the various operations, and of the charging of the furnace, as well as of the condition of the fire. The usual draft pressure worked with corresponds to about 0·8 inch of water, registered above the fire-bridge.

On opening the hopper for charging, the pressure drops almost to zero; the opening of any doors causes a reduction in pressure; the charging of coal is also rendered noticeable by a drop in the record. Reduction of pressure also indicates “airing” of the furnace by an excess of air entering through channels in the bed of coal; draft-pressure thus acting as a check on the firing and also on the grating, since the formation of excessive clinker in the fire-box is indicated by an increase in the pressure.

Corresponding to such record over an 8-hour shift, as shown on fig. 24, Offerhaus noted the following furnace manipulations, illustrating how accurately the operations are checked by this method:—

a.m.
7.00–7.14 Skimming (coal charged during this period).
7.16–7.16½ Side door opened.
7.28–7.31 Coal charged.
7.52–7.57 _Charged._
8.05–8.15 Tapped.
8.15 Coal charged.
8.40 Coal charged.
8.54–8.59 Grating.
9.05 Side door opened. _Charged._
9.27 Coal charged.
9.49 Coal charged.
10.07 _Charged._
10.25 Coal charged.
10.41 Coal charged.
10.45–10.58 Skimming.
11.04 Coal charged.
11.16 _Charged._
11.16–11.35 Some grating.
11.36 Coal charged.
12.03 p.m. Coal charged.
12.04 _Charged._
12.37–12.48½ Tapped, 1½ ladles (about 11 tons).
12.45 Coal charged.
1.00 _Charged._
1.11–1.45 Grating.
1.26 Coal charged.
1.44 _Charged._
1.51 Coal charged.
2.18 Coal charged.

Total charges during shift, 16 coal, 7 calcines.

The draft record is placed close to the charging platform, in order to be in a convenient position for the guidance of the workmen. The draft in the main flues is 1·7 to 1·8 inches water pressure; this is similarly recorded in the foreman’s office.

7. _Continuous Working of the Furnace._—The continuous working of the furnace is a most important factor in modern practice, and is naturally inseparably bound up with the principle of maintaining the heated matte-pool in the furnace, which allows of the continuous charging of hot “calcines,” and the continuous or regular withdrawal of slag and of matte when required.

The matte (which can be efficiently settled, owing to the prevailing high temperature and the large mass of heated material in the furnace) is stored there until required at the converters, when the desired quantities are tapped out. The slag which is produced by the smelting action gradually accumulates, and at regular intervals most of it is run out (rather than skimmed). This usually takes place every four hours. The slag accumulates until it reaches a level some 3 or 4 inches above the skimming plate at the end of the furnace, and the quantity which is run out at each “skimming” amounts to some 60 or 80 tons, the contents of the furnace being lowered to such an extent that a fresh accumulation of material may proceed during the next four hours. No pulling of the slag is required as in the older methods of working, since the material is so very hot and fluid that it simply pours out of the furnace, and twenty minutes usually suffices for the whole of the 60 or 80 tons to run off, the rabble being used chiefly to regulate and control the stream, and to keep back siliceous crusts or floaters. The slag is run out until the matte is seen underneath, on flapping back a thin layer, or until the level of the skimming plate is reached, and its removal is such a short and simple operation that there is very little interference with the regular and continuous running of the furnace. Similarly, the tapping of as much as 50 to 100 tons of matte from the store of 250 tons of hot fluid material has little influence on the continuous working. Charging of coal and calcines is performed at regular intervals, and the charges of 15 tons of “calcines” fed in at a time, readily melt down and settle. Practically the only interference with continuous running is the necessity for claying and repairing, and the use of the matte pool on the hearth has lessened the frequency for this to a large extent, the hearth bottom itself being protected from corrosion, owing to the sulphides exerting no action upon it, whilst the oxides in the charge which would be capable of attacking the siliceous bottom are slagged off before they get an opportunity of reaching it. The hearth bottom, if properly put in, is practically permanent.

The portion of the furnace most subject to corrosion is at the slag line, where deep channels are gradually cut out. Every four to six weeks the furnace is tapped dry, repaired, and fettled, as much as 20 tons of fettling sand being often required for this purpose. The sand is thrown in and patted into place by long rabbles, the operations occupying about eighteen hours. Every nine months or so the furnace is repaired more fully, 20 or 30 feet of brickwork near the fire-bridge being taken down, and the great cavities in the side walls repaired by masons, using silica bricks. The employment of higher temperatures in modern work allows of more siliceous slags being produced, which lessens the tendency to the eating away of the walls.

The feeding of siliceous copper ores through a series of small hoppers situated in the roof, near to the walls, has lately been introduced with a view to protecting the furnace sides from the corrosive action of the slag, and to exposing a suitable siliceous flux to this material. This appears to have fulfilled its purpose to some extent, but various difficulties have been encountered in practice, especially the tendency for the cold added material to form floaters, which require limestone additions in order that they may be fluxed off; and the cooling effects and leakages through the openings have also given trouble.

8. _Modified Constructional Details._—In addition to the increased size of fire-box, hearth, and flues, and to the necessity for very heavy staying in order to keep the enormous arch in permanent shape, which are characteristic of modern practice, the construction of modern furnaces involves the building of a suitable hearth to carry the heavy burden of hot and fluid matte which is stored in the furnace.

It was formerly considered correct practice, in the smaller types of furnace, to construct the hearth over a vault, in order to keep the underside cool and thus prevent the corrosion and eating away of the siliceous bottom by the oxidised charges, during the process of melting down. In modern practice it is absolutely essential to work with a perfectly solid structure.

(_a_) Because the hearth must be kept as hot as possible, so as to ensure rapid melting of the charge and maintain the products in a perfectly fluid condition. Any circumstance tending to cool the hearth is rigorously avoided, this being the contrary of the older practice. The protective influence of the heated matte-pool in modern work preserves the bed from the corroding effects of fresh oxidised charges, and in consequence, the maximum degree of heat can with safety be maintained on the furnace hearth.

(_b_) The enormous weight of charge and the heavy arch and walls demand the strongest possible foundations and support.

In building modern reverberatories, the foundation for the hearth is constructed of solid masonry or brickwork, or as at Anaconda, of a solid bed of slag, some 24 inches in depth, run in from an adjacent furnace. The I-beams used for carrying the bracing are erected in a surrounding trench, and a further quantity of slag (4 feet thick by 2 feet deep) is run in, thus yielding a perfectly rigid and impervious foundation (Fig. 26). On the top of this slag-foundation is built a layer, 12 inches thick, of silica bricks, and upon this, the actual working bottom of the furnace is constructed.

This bottom is now put in also in a manner different to the older practice, and excellent results have accrued from the change.

The old method of constructing sand bottoms consisted of putting in the beds of sand, layer by layer, and thoroughly fritting each one before the addition of the next: in modern practice, it is found that proper consolidation is not attained with beds of the enormous area now employed, when the bottom is constructed in such layers.

The present method of working the reverberatory furnace is not to drop the charge on to the sand hearth at all, but into the deep pool of matte, and the sand-hearth is regarded more as a convenient foundation for the support of this liquid working-bed, on account of its constituting a cheap non-conducting and fire-proof material which is unaffected by the materials resting upon it. It was found, however, on commencing this matte-pool practice, that the older method of putting in the bottom in successive sand layers was not suitable for this work; after a little wear, the beds became raised in layers, this being especially the case if any holes happened to be eaten through in places. Moreover, the large weight of matte tended to find its way down between the layers and raise them up bodily, or else it worked down at the edges of the hearth and side walls, and either broke out underneath the former or through the latter. When it was ascertained that liquid matte itself had no corrosive action on the siliceous hearth if the latter be kept constantly covered, and that the causes of breakouts were principally due to mechanical weaknesses, it required only improvements in design and construction in order to avoid them. This is now attained by constructing the bed in a compact and perfectly massive form, and is best accomplished by putting in the whole layer of 26 inches of sand at once, and firing as hard as it is possible for the brickwork to stand. The method has met with exceptional success in practice, rigid and impervious hearths are obtained; it being found that less than 1 inch has worn off the bed after two years’ working.

=Large Reverberatory Furnaces: Details of Construction.=—The large furnaces at Anaconda were the first of the modern type to be constructed, they have met with enormous success in practice and constitute the standard form. Similar furnaces are now in operation or under construction at many of the large modern camps, and are of similar design and construction.

The _hearth_ is 102 to 116 feet long by 19 feet wide.

_Grate_, 16 feet by 8 feet = 128 square feet grate area.

Ratio of hearth to grate area is 16 : 1.

_Distance_ from hearth to level of fire-bridge, 26 inches; hearth to crown of arch, 6 feet 5 inches. _Walls_ are 26 inches thick. _Roof_ is 15 inches thick (except for 4 to 6 feet over the fire-bridge, where it is 20 inches). The bracing of the furnace is necessarily particularly strong (see Fig. 29). Lined inside with silica brick, said to be the finest in the world. The bed is of the finest Dillon sand (97·5 per cent. silica), ground to pass ¼-inch mesh; the bed has a slope of 8 inches towards the tap-holes, of which there are two. During the construction of the large furnace there are left in the roof ten expansion openings of 3 inches each, which by the time the furnace has attained its working temperature, become closed up (see Fig. 30). The conker plate which runs through the fire-bridge is 14 to 15 feet long, and is made thicker near the furnace side, where it is 3 inches thick. The air space through the plate is 2 feet 3 inches by 9 inches, and serves the purpose of keeping the fire-bridge cool; air passes through it continuously, and if the plate shows signs of becoming hot, a blast of cold high-pressure air is sent through it. Still further heating of the plate and signs of red heat are an indication that the 2 feet of silica of the fire-bridge wall are being burnt through.

=Working of the Reverberatory Plant at Anaconda.=—The plant consists of eight large furnaces, built parallel to one another, seven being usually at work whilst the eighth is undergoing repair. Each furnace treats 300 tons of hot calcines and flue-dust daily.

_Charging._—The furnaces are charged every 65 to 70 minutes with 15-ton charges, and as soon as one charge is melted, another is added; with average running, 150 charges are worked in the seven furnaces daily. The charge train, consisting of an engine and three cars, each of which carries 5 tons of charge, travels from the roasters and enters the reverberatory building by an overhead track running above the charge bins of the furnaces. It discharges through hoppers into the bins which extend across the entire width of the hearth. Bins were formerly arranged at intervals all the way down the furnace, but now only the two bins nearest to the fire-bridge are employed. Into the back bin, 10 tons of charge are placed, and into the other, 5 tons. Each of these bins discharges through two hopper discharge openings, feeding the furnace through holes in the roof (Figs. 29, 30), which are closed, when not in use, by round firebrick tiles 20 inches in diameter and 2½ inches thick; these are moved in and out of position by means of levers operated from the fire-box platform.