Chapter XIII: Section 1754: applies to all branches of the service, in Washington, D (4)

It is impossible to say just how long the operation of caponizing has been performed. It seems quite certain, however, that the practice was familiar to the Chinese more than 2,000 years ago. Later it was practiced by the Greeks and Romans and, through medieval times, by the people of middle and southern Europe, until in recent times it has been introduced into America. At present capons are most universally known and appreciated in France, although within the last few years the business of producing them has advanced rapidly in this country. This industry is most important in that portion of the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of capons are being raised in the Middle Western States. During the winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia are the important markets.

DESCRIPTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAPON

What is a capon? A capon is an altered or castrated male chicken, bearing the same relation to a cockerel that a steer does to a bull, a barrow to a boar, or a wether to a ram. As with other male animals so altered, the disposition of the capon differs materially from that of the cockerel. He no longer shows any disposition to fight, is much more quiet and sluggish, and is more docile and easy to keep within bounds. The true capon seldom crows. Along with this change in disposition there is a change in appearance. The comb and wattles cease growing, which causes the head to appear small. The hackle and saddle feathers develop beautifully.

As a result of the more peaceful disposition of the capon he continues to grow and his body develops more uniformly and to a somewhat greater size than is the case with a cockerel of the same age. For a time the cockerel and the capon make about equal development, but as soon as the reproductive organs of the cockerel begin to develop the capon begins to outstrip him in growth. Also when finishing off the capon fattens more readily and economically. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, a large flock of capons may be kept together. Coupled with the better growth is the fact that the capon brings a better price per pound. Cockerels from 2 to 5 months old usually bring from 15 to 25 cents a pound; if held longer than this they become “staggy,” are classed as old cocks, and do not bring more than 6 to 15 cents a pound. Capon in season brings 20 to 35 cents and often more a pound. There are two reasons, then, why it is better to caponize surplus cockerels than to raise them for market as such: (1) There is an increase in weight and (2) the price per pound is materially increased. Yet in many localities where especially fine poultry is raised, while capons usually sell for a somewhat better price, the difference is not great. In fact, for the Boston market, many capons are picked clean and sold as “south shore roasters.” Hence it will be seen that the profit in capons must depend to a great extent upon local conditions. The demand for capons continues good, notwithstanding the fact that more and more are raised each year.

SELECTION OF BREEDS

In selecting the breed best suited for caponizing several factors must be taken into consideration. Large capons bring the best prices. Consequently the breed should be large. It does not pay to caponize small fowls. Yellow legs and skin, as in other classes of poultry, are most popular. The Plymouth Rocks, Light Brahmas, Cochins, Indian Games, Langshans, and Wyandottes are all recommended by different producers, as are also various crosses of these. The Orpington also makes fine capons, but the white legs and skin are somewhat of a disadvantage in this country. The Brahmas and Cochins possess good size. By some the Brahmas are claimed to be difficult to operate upon; by others this is denied. The Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes are somewhat smaller, but sell readily and possess the advantage of yellow skin and legs. The Langshan is large and is easily operated upon. The Indian Game is probably most useful as a cross upon some one of the other breeds, thereby improving the breast meat without materially reducing the size of the fowl. In Massachusetts the Brahma was formerly the most popular breed for this purpose because of the demand for large birds for roasters. Later crosses between the Light Brahma and the Barred or White Plymouth Rock became quite popular, while at present the pure Barred and White Plymouth Rocks are perhaps most widely used.

TIME TO CAPONIZE

In so far as the effects of the operation and the rapidity and ease of healing are concerned, the time of year when the operation is performed is of little importance. The capons seem to recover and do well at any time. Certain other considerations, however, do influence the time. The age and size of the cockerel are very important. As soon as the cockerels weigh 1¹⁄₂ to 2¹⁄₂ pounds, or when 2 to 4 months old, they should be operated upon. The lower age and weight limits apply particularly to the American breeds, while the higher apply to the Asiatics. If smaller than this, their bodies do not give room enough to work handily. On the other hand, they should never be over 6 months old, as by this time the testicles have developed to a considerable extent, the spermatic arteries carry greater amounts of blood, and the danger of pricking these arteries and causing the fowl to bleed to death is greatly increased. The fact that capons are in greater demand and bring the best prices from the Christmas season until the end of March, and that it takes about 10 months to grow and finish them properly, makes it important to hatch the chicks in early spring so that they will be of proper size for caponizing in June, July, and August. These are by far the most popular months for the operation, though in some cases it is performed still later.

CAPONIZING INSTRUMENTS

There are several sets of instruments for performing the operation. These differ principally in the type of instrument used in getting hold of and removing the testicle. One type is the cannula (fig. 1, _a_). This consists of a hollow tube, the lower end of which is compressed and closed except for two small holes through which to run the horse hair or wire comprising the other part of the instrument. This type requires two hands to operate. Another type is the twisting scoop (fig. 1, _b_). This is a spoon-like scoop slotted in the center and mounted upon a slender rod. It is designed to slip under the testicle, allowing the spermatic cord to pass through the slot. By twisting the cord in severed. This type has the advantage of requiring only one hand to operate, but is more liable to produce “slips” than the cannula. A third style of instrument (fig. 1, _i_) is also in the form of a spoon or scoop, but instead of being in one piece has two jaws regulated by a slide. The testicle is caught in the scoop with the spermatic cord between the jaws, and by tightening the jaws and gently moving the instrument the cord is severed and the testicle removed. Still another type, not now in common use, is the spoon forceps. With this the testicle is simply grasped with the forceps and detached by a twisting movement. Here one hand can be used also, but the liability of slips is rather greater than with the other methods.

Figure 1, _k_, shows a type of forceps, consisting of two hinged arms, one of which terminates in a broad, flat surface, and the other in an end of similar shape from which the center has been removed, leaving only a narrow rim. These two ends are held closely pressed together by means of a rubber band passing across the handles. In use, the ends of the forceps are separated, the solid one slipped under the testicle and the rim then allowed to settle down over it. The cord is thus caught and the testicle can be removed. Careless or too rapid use of this instrument is likely to cause slips. Figure 1, _l_ and _m_, shows two additional types of testicle removers. The type shown in _l_ has a curved handle which brings the hand out of the line of vision, making it easier to see into the body cavity when using the instrument. A knife for making the incision into the body cavity is, of course, necessary. Almost any sharp-pointed, thin-bladed knife will answer the purpose well (see fig. 1, _c_). Some sort of spreader to spring apart the ribs far enough to allow the instruments to be inserted into the body must be used. A plain spring spreader, as shown in figure 1, _d_, or a sliding spreader (fig. 1, _e_), allowing the pressure to be gauged, will answer the purpose. A sharp-pointed hook (fig. 1, _h_). for tearing away the thin membranes, and a blunt probe, of which figure 1, _g_, is one type, for pushing aside the intestines, complete the necessary equipment. A pair of small tweezers or nippers (fig. 1, _f_) is also useful in removing any foreign matter from the body.

THE OPERATION OF CAPONIZING

Before beginning the operation two conditions are absolutely essential. If these are not favorable, do not attempt to operate. The first of these is that the intestines of the fowl should be completely empty, so that they will fall away and expose the testicle to view. This can be accomplished by shutting up the fowls and withholding all food and water for 24 to 36 hours before the operation. Withholding water tends to make the blood thicker and consequently to decrease the amount of bleeding. Thirty-six hours is better than 24, especially for a beginner. The second condition is a good, strong light, so that the organs of the fowl may be clearly and easily distinguished. Direct sunlight is best for this, and in consequence it is well to operate out of doors on a bright day. Some operators have substituted the physician’s head reflector and artificial light with good success. An ordinary incandescent electric bulb fastened to a gooseneck standard and provided with a reflector can be used to good advantage when caponizing indoors. It has been suggested that a probe consisting of a small electric bulb on the end of a slender rod and operated by small dry batteries, so that it can be introduced into the body cavity, could be manufactured and used with good success.

METHODS OF HOLDING THE FOWL

When ready to operate, catch the bird and pass a noose of strong string about the legs. Do the same with both wings close to the shoulder joints. To the other end of the string are attached weights of sufficient size to hold down and stretch out the bird when placed upon the head of a barrel or box of convenient height, which is to serve as operating table. These weights are allowed to hang on opposite sides of the barrel or box (see fig. 3). A table, if so desired, may be arranged by boring holes through its top at proper distances from each other, allowing the strings to pass through these, and hanging the weights underneath. Still other ways of holding the fowl in place have been devised, but these are unimportant so long as the fowl is held securely stretched out.

DETAILS OF THE OPERATION

Having fastened the fowl, be sure that all the instruments are at hand. It is also well, though not necessary, to have ready some absorbent cotton and a dish of water to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid or some other antiseptic. Having once started, carry the operation through as quickly as possible. Moisten and remove the feathers from a small area over the last two ribs just in front of the thigh (see fig. 4). With the left hand slide the skin and flesh down toward the thigh. Holding it thus, make the incision between the last two ribs (see fig. 5), holding the edge of the knife away from you as you stand back of the fowl. Lengthen the incision in each direction until it is 1 to 1¹⁄₂ inches long. Now insert the spreader into the incision, thus springing the ribs apart, as shown in figures 6 and 7. The intestines will now be visible, covered by a thin membrane called the omentum. Tear apart this membrane with the hook, and the upper testicle, yellow or sometimes rather dark colored and about the size and shape of an ordinary bean, should be visible close up against the backbone. By pushing aside the intestines this can easily be seen, and the lower one also, in a similar position on the other side of the backbone. Expert operators usually remove both testicles through one incision. This is a desirable practice, as it saves time and is not so hard on the bird. Inexperienced operators will usually find it well to attempt the removal of the upper or nearer testicle only and to make a second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal of the other testicle.

If both testicles are to be removed through the same incision, remove the lower first, as the bleeding from the upper might be sufficient to obscure the lower. Each testicle is enveloped in a thin membrane. This may be and probably is best removed with the testicle, though some operators tear it open and remove the testicle only.

The delicate part of the operation is now at hand, owing to the close proximity of the spermatic artery, which runs just back of the testicle and to which the testicle is in part attached. If this is ruptured the fowl will bleed to death. The cannula, threaded with a coarse horsehair or fine wire, or one of the other forms of instrument previously described, now comes into use. If the cannula is used, allow the hair or wire protruding from the end to form a small loop just large enough to slip over the testicle. Work this over the testicle, being careful to inclose the entire organ. Now tighten up on the free ends of the hair or wire, being careful not to catch any part of the artery. If the spermatic cord does not separate, saw lightly with the hair or wire. When the testicle is free, remove it from the body. The method of removing the testicle is shown in figure 8. If only the upper testicle has been removed, turn the birds over and proceed in exactly the same manner upon the other side.

After removing the testicle, if the bleeding is at all profuse it is well to remove a portion of the blood by introducing small pieces of absorbent cotton into the body by means of the hook or nippers, allowing them to become saturated and then removing them. Be sure to remove all blood clots, feathers, or foreign matters. After the testicles and all foreign matter are removed, take out the spreaders, thus allowing the skin to slip back over the incision.

LOSSES DUE TO CAPONIZING

Even experts are sure to kill some birds, but the loss is small, seldom exceeding 5 per cent where any considerable number are caponized, and usually not more than 2 or 3 per cent. With beginners, of course, the percentage is much larger, but with a little practice and care this is soon overcome. Any fowls which may be killed in this way are perfectly good to eat and are therefore not wasted.

A great deal of practice is required to become expert enough to operate rapidly. Consequently it is quite common in localities where many capons are grown to hire experts to do the work. These men are able to caponize a fowl every two to five minutes, and charge from 3 to 6 cents a fowl for the service. It is most humane for the beginner to make his first trials upon dead fowls.

SLIPS

Many times, particularly with beginners, while the operation seems to be entirely satisfactory, the bird will turn out to be what is known as a “slip.” A “slip” is neither cockerel nor capon, but is between the two, possessing the mischievous disposition and the appearance of an ordinary cockerel, but, as a rule, being unable to reproduce. This condition is due to the fact that a small piece of the testicle is left in the body. This piece often grows to a considerable size. As the “slips” possess the same restless disposition as the cockerels, they grow and fatten little if any better, while they do not bring as good a price in the market as the capons. Consequently it is well to use every precaution in order to avoid “slips,” as they are unprofitable as compared with capons. With the greatest care, however, “slips” are more common than are deaths due to the operation. The percentage varies all the way from 50 per cent with beginners down to 2 or 3 per cent with experts.

CARE OF FOWLS AFTER THE OPERATION

Upon being released from the operating table the capons are usually put in a closed yard where they can find shelter, food, and water and can be kept quiet. No roosts are provided, as the less flying and jumping they do the sooner will the wound heal. The capons seem to be very little inconvenienced by the operation, and water and soft feed mixed with sweet skim milk can be given immediately. Some feeders give this in unlimited quantity, while others feed more sparingly for a time. Some growers observe no precautions whatever, giving the birds full liberty immediately after the operation and allowing them to have any sort of feed.

For a week or 10 days the newly made capons should be carefully observed to see whether they become “wind puffed.” This is a condition caused by air gathering under and puffing out the skin near the wound. When observed it can be readily relieved by pricking the skin with a needle or knife and pressing out the air. In about 10 days or 2 weeks the incision into the body should be entirely healed, and, although no special antiseptic methods are employed in the operation, blood poisoning or any other trouble seldom results.

FEEDING CAPONS

Capons are usually kept till they are about 10 months old. At this time the market is at its best and the birds have made their most profitable gains. The feeds used and the methods of feeding vary greatly, so much so, indeed, that it is futile to try to give specific directions. For several months after the operation a good growing ration and not a fattening ration is required. It may consist of whole grains, ground grains, or a combination of the two, as each feeder finds most profitable and best suited to his locality. As with other poultry, variety must be given for best results. Late in the fall, when the capons have no pasture, green feed, such as cut clover or vegetables, should be provided. A somewhat more fattening ration than that required for laying hens seems to give good results.

As capons are not usually marketed before Christmas or the first of January they have to be housed during the late fall and early winter. Because of their quiet disposition they stand crowding quite well and have been successfully housed with only 2 or 3 square feet of floor space to a fowl. Free range for capons is very desirable, as it promotes their continuous, rapid, and economical growth.

During the last month or month and a half before marketing, the corn in the ration should be gradually increased until the fowls are on a full fattening ration. For the last two or three weeks it is desirable to shut them up and feed them in crates, for every possible ounce at this stage adds to the appearance and profit.

KILLING AND DRESSING CAPONS FOR MARKET

_Killing_

The capons selected for killing should be confined for 24 hours without feed or water to completely empty their crops. The usual method of killing is known as the sticking method. The fowl is hung up by the feet, the head held in the left hand, and the whole body stretched to full length. The mouth is forced open, and by means of a sharp, narrow-bladed knife held in the right hand the blood vessels at the back of the throat are severed with a single sweep. The knife is then turned and the point plunged through the roof of the mouth to a point just behind and between the eyes. The brain is here reached, and if properly stuck all feeling is then lost. Convulsions ensue, the muscles are relaxed, and the feathers come out easily.

_Picking_

Capons should always be dry picked, as they look much better and some of the feathers should be left on. The feathers of the neck and head, the tail feathers, those a short way up the back, the feathers of the last two joints of the wing, and those of the leg, about one-third of the way from knee to hip joint, should be left on. These feathers, together with the head of the capon, serve to distinguish it from other classes of poultry on the market, and consequently should never be removed. In picking be careful not to tear the skin. If bad tears are made, sew them up. Capons scalded and picked bare bring very little, if any, better prices than other poultry in the same condition.

_Drawing_

Most markets require capons to be undrawn and the head and feet left on. Care should be used to cleanse the head and feet of all signs of blood or filth.

_Cooling and Packing_

After picking, the carcases are hung in a cool place until the animal heat has entirely left the body, when they are ready to be packed. Like other poultry they should be packed in boxes of convenient size, holding a dozen carcases, or in barrels. Every attention should be given to neatness and attractiveness, as this helps the sale and the price. During the time of year when most capons are marketed--January, February, and March--no ice is necessary, but if for any reason they are shipped in warm weather they should be packed in ice.

PROFITS

It is extremely difficult to make any general statement concerning the profits yielded by capons. That they do yield a profit in practically all cases is undoubtedly true, but whether the profit is sufficient to give up to them the time and room they require is a question which must be settled by each man’s experience and by local conditions. Many poultrymen think that they can do better to turn off their surplus cockerels as broilers as long as the market holds up and rely upon caponizing only for later-hatched chicks. The house room thus saved they use for pullets or other laying stock, feeling that they make more money in this way. It is certain, however, that many poultrymen find capon raising profitable enough to induce them to continue in the business. On several farms in Massachusetts 500 to 1,000 capons are raised annually, and the writer knows of one farm on which in one season 5,000 cockerels were held for caponizing. Although the industry is growing rapidly year by year, the supply does not yet equal the demand. The best prices are commanded by capons produced near to the market, and consequently perfectly fresh. The markets of the West usually do not quote as good prices as the eastern ones; hence most of the western-grown capons are shipped East, in which case the express rates cut down the profit materially. On the whole, the profit is probably rather greater for eastern producers than for those of the North Central States.

PLAN No. 241. LIQUID CARPET CLEANER

One of the very best carpet cleaners ever placed on the market is that put up in liquid form by a man living in a western town of 5,000 people, where there was no steam cleaning establishment. He used the following formula:

Solution soap, 120 ounces; ammonia water (10%), 60 ounces; gasoline, 120 ounces; chloroform, the cheap kind, 20 ounces; saltpetre, 10 ounces; commercial oil of wintergreen, or other perfume, sufficient to give an agreeable scent.

(The solution soap named is made of cheap olive oil, 60 ounces; caustic potash, 12 ounces; wood alcohol and water, equal parts, to make 1,000 ounces.)

In making the liquid cleaner, dissolve the saltpetre in the water, add the ammonia to the soap solution, then the chloroform, oil and gasoline, shaking well after adding each ingredient, then add this to the water. This makes a milky white compound that must be shaken well before using. Citronella or other cheap perfume may be used instead of the wintergreen, if desired.

In making the soap solution, called for in the formula, put the oil into a suitable vessel, with half of the alcohol, then dissolve the potash in water, mix the two solutions, until it forms a nice soap, which can be determined by dropping a little of it in water. If it dissolves without forming oily drops, it is complete. Allow this to cool, add the rest of the alcohol and enough water to bring the measure up to 1,000 ounces. Then strain and filter.

Use the cleaner by applying freely with a sponge, and scrub briskly with a stiff brush, then wash off with warm water, which removes all grease, dirt, etc.

With a man to do the work, our friend went to the most prominent homes, as well as all the hotels in his town, and asked for the privilege of demonstrating his compound. This was granted in practically all cases, and he was given a large number of orders for cleaning carpets without removing them from the floor, at about half the price charged by regular cleaning establishments, yet which netted him a good profit after paying his man for the work.

He also advertised it through the smaller towns, and secured sales for it which brought him a good income every year.

PLAN No. 242. A WHITE SHOE DRESSING

The only objection to white shoes is that they soil so easily, but those who use the following formula will find their troubles on that score are over.

Precipitated chalk, 4 ounces; zinc oxide, 6 ounces; whiting, 8 ounces; pipe clay, 16 ounces; have all thoroughly dry and in fine powder, mix together very thoroughly and pass through a fine sieve. Now is where one of the tricks of the trade comes in. If the powder should have any yellowish tinge, as it most likely will, or does not seem to be just as dead white as it should be it may be brought up, by the judicious admixture of a very little bluing, just as is used in washing clothes and also is put in white granulated sugar for the same purpose. The blue must be in very fine powder and thoroughly mixed with the other powder, to give the proper results. Add it cautiously and be careful not to get too much. A good plan to work is, take some blue and rub it with three or four times its bulk of the powder in a mortar until thoroughly and evenly mixed, then use this powder for toning up your product. When this is done, mix a dram of powdered tragacanth and a dram of carbolic acid for each pound of the powder, with enough water to wet the whole thing into a stiff, putty-like mass. Fill this mass solidly into the boxes, and strike the upper edge. It will dry out, but that will not injure it at all.

Directions for use: Brush the shoes well, then rub over with a soaped cloth, to remove all stains, etc. Wet a small sponge or cloth in water, rub it on the cake in the box until well loaded, then go over the shoes, evenly and rapidly. Set aside to dry, and with a dry cloth lightly remove spots in the dressing.

PLAN No. 243. A TRAVELING TYPIST

A young man who had been clerking in a men’s furnishing store for $10 a week got an idea one day that turned out to be the means of giving him a good-paying business.

He noticed that there were many public stenographers located in the various office buildings of the city, and figuring that all their patrons had to come to them when wanting work done, why wouldn’t it be a good thing to call at the different stores and offices of these patrons and do their type-writing.

He therefore bought a light but reliable typewriting machine, which could be carried easily from place to place, learned to operate it with accuracy and speed, and then began to work up a line of customers. He found them, too, lots of them, and every day he called at their places of business and wrote their letters.

He was kept busy all the time, and from the very beginning of his enterprise he made from $25 a week up, yet did his work at the rate of 10 cents per letter. He seldom used short-hand but took the letters on his machine.

PLAN No. 244. MAKING HENS LAY ALL THE YEAR

This is something that all poultry raisers would give a good deal to know:

On every alternate day, mix cayenne pepper with soft food, at the rate of one teaspoonful of pepper to each dozen hens. Take good care to see that each hen obtains her share. In winter give each hen a half ounce of fresh meat each day, and see that they have plenty of water, grain, gravel and lime.

PLAN No. 245. HOW TO MAKE COTTAGE CHEESE ON THE FARM

K. J. MATHESON AND F. R. CAMMACK, of the Dairy Division.

Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry.

Acknowledgment is due to the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., for the following plan:

Cottage cheese can be made on the farm or in the home with little labor and expense.

It is a palatable, nourishing product that furnishes a means of utilizing skim milk to excellent advantage.

The directions given in this plan are for manufacturing cottage cheese either for home use or for marketing on a small scale.

A DESIRABLE FOOD EASILY PREPARED

Cottage cheese, a most palatable and nutritious product, is one of the few varieties of cheese which can be manufactured on a small scale. It furnishes a convenient and economical means for using skim milk as a human food, and supplies, more cheaply than meat, the protein or body-building part of the diet. In fact, pound for pound, it contains 25 per cent more protein than a medium-fat side of beef and costs about half as much.

The haphazard methods used in the making of this product, together with the lack of simple and easily available directions, probably are responsible for the small quantities made and consumed in the farm home. Uncertainty of results and defects in the finished product also have been causes for discouragement to the beginner. It is hoped, however, that by following the directions given in this bulletin a better and more uniform product may be obtained.

For making the cheese in small quantities for home use a very simple process and ordinary household equipment will suffice. But if it is desired to market the product and to insure good, uniform quality it will be necessary to follow somewhat more elaborate methods. Details sometimes must be modified according to conditions, and only experience will give proficiency.

QUALITY AND ITS REQUISITES

Cottage cheese is judged by its flavor and texture. A high-quality cheese should have a clean, mild, acid flavor and a texture smooth, free from lumps, and uniform or homogeneous throughout. The undesirable flavors commonly found are described as unclean, tasteless, too acid, and sometimes even bitter. Flavor can be controlled by the use of clean, sweet skim milk and a good “starter,” but texture depends largely upon careful manipulation during the making process. Good, clean skim milk, clean utensils, and careful attention to the details of making are essential to good quality in the product.

_Good Skim Milk Necessary_

The first consideration in the production of good cottage cheese is the quality of the milk itself. Milk which is dirty or has undergone any abnormal fermentation is undesirable. The fresher the milk the more satisfactory it is for cheesemaking, because then it is possible to direct and control the souring. It is absolutely necessary to give the milk proper attention, both at the time of its production and in all its subsequent handling. The temperature at which it is kept from the time of production until made into cheese determines in a large measure the quality of the cheese. For best results milk should be kept cool, at 50° F. or lower, if possible, until it is to be made into cheese.

_Cleanliness of Utensils_

The material and construction of all equipment used in handling milk and in the manufacture of cheese should be smooth and free from crevices, so as to allow easy and efficient cleaning. The most scrupulous care should be exercised in order to keep all utensils sweet and clean. For cleaning utensils the following method is advised:

1. Rinse with cold water.

2. Wash and scrub with hot water to which a cleaning powder has been
added.

3. Rinse in hot water above a temperature of 150° F.

4. Steam or immerse in boiling water for five minutes.

5. Place all equipment in a clean place free from dust.

A SIMPLE WAY TO MAKE SMALL QUANTITIES FOR HOME USE

One gallon of skim milk will make about 1¹⁄₂ pounds of cheese. If the milk is sweet it should be placed in a pan and allowed to remain in a clean, warm place at a temperature of about 75° F. until it clabbers. The clabbered milk should have a clean, sour flavor. Ordinarily this will take about 30 hours, but when it is desirable to hasten the process a small quantity of clean-flavored sour milk may be mixed with the sweet milk.

As soon as the milk has thickened or firmly clabbered it should be cut into pieces 2 inches square, after which the curd should be stirred thoroughly with a spoon. Place the pan of broken curd in a vessel of hot water so as to raise the temperature to 100° F. Cook at that temperature for about 30 minutes, during which time stir gently with a spoon for 1 minute at 5-minute intervals.

At the conclusion of the heating, pour the curd and whey into a small cheesecloth bag (a clean salt bag will do nicely) and hang the bag on a fruit-strainer rack to drain, or the curd may be poured into a colander or a strainer over which a piece of cheesecloth has been laid. After 5 or 10 minutes, work the curd toward the center with a spoon. Raising and lowering the ends of the cloth helps to make the whey drain faster. To complete the draining tie the ends of the bag together and hang it up. Since there is some danger that the curd will become too dry, draining should stop when the whey ceases to flow in a steady stream.

The curd is then emptied from the bag and worked with a spoon or a butter paddle until it becomes fine in grain, smooth, and of the consistency of mashed potatoes. Sour or sweet cream may be added to increase the smoothness and palatability and improve the flavor. Then the cheese is salted according to taste, about one teaspoonful to a pound of curd.

Because of the ease with which the cheese can be made it is desirable to make it often so that it may be eaten fresh, although if it is kept cold it will not spoil for several days. If the cheese is not to be eaten promptly it should be stored in an earthenware or glass vessel rather than in one of tin or wood, and kept in a cold place.

THE USE OF STARTERS

The first step in the making of cottage cheese is to sour or ripen the milk. If care has been used in the production and handling of milk, a good grade of cheese may be made by allowing the milk to sour naturally. Uncertainty of results and lack of uniformity in the cheese, however, have caused many to resort to a more definite means of controlling fermentation or souring by the use of starters. Some of the dangers and disadvantages of natural souring are--

1. Slow coagulation or curdling.

2. Glassy and undesirable fermentations, causing loss of curd in whey.

3. Bitter and other undesirable flavors.

4. Lack of uniformity in the cheese.

When cottage cheese is to be produced in large quantities it is advisable to use a starter. Starters aid and hasten acid fermentation and tend to suppress and eliminate undesirable fermentation. A starter, in brief, is a quantity of milk in which the acid-forming bacteria have grown until the milk contains a great number of them. There are two kinds of starters, commercial and homemade.

_Commercial Starters_

When cottage cheese is to be made on a large scale it is advisable to use a commercial starter, obtainable from a reliable starter company or through a dairy-supply house. The small package of starter, which may be either liquid or solid, is added to a pint of pasteurized skim milk and the milk covered and set away at 75° F. to sour. This is called a “mother starter.” After curdling or coagulation, a teaspoonful of the “mother starter” is added to a quart of pasteurized skim milk, which, when coagulated, is used to ripen the milk for cheesemaking. In pasteurizing milk for starters, it is heated to 175° F. and held at that temperature for 30 minutes, after which it is cooled to 75° F. before the starter is added.

_Homemade Starters_

Homemade starters are made as follows:

1. Clean thoroughly and boil for five minutes several pint fruit jars or wide-mouthed bottles, together with tops or tumblers for covering them. (Fig. 1.) After boiling, keep the jars or bottles covered to prevent the entrance of bacteria.

2. Select several pint samples of fresh milk, put into the jars or bottles, cool to 75° F., cover and keep at that temperature until curdling occurs.

3. The curdling or coagulation should take place in about 30 hours. An ideal curd should be firm, smooth, marblelike, free from holes or gas bubbles, and should show little separation of the whey. To be a good starter the curd should have a clean, sharp, sour or acid flavor.

4. Select the sample that most closely meets these conditions and propagate it. This is done as follows:

_a._ Prepare, shortly before using, a quart jar or bottle and a teaspoon according to the method described in paragraph 1.

_b._ Fill the jar or bottle with fresh skim milk and pasteurize by heating to 175° F. and keeping at that temperature for 30 minutes.

_c._ Cool to 75° F. and add a teaspoonful of curdled milk or starter described in paragraph 3, and set away to curdle.

_d._ Propagate the starter from day to day until one is found with desirable qualities. In doing this repeat steps _a_, _b_, and _c_, but in the last use the starter of the day before instead of that originally mentioned in paragraph 3.

PASTEURIZATION

While for small-scale operations the pasteurization of milk may not always be practicable, it permits a better control of the fermentations, increases the yield of cheese, and renders the product safe from disease-producing organisms. _If milk is pasteurized it is absolutely necessary to use a vigorous starter for ripening._ Otherwise, great difficulty is found in draining the curd, and as a result the cheese probably is spoiled.

Skim milk is pasteurized for making cottage cheese by heating it in a pail, can, or vat to a temperature of 145° F. and holding it at that temperature for 30 minutes. The milk then is cooled quickly to 75° F., when it is ready for adding the starter.

MAKING THE CHEESE ON A LARGER SCALE

To make cottage cheese in considerable quantities and of good, uniform quality, especially if it is to be sold, it is desirable to follow a more exact method than that described for making small quantities for home use.

_Setting_

For natural souring without starter, fresh skim milk is placed in a clean pail or a “shotgun” can, covered, warmed to 75° F., and allowed to stand at that temperature until curdled. The temperature can be controlled by keeping the pail or can of milk in a tub, sink, or other vessel filled with water at the same temperature.

When starter is used it is stirred into skim milk which has been warmed to 75° F. (Fig. 2.) The vessel of milk then is covered and set away at the same temperature to curdle. The quantity of starter used varies from 1 to 5 per cent; a pint for 3 or 4 gallons of milk usually gives good results. By the use of a large quantity of starter it is possible to ripen the milk and complete the making of the cheese in one day. Probably it is more convenient, however, to set the milk with starter at night, in which case the milk should be firmly clabbered by morning. For obtaining a desirable coagulum or curd that is firm and not easily broken into fine particles during heating, 75° F. seems to be the best temperature. When the skim milk has coagulated into a firm, solid curd which gives a sharply defined break as the finger is inserted, with whey collecting at the break, the curd is ready for cutting.

_Cutting, Heating, and Stirring_

The coagulum, or curd, is cut crosswise into 2-inch squares, with a long-bladed knife. The mixture then is heated quickly to 100° F. and is maintained at that temperature for about 30 minutes. During the entire heating process the curd is stirred with a spoon or a cream agitator every four or five minutes. The object of these operations is to remove the whey from the curd and to bring the product into a concentrated form. The texture of the cheese is regulated in a large measure by the manner of cutting, heating, and stirring the coagulum. Prolonged and vigorous stirring of the mixture is undesirable, since it causes a fine-grained curd which is slow in draining and has excessive curd losses in the whey. Heating at too high a temperature results in a tough, dry curd.

_Draining_

After heating, the mixture is poured upon a draining cloth, which is fastened over a pail or a specially constructed rack, in order to separate the curd from the whey. (See fig. 3.) The curd is allowed to drain undisturbed for 15 or 20 minutes, because if handled during that period it will tend to become mushy, a condition which renders the removal of the whey very difficult. Later, every few minutes, the sides of the cloth should be raised and lowered several times (as shown in fig. 4), which hastens draining. Draining should continue until very little whey separates upon standing, at which time the curd is rather soft and smooth. It is then ready for salting.

_Salting_

For salting, the curd is placed in a pan or pail and salt added and mixed uniformly into the curd with a butter ladle or a spoon. The usual rate of salting is two heaping tablespoonfuls to 3¹⁄₂ gallons of milk, or about 2¹⁄₂ ounces to 10 pounds of curd, although there is some difference of opinion as to the quantity of salt needed. In case a scale is lacking it is possible to approximate the salt when it is known that a level tablespoonful of salt equals two-thirds of an ounce. Salt is added to the cheese to increase its palatability and to a certain extent to preserve it.

MAKING THE CHEESE WITH RENNET OR PEPSIN

Several advantages are found in making cottage cheese with rennet or pepsin, as follows:

1. A finer-textured and more uniform cheese results.

2. Making requires less time and attention.

3. Losses of curd in the whey are reduced.

Rennet is a substance which causes milk to coagulate and may be obtained either as commercial liquid rennet or as junket tablets. The former may be purchased from a dairy-supply house, while the latter may be obtained from grocery and drug stores.

If commercial rennet is used for making cottage cheese, about 3 drops should be added to each 10 pints or pounds of milk, or 10 drops to 30 pounds of milk. The rennet, after being measured, is diluted about 40 times with cold water (a half cupful is satisfactory) before it is added to the milk. For measuring a medicine dropper may be used with good results.

If the liquid rennet can not be obtained, junket tablets may be used, one tablet having about the same strength as 1 cubic centimeter or 25 drops of the liquid. One tablet may be dissolved in 10 tablespoonfuls of cold water, then 1 tablespoonful of the mixture is sufficient for 10 pounds or pints of skim milk and 3 tablespoonfuls for 30 pounds of milk. Junket tablets are not always of the same strength, so it may be necessary to experiment somewhat before the right quantity to add is obtained.

Pepsin is a powder which has somewhat the same effect upon milk as rennet and may be used instead. It should be added at the rate of one-twelfth gram to 100 pounds of milk. For 30 pounds of milk this would be a quantity about half the size of a medium-sized pea. This should be dissolved in water and fractional portions used in a manner similar to that described for the junket tablet.

The milk is handled in identically the same manner as in the method already described with the exception that rennet or pepsin is added to it just after the starter is put in and the mixture stirred vigorously. When this is done the curd or coagulum may be poured directly into the draining cloth without cutting, heating, or stirring. If no starter is used it is desirable to let the milk stand at 80° F. for five or six hours before adding the rennet or pepsin.

When clear whey collects upon the surface of the curd in the can it is an indication that the curd is ready to be drained. At first it may not be possible to get the best results by this method, but after a few trials it should be possible to produce a fine, firm coagulum in from 12 to 15 hours.

The coagulum is now poured upon the draining rack covered with cotton sheeting. Because of the fineness of the curd a draining cloth with a smaller mesh is more desirable than the one previously described. After a short preliminary drainage of perhaps 20 minutes the ends of the cloth are unfastened and the diagonally opposite corners drawn together and tied. Moderate weights, about 25 pounds, are then placed upon the bag of curd to hasten the draining. (See fig. 5.) A pail filled with stones or water will serve for this purpose. There is danger that the cheese curd may be pressed too dry when rennet is used, so it is advisable to watch the curd closely at this period. The pressing should be continued until the curd has reached about the same consistency as described under the preceding method.

After draining, salt is added in the same way as for ordinary cottage cheese.

ADDING CREAM AND PEPPERS

A small quantity of sweet or sour cream added after salting, especially if the curd is a little dry, will improve greatly the quality and palatability of cottage cheese made by either process. Usually cream is added at the rate of half a pint to 10 pounds of curd.

Finely ground pimento peppers also add much to the appearance, taste, and attractiveness of the product, especially to the finer textured, rennet-made cheese. Peppers when used are added at the rate of 1 pound to 20 of curd.

If the product is to be marketed the additional expense of cream or peppers probably is warranted.

YIELD OF CHEESE

The yield of cottage cheese depends upon the quality of the milk and the method of manufacture. Yields of from 12 to 22 pounds of cheese per 100 pounds of skim milk represent the limits, while a normal yield of from 16 to 18 pounds produces best results. A gallon of skim milk usually yields about 1¹⁄₂ pounds of cottage cheese.

MARKETING THE PRODUCT

Although often marketed in bulk and sold by the pound, cottage cheese may be marketed best in single-service containers holding from 10 to 12 ounces. This makes a neat and convenient package which commonly retails for about 10 cents. These cartons are made of wood pulp treated with paraffin. For interstate shipping it is necessary to put the net weight of the cheese on the package, and it is desirable, for advertising purposes, to place on it the name and address of the maker. While the product may be molded into balls or prints and wrapped in paraffined paper, the carton is strongly recommended as a marketing receptacle for such a perishable product as cottage cheese. The carton makes a nearly air-tight package which improves the keeping quality of the cheese.

It is advisable to keep cottage cheese at a low temperature until consumed. Holding the product at room temperature for only 36 hours may cause it to become slightly “off flavor,” while in a longer period the deterioration may be so marked as to render it unsuitable for consumption. Cheese from which the whey separates spoils quickly and is very undesirable. It is better to have the cheese a little too dry than too moist, for the former defect may be corrected easily by the addition of a little cream or milk by the consumer.

EQUIPMENT FOR MAKING COTTAGE CHEESE

Little equipment is needed for making cottage cheese, and for the most part it may be found in any home. When the cheese is made in large quantities a small outlay for equipment is warranted as a matter of convenience and satisfaction. In most homes, however, satisfactory substitutes may be found for some of the utensils mentioned here.

_Starter bottles._--Quart milk bottles and tumblers are needed for holding the starter. Quart fruit jars will serve the purpose very well.

_Cans or pails._--A “shotgun” can which may vary in size and material is very convenient; usually it is straight sided, 8 inches in diameter, 20 inches high, and holds about 4 gallons of milk. If such a can is not available, an ordinary 10-quart milk pail will be satisfactory.

_Milk agitator._--A stirrer of the kind shown in figure 6 is desirable for causing a uniform distribution of the starter and rennet prior to setting and for stirring the curd, but for making small quantities of cheese a spoon is entirely satisfactory.

_Floating dairy thermometer._--The use of a reliable and accurate thermometer is absolutely necessary to obtain uniformity in results from day to day. Because of the danger of breaking, it should be kept in a case when not in use.

_Rennet or pepsin._--Either commercial liquid rennet or junket tablets are desirable when cottage cheese is to be made quickly. Powdered pepsin also may be used. Rennet always should be kept cold and in a dark place.

_Draining racks._--An ordinary fruit-straining rack is very useful for small quantities of cheese. A colander also will answer the purpose. When larger quantities are made a special rack will be found to be very convenient. Such a rack is described below.

A wire-covered rack (fig. 7) consists of a rectangular frame, 20 by 52 inches and 6 inches high, upon the bottom of which is tacked one-half inch mesh woven wire. The rack should be made of hard wood and dovetailed at the corners. If it is placed upon a table slightly inclined, the whey is directed to a common point and collected in a jar or pail by the use of strips nailed to the bottom of the frame. The materials required for making the rack are two boards ⁷⁄₈ by 6 by 52 inches, two boards ⁷⁄₈ by 6 by 26 inches, and woven wire 26 by 52 inches.

Another kind of rack is rectangular, 13 inches wide, 36 inches long, and 10 inches deep. The corner posts extend 1¹⁄₂ inches beyond the strips and top and bottom, with the top rounded, so that a ring may fit over them. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches and are removable for washing. The materials required are four corner posts 1¹⁄₂ by 1¹⁄₂ inches, nine strips 1 by ³⁄₈ by 36 inches, and six strips 1 by ³⁄₈ by 12¹⁄₄ inches, notched to receive bottom slats, all made of pine. A cloth is fastened upon each frame and the contents of one can poured into each cloth.