Chapter XXXIX: Part IV: Water Transportation21 (2)

Much of the work is generally carried on by angle smiths who work angle iron, usually from wooden patterns called templates, and blacksmiths who work on all sorts of light machine and hand forgings. Smiths are aided by helpers. Much of the work is heavy and calls for considerable physical exertion and requires practically continuous standing. Some of the lighter work in a blacksmith shop is of a higher grade and calls for wide experience, good judgment, and close observation. Such work is that of the tool dressers, the spring makers, and the die hardeners or temperers.

PLAN No. 1033. PATTERN SHOP

Here are constructed wooden patterns from which castings are to be made. Pattern shops are usually well protected from the weather and afford comfortable working conditions. The men employed are pattern makers and pattern makers’ helpers.

As a rule, each pattern is completely made by one pattern maker. Much of the work is done with hand tools and often requires very fine and accurate work. A pattern maker must not only be able to do good work at the bench, but must be able to read blue prints and make his own “layout.”

Among the machines commonly found in a pattern shop are wood-turning lathes, band saws, circular saws, jig saws, planers, sanders, and drills.

Work in the pattern shop requires considerable walking and standing. It is generally light, since only infrequently is it necessary to handle heavy pieces.

PLAN No. 1034. JOINER SHOP

In the joiner shop are constructed all sorts of high-grade wood fittings such as desks, instrument cases, and companion ladders. The work does not differ from that in any joiner shop.

Employees include joiners and helpers. A good joiner must be able to read drawings and blue prints and when necessary he must be able to lay out his work on paper.

Among the common machines used are planers, handsaws, circular saws, mortisers, and tenoners.

As a rule the joiner shop is protected from the weather and the work is not heavy. The work often requires considerable standing and walking.

PLAN No. 1035. PIPE SHOP

Here all plumbing and pipe-fitting work is done. The shop is usually inclosed and protected from the weather. The work requires considerable walking and standing, much bending, reaching, and stooping. In repair and construction work a great deal of work has to be done on the ship in all sorts of places and often under very difficult working conditions.

Plumbers, pipe fitters, and helpers are employed. A good pipe fitter must be able to read blue prints and drawings and must know how to make various calculations such as figuring out lengths of pipe on various jobs.

PLAN No. 1036. FOUNDRY

All castings are made in the foundry. The shop is usually more or less open to the weather, and the work requires a good deal of walking and standing.

Among the men employed are molders, who place the patterns in the sand, and make the sand molds into which the melted metal is poured; cupola furnace tenders, who operate the furnace in which the iron is melted; and foundry shippers, who clean up castings. In addition, helpers and laborers are employed.

PLAN No. 1037. COPPER SHOP

All sorts of fittings made of sheet copper, as well as a great variety of copper pipes and connections are constructed in the copper shop. In much of the work the copper has to be shaped by hammering. There is also much work in the bending of copper pipes of all sizes. The shop is usually protected from the weather. In many cases men who work in this shop also install the fittings in the ship. Coppersmiths and helpers are employed. In some shops most of the work is done by hand and in others a number of machines are used. A good coppersmith must be able to read blue prints.

The work requires considerable walking about and much of it is hard, as it requires the use of heavy hammers.

PLAN No. 1038. SHEET-METAL SHOP

Products of the sheet-metal shop include such articles made from sheet-iron as tanks, lockers, ventilating cowls, and wire work. The shop is usually well protected from the weather. The work requires considerable standing and walking. A number of machines are usually included in the equipment. Sheet-metal workers of different grades are employed and also helpers. A good sheet-metal man must be able to read blue prints and must be able to lay out all sorts of work.

PLAN No. 1039. GALVANIZING SHOP

Metal fittings are covered with zinc to prevent rusting. As a rule but few skilled men are employed for this work which is done mostly by laborers. Work is practically carried on out of doors on account of fumes due to the acid used. It requires walking and standing.

PLAN No. 1040. ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

This department installs and repairs all electrically operated equipment, including light and power lines. It also installs and repairs the electrical equipment on the ships that are built or are under repair. The work must be done all over the yard and everywhere on the ship. It requires much walking and climbing, much of it exposed to weather conditions. Very few machines are used, practically all the work being done with hand tools. A good electrician must be able to read all sorts of drawings and wiring diagrams.

Different grades of electricians, such as armature winders, storage-battery electricians, and men who make a specialty as, for example, of some special part of the work on telephones, are employed with helpers.

PLAN No. 1041. RIGGING LOFT

Here work on steel and manila rope and cables is carried on. Cables are spliced and all sorts of servings and fancy rope work are got out, such as man ropes, tiller ropes, and hammock clews. The rigging loft is usually protected from the weather. Much of the work, such as knotting and splicing, can be done sitting down. Practically all the work is done with hand tools.

PLAN No. 1042. MOLD LOFT

Here the plans of a ship under construction are laid out from the blue prints and patterns and wooden patterns, or “templates” for bending, cutting, and punching the steel parts of the ship are prepared. It usually is an inclosed building with a special floor large enough to lay out any part of a ship full size. The work in the mold loft requires almost constant standing, and kneeling or sitting on the floor. Loftsmen of different grades are employed. Loftsmen must be able to read all sorts of drawings and blue prints as they come from the drafting room and lay out the different parts on the mold-loft floor with great accuracy.

OUTSIDE TRADES, OFFICE WORK, AND MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS

In addition to the regular shop trades there are a number of trades carried on in the yards and on ships in the open air and other employments in navy yard supply departments and offices. These employments have to do mainly with the construction of ships, repair work on hulls, maintenance of the plant, distribution of supplies, and other miscellaneous services.

Following is a brief description of the more important of these occupations.

PLAN No. 1043. SHAPING, BENDING, AND CUTTING STEEL FRAMES AND PLATES

This includes the work of shaping and bending steel beams (frames), cutting plates to proper sizes, bending them, and punching them for the rivet holes. The work is generally carried on in shops that are roofed over, but sometimes open on all sides. It is hard and requires standing practically all the time. Heavy machines, furnaces, and hammers are used. Among the men employed are angle-smiths, furnace men, frame benders, punchers, shearers, drillers, countersinkers, and sometimes acetylene operators.

PLAN No. 1044. RIVETING, CHIPPING AND CALKING, DRILLING, AND REAMING

On construction and repair work these occupations are all carried on in the open air. Riveting is usually carried on by gangs, consisting of a riveter, a holder-on, a heater, and sometimes a fourth man called a passer. The steel plates of a ship overlap and are held together by rivets which are passed through holes in both plates and headed up while hot. Riveting is usually done with pneumatic riveters or “guns” operated by compressed air. The riveter operates the gun on one side while the rivet is held in the hole by the holder-on, who has various tools that he uses for this purpose. The heater tends a small portable furnace in which the rivets are heated, picks them out as needed and sticks them in the holes or gives them to the passer. Sometimes he tosses the hot rivet directly to the holder-on. This work must be carried on out of doors in all weathers. The work of the riveter is hard, as he must handle the gun with from 100 to 150 pounds of air pressure in it and must work in all sorts of positions. The holder-on works under about the same conditions. Both jobs require men of strong physique. The heater has a somewhat easier job and boys are often employed for this work. Before the plates and other parts can be riveted or drilled and reamed they must be held fast in place. This is done by the use of bolts and nuts set up hard with a wrench. This work is also hard, and the working conditions are the same as in riveting and drilling and reaming.

Sometimes holes have not been punched where they are required, and they must be drilled. Holes as punched are often not exactly in line and must be reamed out before the rivets can be driven. This work is commonly done with machines driven by compressed air or electricity, handled by one man and a helper. It takes considerable strength to control the machine, and the general working conditions are about the same as in riveting.

There are many parts of a ship where joints must be made tight--that is, they must be calked. It is also often necessary to cut plates and other steel parts. This work is done with an air machine very similar to the air gun used by the riveter and is known as chipping and calking.

PLAN No. 1045. SHIP FITTING

The ship fitter gets out all sorts of wooden patterns (templates) for steel plates and other parts. Sometimes he makes his pattern directly from measurements taken on the ship, especially in repair work. A fitter may lay out the work directly from the drawing (blue print). The work is carried on mainly out of doors, calls for much walking and climbing, especially in repair work on ships. Ship fitters of different ratings and helpers are employed.

Among other navy-yard occupations are those of outside machinists, who install and adjust machinery on the ships; painters, who paint the woodwork and the steel; ship carpenters, who do all the work around the ways on which ships are built and launched; crane operators, who handle the steel and carry it from place to place; and locomotive firemen and engineers, who operate the small locomotives used for hauling material inside of the yard.

PLAN No. 1046. SUPPLY DEPARTMENT SERVICE

In order that ships and shops may be supplied, a navy yard operates what amounts to a huge department store--the supply department. Every conceivable article that goes to the general equipment of a ship, from drinking glasses to launch engines, is kept in stock and given out on order. For the shops great quantities of all sorts of stock, pipe, fittings, copper, lead, bronze, steel and so on, are carried, ready for distribution. In one yard alone the stock is valued at $50,000,000.

Since the supply department buys, fills orders, and delivers, it offers opportunity for employment in practically the same occupations as any large department store.

For each class of stock storekeepers are employed. A storekeeper must know every article by sight, stock marks, and the location of the bin or shelf where it is stored. He must keep track of the stock on hand and see that it is kept up. A storekeeper may be promoted to assistant manager and possibly to manager of a division.

The supply department offers employment also in such clerical occupations as checking, billing, and accounting, and, as in any large department store, truck drivers, packers, box makers, and other workers are employed in the delivery department.

PLAN No. 1047. OFFICE WORK

In addition to the trades and occupations carried on in the construction, repair, and maintenance work of the navy yard, there are a number of office and clerical occupations. In general, these occupations are carried on in the same manner as in the office of any business concern. The special forms and methods of doing the office work that are followed in the navy yard must, of course, be learned. These occupations include stenography, typewriting, filing, bookkeeping, cataloguing, general clerical work, library work, messenger work, telegraph and telephone operating, and various lines of special work.

MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPATIONS

The navy-yard list of occupations includes, also, a considerable number of miscellaneous occupations not mentioned among the regular mechanical “shop” and “yard” trades. Among these are glassworkers, glass molders, lens grinders, and instrument makers. In connection with work in the yard and on the buildings, a certain number of brick and stonemasons, pavers, house carpenters, dock builders, cranemen, house plumbers, stonecutters, and gardeners are employed.

PLAN No. 1048. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT IN NAVY YARDS

If you are interested in the possibility of working in a navy yard you will want to know something about the demand for men in each line of work done in the different yards, the wages paid to each class of workers, and other conditions of employment.

DEMAND FOR LABOR

Navy yards and naval stations vary greatly in the amount and kind of work done and so vary in the number of men employed and in the different occupations carried on. The yards at Boston (Charleston), Mass.; Brooklyn, N. Y.; Norfolk, Va.; League Island, Philadelphia; Bremerton, Wash.; and Mare Island, Cal.; do all sorts of construction and repair work, and employ the largest working force in the greatest variety of occupations. The Washington Navy Yard, or Naval Gun Factory, does no shipbuilding and not much repair work. Its equipment and labor are practically entirely employed in making naval guns and all sorts of ordnance supplies so that it employs no men in shipbuilding and but few on repair occupations. The naval torpedo station at Newport, R. I., is almost wholly confined to the manufacture and assembly of torpedoes and torpedo appliances. Most of the other yards generally carry on only repair work and refitting, and employ men in most of the ordinary trades and occupations. At present there is little or no demand for regular navy-yard occupations at Pensacola, Fla. Of course, in all yards the working force is increased or decreased according to the amount of work that is going on in the yard. Naval stations employ fewer men and offer chances in fewer trades than do the navy yards proper.

In general, navy yards employ in the shops more men in the metal trades than in the woodworking trades. In the shops more machinists are likely to be employed than any other class of workers. Relatively few persons are employed in the offices in clerical work. The Norfolk, Boston, and Philadelphia Navy Yards offer more opportunity in these lines than any of the other yards.

In the yard trades the number of men employed depends largely on the amount of shipbuilding going on. Where shipbuilding is going on the greatest demand is for riveters, bolters up, chippers, and calkers, and drillers and reamers. Compared with the number of men employed in these trades relatively few men are employed in the mold loft, and in such occupations as crane operators, locomotive crane operators, firemen, and locomotive engineers.

As already stated, in addition to men employed in the regular yard, shop, and office trades, navy yards employ men in a number of other trades, such as those of stone and brick masons, house plumbers, stone cutters, switchmen, pavers, and upholsterers. Under ordinary conditions the demand for men in such occupations is small. Glassworkers, lens grinders, instrument makers, and other special classes of workers would only be called for in a yard where instruments were made and repaired, such as the Washington Navy Yard or the naval torpedo station at Newport, R. I.

PLAN No. 1049. INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WORK

If you are interested in securing employment in a navy yard or in taking training for a navy-yard trade, you may want to consider the condition under which you would work. You may feel that you would wish to work entirely under cover, or you may prefer to work more or less in the open air. Different navy-yard occupations vary greatly as to whether they are carried on entirely in shops, partly in shops and partly in the open air, or entirely in the open air. In some trades and occupations a man’s work is located at one definite place, and in others it may be anywhere in the yard. The following statement will give you an idea as to ordinary working conditions in a number of the more important navy-yard trades:

_Inside, under the best conditions._--Such occupations as all sorts of office work, stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, clerical work, work in the drafting room.

_Inside, under good conditions._--Such occupations as machine shop, pattern shop, jointer shop, rigging loft, mold loft, power plant work, and inside jointing and finishing.

_Inside, under some protection._--Such occupations as blacksmith shop, foundry work, plate-shop work, galvanizing, and frame bending.

_Occupations requiring both inside and outside work._--Such occupations as boiler shop, general outside painting, outside machinist, carpenter shop, electrical work, outside rigger, pipe shop, sheet-metal shop, copper shop, and ship fitting.

_Occupations carried on entirely outside._--Such operations as reaming, riveting, bolting up, chipping, and calking, ship carpentry, stone masonry, and bricklaying.

TOOLS AND MACHINES USED

In the regular trades such as jointer work, sheet-metal work, coppersmithing, boiler making, pattern making, etc., the tools and machines used are practically the same as would be used in these trades anywhere. A man who had earned these trades in any good shop would have no particular trouble in working in a navy yard shop so far as tools and machines go.

In the machine shop the tools and machines are about the same as in any large shop, but since a navy yard machine shop often has to handle large parts, there are usually a number of very heavy machines included in the equipment. Much of the work must be got out with great accuracy. In a general way it may be said that a navy yard machine shop does more work in brass, bronze, aluminum, etc., than is common in the ordinary run of machine shops.

In the trades carried on outside the shop, especially those connected with hull construction and repair, a number of special tools are used. These tools are in general easily moved about. Many are operated by compressed air, but some of them are sometimes operated by electricity. For this purpose most yards have a compressed-air system through that part of the yard where work of this kind is carried on, so arranged that the different machines can be readily connected up by hose lines. A few examples of the sort of tools used in these trades may be given:

Riveting gangs use compressed-air tools for heading up the rivet (air guns), and often for holding it while it is driven (air jambs).

Reaming and drilling machines are usually operated by compressed air, chipping and calking tools work in the same way. In all these machines the operators hold the machine so as to guide the tool, but the compressed air furnishes the actual power.

For such jobs as acetylene welding and cutting, a special outfit is required.

In mold loft work and ship fitting, only the simplest woodworking tools are used, such as hammers, saws, prick punches, and light air or electrically driven drills.

In punching, shearing, and bending plates, special heavy power-driven machines are used which the operators control.

In office work the equipment does not vary from that of any office. According to the sort of work called for, there are typewriters, adding machines, filing cabinets, etc.

PLAN No. 1050. CLASSES OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN NAVY YARD

The work of a navy yard is carried on by a civilian force under the general direction of naval officers. Excluding office and clerical occupations, this force is graded into the following classes: Foremen, quartermen, leading men, artisans of different grades, helpers, apprentices, laborers. A brief description of each of these classes follows:

_Foreman._--A foreman is usually the head of a division or of a shop. He usually has under his jurisdiction groups of men generally working in different occupations.

_Quarterman._--A quarterman usually has under his supervision more than one group in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to foreman.

_Leading man._--A leading man usually has under his supervision only a few men in the same occupation. He is in line for promotion to quarterman.

_Artisans._--These are skilled workmen in the various trades. They are graded according to their knowledge and skill in several classes, such as first, second, and third class.

_Helpers._--Men who work with artisans to assist them in their work are classed as helpers. Their work is such as may give some training in the trade with which they are associated.

_Apprentices._--Young persons are employed as apprentices to learn trades. After sufficient training they may become artisans.

Laborers.--This class of workers are not supposed to possess any special skill or trade knowledge, and except under certain special conditions they are not eligible for promotion.

WAGES FOR DIFFERENT GRADES

On the whole, higher wages are paid on the west coast than elsewhere. Foremen are paid according to the character and amount of work that they supervise. According to the present regulations a quarterman draws $2.88 per day more than the maximum pay of his occupation or trade. A leading man draws $1.44 per day extra pay over the highest pay of his trade. The wages of a man in the artisan group will vary according to his class and his particular trade or occupation. One of the highest paid trades is heavy forging at $11.84 per day. One of the lowest paid trades is that of glass workers, who receive $3.04 per day. On an average, a first-class artisan’s pay will run from $5 to $7 per day.

Helpers get from $4.32 to $5.12 per day. Apprentices in trade from $2.88 to $4.32, according to their class. Mechanics detailed for certain special work, such as inspecting or planning, get certain additional allowances.

In the unskilled occupations (laborers, stevedores, janitors, etc.), wages range from about $3 to $5.50 per day.

PAY ON ENTRANCE AND AFTERWARDS

When a man starts in the head of his department causes such tests to be made as he deems necessary to determine his status in his trade or occupation, and rates him provisionally as to pay. The final rating as to pay is made within two weeks from the date of appointment. All mechanics who are rated as first-class are carried at the maximum rate of pay.

The following list gives the more important trades and occupations for which men are employed in navy yards (except office occupations), and also gives the maximum rates of pay according to the latest information:

DAILY WAGE SCHEDULES

_Schedules of daily wages for navy yards and naval stations effective first pay period practicable after receipt._

==================================================
East West
coast. coast.

GROUP I.

Attendants, battery $4.64 ...
Attendants, powder factory 5.36 ...
Hodcarriers ... $4.40
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.92 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 3.12 ...
Janitors ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Laborers, common ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Stable keepers ... 4.16
North Atlantic and Great
Lakes 3.68 ...
Charleston, Pensacola, Key
West and New Orleans 2.88 ...
Stevedores 4.32 4.64

GROUP II.

Apprentices:
First class 4.32 4.32
Second class 3.84 3.84
Third class 3.36 3.36
Fourth class 2.88 2.88
Sewers, first class 2.40 2.40
Sewers, second class 2.08 2.08
Sewers, third class 1.76 1.76
Sewers, fourth class 1.44 1.44
Boys or girls 2.32 2.32
Hammer runners:
Heavy 5.12 5.12
Others 4.64 4.64
Helpers:
Blacksmiths’, heavy fires 5.12 5.12
Blacksmiths’, other fires 4.32 4.64
Boilermakers’ 4.32 4.64
Coppersmiths’ 4.32 4.64
Electricians’ 4.32 4.64
Flange turners’ 5.12 5.12
Forgers’, heavy 5.12 5.12
General 4.32 4.64
Laboratory 4.32 4.64
Machinists’ 4.32 4.64
Molders’ 4.32 4.64
Ordnance 4.32 4.64
Painters’ 4.32 4.64
Pipefitters’ 4.32 4.64
Riggers’ 4.32 4.64
Ropemakers’ 4.32 ...
Sheet-metal workers’ 4.32 4.64
Shipfitters’ 4.32 4.64
Shipsmiths’, heavy fires 5.12 5.12
Shipsmiths’, other fires 4.32 4.64
Woodworkers’ 4.32 4.64
Holders on 4.80 5.12
Oilers 4.64 4.96
Primer workers 3.68 ...
Rivet heaters 4.00 4.48

GROUP III.

Angle smiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Armature winders 6.40 6.40
Blacksmiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Boatbuilders 6.40 6.88
Boilermakers 6.40 6.40
Bolters 4.64 4.64
Boxmakers 4.80 4.80
Brakemen 4.96 5.28
Butchers 4.48 4.48
Cable splicers 6.40 6.40
Calkers, wood 6.40 7.52
Calkers and chippers, iron 6.40 6.40
Canvas workers 6.08 6.08
Carpenters, house 6.40 6.88
Casting cleaners 4.64 4.64
Cementers 4.80 4.80
Chainmakers 7.04 ...
Chauffeurs 4.40 4.40
Coopers 5.60 5.60
Coppersmiths 6.88 6.88
Cranemen, electric 6.40 6.40
Cupola tenders 6.40 6.40
Die sinkers 7.04 7.04
Divers 12.00 12.00
Drillers, pneumatic 5.44 5.44
Drillers, Press 5.12 5.12
Electricians 6.40 6.40
Chronograph 6.72 ...
Radio 7.44 7.44
Storage battery 6.88 6.88
Engineers 6.40 6.40
Locomotive 5.76 5.76
Nonhoisting donkeys and
winches 5.60 5.60
Farriers 5.44 5.44
Firemen 4.64 4.64
Locomotives 4.00 4.16
Flange turners 6.88 6.88
Forgers:
Drop 6.40 6.40
Heavy 11.84 11.84
Foundry chippers 4.64 4.64
Frame benders 7.20 7.20
Furnacemen:
Angle work 5.12 5.44
Foundry 5.12 5.44
Heaters 5.12 5.44
Heavy forge 6.08 6.08
Other forge 5.12 6.08
Open hearth 5.12 5.44
Galvanizers 5.04 5.04
Gardeners 4.16 4.16
Glass molders, optical 4.80 ...
Glass workers, optical:
Fine 4.32 ...
Rough 3.04 ...
Handymen 4.96 ...
Instrument makers 6.88 6.88
Joiners 6.40 6.88
Ship 6.40 6.88
Ladlemen, foundry 5.12 5.44
Leather workers 5.52 5.52
Lens grinders, telescope 6.40 ...
Letterers and grainers 6.16 6.16
Levelers 4.64 4.64
Loftsmen 7.20 7.20
Machine operators 4.96 4.96
Machinists 6.40 6.40
All around 6.40 6.40
Electrical 6.40 6.40
Floor or vise hand 6.40 6.40
Masons:
Brick 6.88 6.88
Stone 6.88 6.88
Mattress makers 4.88 4.88
Melters 5.52 5.52
Electric 8.56 8.56
Open hearth 8.56 8.56

Metallic cartridge case makers 5.76 ...
Millmen 6.40 6.88
Modelmakers, wood 6.40 6.40
Model testers 5.44 5.44
Molders 6.40 6.40
Steel casting 6.40 6.40
Oakum spinners 3.76 3.76
Operators, gas torch 6.08 6.08
Ordnancemen 5.60 5.60
Painters 5.92 5.92
Applying bitumastic compositions 6.40 6.88
Patternmakers 6.88 7.52
Pavers 5.76 5.76
Pile drivers 6.40 6.40
Pipe coverers 6.40 6.40
Pipe fitters 6.40 6.40
Plasterers 6.88 6.88
Plumbers:
House 6.40 6.40
Ship 6.40 6.40
Polisher, buffers, and platers 6.40 6.40
Pressmen, armor plate 8.56 ...
Punchers and shearers 5.12 5.44
Railroad conductors 5.12 5.44
Riggers 5.92 5.92
Riveters 6.40 6.40
Rodmen 4.40 4.40
Ropemakers 5.12 ...
Sailmakers 6.08 6.08
Sandblasters 4.96 4.96
Saw filers 6.40 6.40
Sheet-metal workers 6.40 6.88
Shipfitters 6.40 6.40
Shipsmiths:
Heavy fires 7.68 7.68
Other fires 6.40 6.40
Shipwrights 6.40 6.88
Steelworkers 6.40 ...
Stonecutters 5.76 5.76
Switchmen 4.96 5.28
Tank testers 6.88 6.88
Toolmakers 6.88 6.88
Trackmen 4.56 4.56
Upholsterers 5.44 5.44
Water tenders 4.64 4.96
Welders:
Electric 6.56 6.56
Gas 6.40 6.40
Wharf builders 5.76 5.76
Wheelwrights 5.28 5.28
Wire workers 5.04 5.04
--------------------------------------------------

WHERE NAVY YARDS AND NAVAL STATIONS ARE LOCATED

Navy yards are located as follows: The Portsmouth Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, N. H.; the Brooklyn Navy Yard, at Brooklyn, N. Y.; the Boston Navy Yard, at Charlestown (a part of the city of Boston, Mass.); the League Island Navy Yard, at Philadelphia, Pa.; the Washington Navy Yard or Naval Gun Factory, at Washington, D. C.; the Portsmouth Navy Yard, at Portsmouth, Va. (close to Norfolk); the Mare Island Navy Yard, at Vallejo, Cal. (on San Francisco Bay); the Charleston Navy Yard, at Charleston, S. C.; the Bremerton Navy Yard, on Puget Sound, Wash. (near Seattle), and the Pensacola Navy Yard, Pensacola, Fla. (aeronautic station at present).

Naval stations are located at Newport, R. I.; Key West, Fla.; and New Orleans, La.

Other naval establishments are: Naval proving grounds, at Indian Head, Md.; naval training station, at North Chicago, Ill.; the Naval Academy, at Annapolis, Md.; the naval magazines at Iona Island, N. Y., and Lake Denmark, N. Y.; and the depot of supplies, United States Marine Corps, Philadelphia, Pa.

Naval stations are also maintained at the Philippine Islands, Cuba, Guam, and Samoa, but no attempt has been made to give any information about them in this monograph.

LEATHER WORKING TRADES

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, Special Agent of the Federal Board. Much of the material used herein was obtained from Bulletin No. 232 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Wages and Hours of Labor in the Boot and Shoe Industry: 1907 to 1916.” Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.

PLAN No. 1051. SHOEMAKING

MODERN SHOEMAKING A MACHINE PROCESS

Modern shoemaking is practically a machine process. There are machines for cutting the various parts of the shoe, for sewing together the upper and the lining, for lasting the upper, for channeling the insole and the outsole, for sewing together the insole upper and welt, and for sewing the outsole to the welt. There are also machines for leveling the sole, for placing a smooth edge on the sole and heel, and for burnishing the sole, its edges and the heel.

Many of these machines are leased out to shoe manufacturers on a royalty basis. Patterns, lasts, and similar equipment may be made in the factory or purchased from factories that make a special business of producing these articles. A few hand tools are used in the factory, such as knives for cutting leather and threads, pinchers for pulling nails, and brushes for pasting certain parts. Ordinarily the workers who use these tools are not highly skilled, the only noted exception being that of the cutter who cuts by hand the vamps or other upper parts of the shoe.

MACHINE SHOEMAKING HIGHLY SPECIALIZED

In the shoemaking industry, there is great division of labor, and accordingly, the amount of skill or technical knowledge required of the workers in many of the shoemaking operations is so little that it may be acquired in a few days or weeks at the most.

However, a few of the occupations require both manipulative skill and technical knowledge, and call for the quick exercise of sound judgment. These are the occupations that pay well. Training for them is necessary. The period of training, of course, depends in any case, partly upon the person taking it. But in general, there are two groups in which the skilled occupations fall, namely, those requiring less than a year’s training and experience to make a thoroughly competent operator, and those necessitating a year or over. Roughly, those who receive less than 50 cents and more than 40 cents an hour fall in the first group, while those receiving 50 cents or more an hour come in the second group.

WAGES, HOURS, AND WORKING CONDITIONS

In 1918, according to unpublished figures of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, for the highly skilled operators the hourly wage ranged from 43 to 62 cents. In this range, the following occupations were covered--Goodyear welters receiving the highest, channelers the lowest, and the others in a descending scale intermediate wages: Goodyear welters, rough rounders, edge trimmers, heel trimmers, Goodyear stitchers, edge setters, machine pullers-over, heelers, turn sewers, bed-machine operators, hand vamp cutters, hand-method-lasting-machine operators, hand pullers-over, machine side lasters, hand turn lasters, McKay sewers, machine vamp cutters, vampers, hand side lasters, heel scourers, channelers.

The hours of labor are somewhat dependent upon the occupation, with the general average for the whole country about 55 hours per week, which usually means a 10-hour day with a Saturday half holiday. For some factories, hours in a few occupations are nine per day for six days in the week, which makes a 54-hour week.

For the highly skilled operator, the shoe industry is a desirable occupation in peace times and will continue to be so in the future. With the growth of population and the higher standards of living comes an increased demand for shoes of the better sort, which means that greater skill must be employed in their production than in those of the coarser sort. While the work in the shoe factory is somewhat seasonal, the slack season comes in the summer time, when other occupations are open, and when the worker may frequently engage in gardening during the time he is not busy in the factory. The busy season comes in the fall and winter. The work is all performed indoors.

DISABILITIES

The shoe industry can not use all classes of disabled men, but those it can use, if well trained, will find in it a desirable occupation. In general the disabilities that will bar a man from engaging in this occupation are the loss of eyesight, the loss of both legs, or of both arms, nervous afflictions, and weaknesses that prevent a man from standing at his work or from doing it rapidly. For some of the work, the use of both hands is highly desirable, and the loss of certain fingers from a hand would tend to be a handicap. Good eyesight, steady nerves and dexterity of motion are essentials in shoe workers. Good hearing is not highly important to the well trained. For the man who has lost a hand, there are devices, such as certain forms of hooks that could be used, for instance, by the machine cutter to operate the arm to the machine. Pincer-like devices may be used for other work. An artificial leg of a certain type may be obtained for a man who has lost a leg, and this will enable him to stand without undue fatigue.

PROMOTION

There are two ways in which advancement in these occupations may be secured. A worker who learns rapidly may advance from a less skilled to a more highly skilled occupation. For instance, he may advance from a position as a turn sewer to one as a Goodyear welter, and thus receive approximately a 25 per cent advance in wages. Or a workman with the ability to direct others may become a foreman and thus obtain higher wages. With this ability and a general knowledge of the industry, or high skill at some of the occupations, he might become an instructor, or, with sufficient ability and education, he might go into the office.

TRAINING FOR OFFICE POSITIONS

A knowledge of the processes in the shoe factory is a highly desirable qualification for the office force, and even for the clerical force of a factory. In the offices are found about 15 to 20 per cent of all the employees of the entire factory. A disabled soldier or sailor who has previously worked in a shoe factory, could, by taking the training offered by the Federal Board, qualify for a position in the business offices. Or he could take a course in salesmanship, and go “out on the road” to sell the shoes. Thus he could turn his past experience in the former occupation to profit, and make of his disability the means of promotion instead of a handicap.

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING

If a disabled soldier has had some experience in the shoe factory, he will find this of value. He might, for example, take training to become a designer. The change in fashions in shoes necessitates new lasts and patterns, and every new style means work for the designer. The work requires training, but does not call for much physical exertion. To do this work, one must have some facility in mechanical drawing, and so must understand the principles of geometry. Such work is stimulating. Not all factories do their own designing and pattern making, but in such cases designs and patterns must be obtained from concerns that specialize in such work. This profession, however, can absorb only a limited number of additional men.

SCHOOLS AND TRAINING

There are now well-established schools for teaching the shoemaking operations. Until recently the schools were private, but there are now schools in Massachusetts maintained at the public expense. Some factories, especially the nonunion ones, train the workers in the factories at the work, or in factory schools. In some cases, the workers in a factory “pick up” the knowledge and training required for the better-paying positions. For such workers the unskilled occupations serve as an apprenticeship to the skilled ones. This method, however, is not the most desirable one, since it does not always present opportunities to get the best and quickest training.

PLAN No. 1052. OCCUPATIONS THAT PAY WELL REQUIRE TRAINING

There are two general classes of workers in shoe factories--one made up of machine workers, who must use judgment and skill in their work, and are therefore the better paid; and the other made up of machine tenders whose main requirement is speed in doing some routine task. Since we are concerned only with the occupations that require training and which pay more than the wages of unskilled workmen, we shall discuss only the skilled occupations. Workers in these occupations may be grouped into three general classes: First, those who sew together difficult parts of the shoe; second, those who cut the leather to form; and, third, those who last the shoe.

PLAN No. 1053. OPERATORS WHO SEW TOGETHER DIFFICULT PARTS OF THE SHOES

The Goodyear welter receives the shoe on the last; the upper has been tacked temporarily to the insole and trimmed smoothly, and the insole has been channeled or lipped for the stitches. He takes a long narrow strip of leather--the welt--and places the shoe in the welting machine so that the insole, upper, and welt are sewed through at one operation by means of a curved needle. The stitch is made almost horizontal to the bottom of the shoe, and the welt lies closely to the upper nearly all around the shoe in front of the heel seat. The welt is also somewhat irregular, but the welt beater straightens out the welt so that is stands out properly for the outsole.

The work of the welter is not so simple as it may seem. He works with a very complicated machine, and he must be able to make readily all the necessary adjustments. He must know almost by intuition that the thread is working properly. He must be able to tell at a glance that the shoe has been lasted correctly. He must know at once whether the welt furnished is suitable for the type of shoe he is to place it on. He must guide the welt on accurately. If he does otherwise, not only is time lost, but a leather part or parts are ruined. He must be so skilled that he can place the welts on a pair of shoes at the rate of a pair a minute.[27]

[27] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The Goodyear stitcher receives the shoe with the outsole cemented on the shoe, the channel cut, and the lip of the channel turned back. He places the shoe to his machine so that the welt and outsole are sewed together all around the shoe in front of the heel. The seams are made in the channel of the outsole, so they may later be covered by the lip. The stitcher must be able to stitch about 37 pairs of shoes, on the average, per hour for the working day. At this speed, considerable skill is required to hold the shoe so that the curved parts are sewed around properly.[28]

[28] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The turn sewer performs a task somewhat similar to that of the Goodyear welter, but he does not attach a welt. He receives the shoe lasted, wrong side out. The outsole is, of course, now in the position of the insole on the Goodyear shoe. As in the Goodyear shoe, the channeling for the stitch is the same, but in addition, the outsole has been grooved, or a recess cut, so that a shoulder is formed around the outer edge of the sole in which the lower edge of the upper rests. The turn sewer sews through the lower edge of the upper and the shoulder on the outsole. The seam is buried in the inside channel. The process of sewing is performed on a machine that sews with a curved needle and nearly horizontal to the sole. Historically, the Goodyear welting process was a modification of the turn-shoe process of sewing the sole and upper together.

The McKay sewer receives a McKay shoe with the sole cemented on and channeled and the last withdrawn from the shoe. He sews through the sole, the lower edge of the upper, and through the insole. The seams thus appear on the inside of the shoe. This is clearly a simpler operation than that of the Goodyear welter.

The vamper sews the vamp to the quarters, or upper part of the upper. Since the vamp is curved and must be fitted to a rounding form, this operation is not so simple as flat sewing and so is paid for at a higher rate per piece.

PLAN No. 1054. OPERATORS WHO SKILLFULLY CUT THE LEATHER TO FORM

The rough rounder receives the shoe with the outsole cemented or tacked on to the upper part. He places the edge of the sole to the machine so that the edge of the outside and welt is cut to a uniform distance from the upper all round the outsole. In the same process his machine cuts an oblique channel in the outsole for the seam which is to bind the welt and outsole together. The work of the rough rounder requires strength and steady nerves, since he must hold the edge of the shoe against the cutting parts. He must know how to adjust his machine quickly for the various sorts of shoes, and must be able to place a uniform edge on over 900 pairs of shoes in a ten hour day.

The edge trimmer receives the shoe in the rough finished form. He holds the sole against a set of revolving cutters which trim the sole smoothly to the desired shape all around the sole. He must do this work carefully and not cut the upper or the stitches and at the rate of thirty-five pairs an hour.[29]

[29] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The heel trimmer receives the shoe with the heel nailed on firmly and the top lift in place. First, he holds the heel against a set of rapidly revolving cutters, which cut away the heel so that is has a smooth even contour from the sole to the top lift and all around the outside. Then he holds the sole part of the heel against another set of revolving cutters which trim the sole part off to conform in outline with the upper. He must exercise great care in this operation so as not to cut the upper. He must handle shoes at an average rate per minute of nearly three pairs, or 1,500 pairs or more in a nine hour day.

The heel scourer receives the shoe after the heel has been trimmed to shape. He holds the heel against a rapidly revolving wheel covered with sandpaper. This process gives the heel a smooth finish. A heel scourer must be able to smooth the heels of nearly 1,500 pairs of shoes in a ten hour day.[30]

[30] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The channelers cut the channels in the outsoles of McKay and turn shoes and in the insoles of welt shoes, so that the seams may be buried in the leather. The channeler holds the shoe to the machine and guides the sole so that all but the heel is channeled.

The vamp cutter cuts out the vamp--the lower and most important part of the upper. It must be cut out of the best leather and be free from defects or flaws. Accordingly, the cutter must lay the pattern or die on the side of leather so as to avoid any imperfections in the hide. If he is a hand cutter, he draws a keen-edged knife closely around the outer edge of the pattern and thus cuts out the vamp. If he is a machine cutter, he brings the arm of the cutting or dinking machine down on the die, which cuts out the vamp. The vamp cutter must judge quickly and accurately as to the quality of the leather and how to place the pattern or die, so as to obtain the greatest number of good parts from a side of leather.

PLAN No. 1055. LASTING THE SHOE REQUIRES SKILL

The machine puller-over receives the assembled upper part of the shoe on the last. The insole, counter, and toe box are in place, but the edges of the upper have not been drawn over the insole and fastened. This is the operation that he must perform. He must watch that the upper is properly centered on the last, and that the machine pincers pull the leather in evenly over the last, and if not even, he must make adjustments by means of levers until it is even. Then he presses a foot lever that causes the machine to tack the upper to the insole at various points.

The bed-machine operator is also known as the toe and heel laster. He usually works on welt shoes. He lasts the upper in around the toe so that the leather is smooth on the outside. His machine draws a series of wipers or friction pullers over the edge of the upper until the toe conforms smoothly to the last. He then tacks and wires the edges at the toe so that they will be held temporarily until they can be sewed by the welter. He performs a similar process with the heel, but he tacks the edges of the upper to the heel permanently. Both the heel and toe are tacked down permanently in a McKay shoe. The bed-machine operator handles on the average nearly a shoe every minute during the day’s work.

The hand-method lasting-machine operator usually works on a McKay-made shoe. The upper has already been tacked on the insole by the puller-over, but is now drawn around the last and insole, a part at a time, by means of pincers on the machine. As each part is drawn evenly and closely to the last and insole, a tack is driven into the insole and clinched by means of a metal plate on the bottom of the last. This process is carried on around the entire insole of the shoe. This work is similar to a combination of the processes performed by the side laster and bed-machine operator on welt shoes.

The work of the hand puller-over is to put the counter and toe box in place and pull the lower edge of the upper over the last and insole so that the upper is in the proper position on the last. He does a combination of the work of the assembler for the pulling-over machine and of the machine puller-over.

The turn laster lasts the turn shoe either by hand or machine, and in a manner similar to the methods by which a welt shoe is lasted, except that the parts are placed so that when the shoe is turned, they will be in their proper position. For instance, the counter is placed on the outside of the upper, but inside the lining. The lining at the heel is not lasted, but is cut off and turned back. The shoe is then sewed by the turn sewer. The turn laster now pulls the lasts and turns the shoe right side out. He fills the depressions in the central fore part of the shoe and the shank by inserting fillers coated on the under side with glue. He then returns the lasts to the shoes, reversing the right for the left--since the shoes have been turned--and pounds the shoe until it has the proper shape and is entirely smooth.

The side laster, by means of hand pincers, draws the upper leather to the last at the outside and instep and over the insole, so that it is tight and no wrinkles are left. He then fastens the edge with tacks. He does this at the rate of about a pair of shoes to the minute.[31]

[31] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The heeler takes the shoe and a heel already built up but lacking the top lift, and places the shoes on a metal last or jack. He sets the heel in place and presses a foot lever that causes his machine to drive the nails into the heel and clinch them in the insole. The nails on the outside of the heel are left protruding to a height of about half the thickness of the top lift. On these nails, he sets the top lift, which has received a coating of cement, and the machine presses this down over the projecting nails. He must be skillful enough to perform this operation accurately at the rate of over 100 pairs of shoes per hour.[32]

[32] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The edge setter holds the sole to a machine which polishes the edge by means of a series of hot vibrating irons which fit the edge of the sole. He must handle shoes at the rate of about a pair every minute during the working day.[33]

[33] Rates of operation are calculated from the tables given on pp.
166-169 of Bulletin No. 232 of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

PLAN No. 1056. SHOE REPAIRING

In shoe repairing to-day we find all stages of development, from the purely hand methods to the factory methods. The shops that use the old hand methods are usually small and the owner is generally the only worker, although a few shops have two or three workmen. The shops that use machinery extensively are larger and frequently employ a number of workmen. Between the two extremes are shops of varying equipment and size. This variation of conditions makes it possible for a disabled man to fit into this business by taking a training and choosing the machines and methods adapted to his disabilities. Some man in a shop that uses machines must have considerable mechanical ability. In the shop that utilizes hand methods, some one must know much of hand shoemaking--in fact, be able to perform all the processes. In either shop there is opportunity for profit for the man who can make, either by hand or machine or by the two methods combined, an entire shoe for those persons whose feet are deformed or crippled, so that they can not wear factory-made shoes.

MACHINERY, TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The outlay for a shop in any case is not large. The machines are leased as a rule. The number of tools needed for a workman in either the shop that uses hand methods or the shop that utilizes machinery is not large. The principal tools found in any type of shop are hammers, knives, chisels, lasts, pincers, awls, and needles. No great quantity of supplies need be kept on hand. Practically all shops have machines for sewing uppers. Many have the machinery for sewing on soles. These are probably the most frequently used machines. Practically all of the machine repairing is sewing rips and placing on new outsoles. Heels are largely rebuilt by hand, or replaced by new rubber heels put on by hand.

REPAIRING SHOES A PAYING BUSINESS

In shoe repairing, there are slack and busy seasons. Slack seasons come in fair weather and busy seasons in bad weather. If certain work can be allowed to accumulate in the busy seasons, the work may be distributed throughout the year, since there are rarely long intervals of unbroken fair weather. The busy shoe repairer has a remunerative business. If he is able to do a high class of work, he can charge accordingly, and can take other work as a sort of “filler” for slack times.

A DESIRABLE OCCUPATION FOR A DISABLED MAN