Chapter XLVI: Part II: Professional Commercial Service (5)

Pistons for the engine, having been machined and ground, are inspected as to sizes, dimensions, etc. This operation could well be done by a man with two good hands, but he must be able to stand at a bench and move about freely. The pistons are then fitted to the cylinders so as to get a proper fit in each cylinder. They are also carefully balanced in pairs and equal weights are selected as nearly as possible. The fitting of pistons to cylinders and the balancing of them could well be done by handicapped men. The piston pins also are fitted to the piston and to the connecting rod. This work is done standing at benches, and could be done by men who have the free use of both hands.

Piston rings which are made from castings in the machine shop, where they have been ground, are sent to the inspector who carefully inspects each ring. This work is light and is well suited to a man who could sit at a bench, but he must have the free use of both hands. Piston rings are fitted to cylinders and pistons in another department. This operation requires a little more skill than some of the others mentioned and a man must have some mechanical ability to learn to do the work efficiently. There are, however, many minor injuries which would not prevent a man from doing this work.

The manifolds, both inlet and exhaust are cast in the foundry department. They are then machined, where necessary, after which they are inspected. This department could employ disabled men for inspection work.

There are a number of bolts and screws and special fittings which must be carefully inspected before they can go to the assembly department. Every bolt must be looked over as to its general condition before it can be used. This work alone offers employment to a large number of men in every automobile engine factory. It is very light and a man in very delicate condition could efficiently perform a number of these operations. In a number of positions one hand is all that is necessary. Men could either sit or recline on the bench and do the work. In fact, men in bed even could come up to production in this particular kind of work.

The oil pump for the engine, having been machined in the various departments is assembled by men who sit at benches. This work is very light work and can be handled to advantage by men with handicaps. They should, however, have the use of both hands.

We have now mentioned the various units which go to make up an engine and have come to the point where it is necessary to assemble these various parts.

In the up-to-date automobile factory, the engine assembly is done by the progressive system. The conveyor system which is used in engine assembly is similar to that used in the chassis assembly, described in another section of this bulletin. The crank case is usually mounted upon this conveyor or movable stand. The crank shaft, having been assembled to the case in another department, is now ready for the connecting rods, and the rods with the pistons are attached. The cam shaft, tappets, and tappet guides are then installed, and the cylinders are mounted. The engine moves on to another section where the manifolds are attached to the cylinders. It then passes to a section where the carburetor is mounted. Next the ignition system is attached, and the starting and lighting and such other units as this particular engine may require are installed. All these operations have taken place while the engine has been moving. Special tools are used during these operations, such as air wrenches, socket wrenches, and any tool that may save a few seconds time.

The work that is done on this engine conveyor system is considered to be hard work in that each man must keep moving at top speed in order to turn out the required production in that department. The men are well paid and they must be qualified to take care of their particular section of this conveyor. There are a number of places, however, where handicapped men can be used in this work. Very few of these operations could be efficiently handled by a man who did not have the free use of both hands. He could, however, carry on some of this work, if he had received injuries to one of his legs. All of this work is inspected and a man is carefully checked as to the work he has done.

After the engine has been inspected, it is ready for a block test. The conveyor carries the engine to this block-test department, where the engine is mounted on a special stand and is connected to an electric motor, which drives the engine at sufficient speed to lubricate it and to work in the moving parts. The block-test mechanics are men who can pick out noises and defects in the engine. They must watch the engine for hot bearings, loose bearings, and in fact this department is a sort of running-test inspection department. If the engine does not show any defects and meets normal requirements, it is given a running test under its own power. This test is oftentimes done on the same motor or electric set that it has been run in by, or in other words the electric motor becomes a generator. This test is known as the dynamometer test.

The engine running under its own power is loaded down by the resistance of the electric generator and the horsepower noted. The carburetor and ignition is adjusted to bring the engine to the normal horsepower. If the engine fails to come up to normal horsepower, it is rejected and must go back for rebuilding. After it passes the horsepower test, the oil is removed and the engine is sent to the storeroom or chassis assembly department as the case may be.

The inspection department of the engine assembly could employ a number of disabled men provided they were qualified by mechanical experience. The block test department could employ men with slight handicaps who have had previous experience in engine work. They should, however, be expert gas engine men. This is true also of men in the dynamometer-test department. In the engine-assembly department, however, some helpers and less skilled mechanics could very well find employment even though disabled.

All work in engine factories can be termed desirable employment, since up-to-date factories are well equipped, and well heated, lighted, and ventilated. Pay is good and the factory usually runs the year around. Engine factories are usually located near large automobile centers, for the same reason that the automobile factories are located there, namely, railroad facilities, power facilities, and general living conditions.

PLAN No. 1131. CARBURETORS

Carburetors are usually made by a manufacturer who makes a specialty of making carburetors. Carburetion is one of the most interesting subjects in the automotive industry, and manufacturers in this line employ large staffs of experts and research men. They employ also engineers for the purpose of making tests of the various types of carburetors, and of the different classes of fuels.

Some carburetor factories have their own foundries where they make their own castings, which are usually of aluminum or bronze. Some of the highest types of foundry men may be found in this department, as this particular branch of work must be of very high grade. Manufacturers take pride in the appearance of their castings. In a foundry of this type there are several occupations that disabled men could do, such as pattern work, core making, molding, and even flask work.

After the castings have been poured they are ready for cleaning and scaling. Part of this work is done in the sand blast. The castings are then carefully inspected, after which they are ready for the machine-shop department. There are a number of machines used in carburetor work which do not really come under the head of machine-shop equipment, in that they are punch presses. These presses are used for punching the float parts for the carburetor and other similar pieces. The float is usually made up of two pieces, pressed from a flat piece of stock into a cup shape. These two halves are put together and soldered to make an air-tight chamber. This construction, of course, will vary with the different makes of carburetors. Where this work is done, disabled men could handle the pieces very nicely. They could also do such soldering as is done on floats.

There are many small screws, nozzles, and similar parts made in the machine shop which require a large number of machine operators. The machines include among others automatic screw machines. After these parts have been machined, it is necessary that each part be carefully inspected before it goes to the assembly department, and this inspection work is very light work, well suited to disabled men who are unable to do heavy work. The use of one arm is about all that is necessary to perform one of these operations. There are also a number of testing operations in carburetor factories which could be handled to an advantage by handicapped men.

After the carburetor parts have been machined the carburetor is ready for final assembly. This work is usually done by men sitting at benches, who assemble the various sizes of carburetors on the various benches. The work could be done by men who have lost the use of their feet or legs, as it does not require very much moving about. After the carburetor has been assembled, it is given a preliminary test on a rack to determine whether or not the float level is too high, and whether or not the joints of the carburetor lack fuel. After the carburetor passes this test it goes to a machine department, where it is tried out on an engine. The running test is the most skilled work done along this line, and requires men who understand the operation of gasoline engines and who are capable of attaching and detaching a carburetor quickly. It is not necessary in all cases that every carburetor be tested on an engine. Where this is not done the carburetors are inspected and passed on to the shipping department.

On the whole, there are a number of desirable places in the carburetor department which are well suited for handicapped men. The working conditions in these factories are good and the wages paid are about the same as those paid by any general assembly or manufacturing plant.

PLAN No. 1132. IGNITION

A number of factories make a specialty of building ignition apparatus for automobiles. In them we find the usual organization found in other similar factories. Some of these factories build ignition systems on a large scale, in which case the organization is elaborate.

One of the most important factors of the ignition system is the insulation. A compound has been discovered, known as “bakelite,” which has a very high resistance to electricity. This substance usually comes to the manufacturer in powdered form and the manufacturer puts it through his mixing process.

The bakelite for parts to be made is carefully weighed for each piece. It is then placed in jigs which hold contacts, segments, etc. The jigs or molds are then placed in a molding machine to which is applied considerable pressure and heat. The heat causes the bakelite to run together, forming one solid piece of material when it is properly cured. After the standard heat has been applied to the bakelite for the proper length of time the mold is placed in another press and cold water is run around it to chill or set the bakelite. The molded part is then removed from the press and is ready for inspection.

When the part comes from the mold it is very shiny and smooth in appearance. The inspection of this part is to determine whether or not the contacts have stayed in proper position and whether or not there are any flaws in the bakelite. Bakelite parts are used in many places in the ignition system. There are a number of places in the bakelite section of the ignition factory where disabled men might well find employment.

Men with one leg could weigh out the bakelite, and a man with one leg and one arm could possibly run the presses around the bakelite for curing. This work is done in a dry department; the conditions are very good and the wages are reasonable.

In the coil department of the ignition factories we find various types of work going on. Here are machines for winding the primary and secondary coils, testing machines, etc. The ignition coil is made up of an iron core, an insulator around the iron core, a primary winding, a secondary winding, and a condenser. Some coils have vibrators attached, in which case the vibrators are mounted on the outside of the coil windings.

The core of the coil is made up of a bundle of soft iron wires. The fiber tube is commonly used as insulating material. This tube is filled with the soft iron wire. The primary winding, of which there are about two layers, is wound on the outside of the fiber tube. This operation takes but a few seconds, the tube being placed between a pair of centers on a small motor driven machine similar to a small lathe. The wire is guided on to this tube while it is revolving. This work is done sitting, and could very well be done by men who have received injuries to their legs, or by men who have received injuries to their spine. The main requirements are that the operator shall have the free use of both hands, and be able to see properly the work that is going on.

The secondary or high-tension winding of the coil is similar to the low-tension winding. The high-tension winding, however, has many turns of very fine wire no larger than the ordinary thread used on sewing machines. This wire is insulated, and care must be exercised that the insulation is not broken. The secondary winding also is wound on a fiber tube on a machine similar to that on which the primary coil is wound. Between each layer of wire in these windings a small strip of insulation is placed. This, of course, is done at the end of each layer of wire. In carrying out this operation the operator must be very careful that the insulation is not broken; that the insulation is properly placed, and that the layers of wire are smooth and uniform.

The condenser of the ignition coil is made of two layers of tin foil and several layers of insulation, such as paraffin paper. This operation requires a person who is very careful, since if this particular part is not carefully constructed it will not function properly. The condenser is also machine wound in a number of cases, and skill comes with practice in this work.

Requirements for this job are about the same as found in the coil winding, viz., that the operator must have the free use of both hands, and be able to watch his work carefully.

After these various parts have been made in their respective departments they are ready for the industrial tests. This is done with meters to determine the amount of resistance that each coil has. If the resistance is not the same as found in other coils, the insulation is broken or the coil is shorted, in which case the coil is rejected. The condenser test is somewhat different. Here we find that special meters are used for determining the capacity. These testing operations require a man who has been trained for this particular job. The work is usually done sitting down.

After these various parts have passed inspection they are sent to the coil assembly, where they are put together in their proper relation. Where the coil is a box coil, the windings and condenser are placed in a box and hot paraffin or an insulating compound is poured into the box. After it has cooled all the ignition parts are held securely in place. The coil is then finished and is ready for the final test. This work is all light work, and there are a number of positions in which handicapped men could be employed.

In another part of the ignition factory, we find the breaker mechanism and other ignition apparatus being manufactured. This mechanism requires considerable machine work, which is done on special machines in the machine-shop department. After these parts have been machined and inspected they come through the assembly department, where the ignition apparatus is assembled. Here we find the workers at benches assembling the very fine delicate parts of the apparatus. The small springs, platinum points, screws, etc., must be placed in their proper places and with proper tension. After the ignition apparatus has been properly assembled it is inspected, and then goes to the testing department, where apparatus is tested as to its efficiency, etc.

In another department, wires are cut and made into proper lengths for certain ignition jobs. Here the terminals are soldered to the ends of the wires. Sometimes these operations are done on a conveyer system. This work is done sitting, and is well adapted to disabled men.

In the ignition, assembly, inspection, and testing departments, there are a number of operations that could be done by men with one arm and no legs, one leg and two arms, one eye, one arm and one leg, by men who have lost their hearing, and even by men who have been blinded. The work as found in the ignition department is light, working conditions are good, and the pay is average.

Where the ignition manufacturer manufactures magnetos, we find a little different class of work going on. Armatures are wound with primary and secondary windings, and this is done on a somewhat specialized machine. Insulation, also, is somewhat specialized, and assembly work differs somewhat from other assembly work. Magnetos must be made, charged, and tested. Condensers are of a special design. As a whole, however, the work in the magneto department requires about the same class of workmen as are found in the ignition department.

PLAN No. 1133. STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT

The electrical equipment of the automobile has reached a point of development which has brought about a large demand for this particular kind of apparatus. A number of factories make a specialty of this kind of equipment.

The starting and lighting equipment of the automobile, being made up of a number of pieces of material, requires considerable machine work, which will not be described here. The armature, which is made up of a shaft, laminated core, and a commutator, is all built in a sub-assembly department, after which the armature passes to the winding department, where special machines are operated. The operators of these machines do not need to be experts, but they do become very efficient at this kind of work after a short time. The wire is wound on the armature in the proper slots and the ends come out to the proper length. The sleeves are then put over the ends of the wires for insulation and the wires trimmed to exact length, after which the wire ends are soldered to the proper commutator bars.

The generator also has field coils or windings. These windings are wound on jigs for this work and are later placed in the fieldpieces of the generator. Each coil is tested before it is assembled to the field, and each armature is tested before it is assembled. After the pieces have been made in the various departments the generator is sent to the assembly department. Here the assembler is furnished with the generator castings, coils, pole pieces, bearings, armature, plates, brushes, and such other fittings as may be necessary. He proceeds to assemble the complete generator, after which the generator passes to the inspection department where it is inspected and tested as to its output.

The starting and lighting factory offers a number of splendid opportunities for the placement of disabled men. Handicapped men could very efficiently wind armatures. It has been said that a blind man could wind an armature after some practice. Men without legs could do the soldering of these armatures; men without legs could wind and test field windings and could assemble generators; men with one arm could test and wind field windings and do several other operations.

The starter motor as used in the automobile is a piece of equipment similar to that of a generator, about the only difference being that the starter motor is a little heavier machine, and the armature is wound with heavier wire. It is made for the purpose of cranking the automobile engine, and must withstand considerable abuse. Disabled men could make the tests on generators and starter motors with very little difficulty.

The output of a generator must be controlled to a limited degree. This is done by what is known as voltage regulation. There must be some kind of a relay to disconnect the storage battery and generator when the engine is not running. This is done by what is known as the circuit breaker. The voltage regulator and circuit breaker of the automobile starting and lighting system is made up of coils, springs, and breaker mechanism, depending upon the type of regulator and circuit breaker used. This work is all light work, usually handwork, and could be done by disabled men to a large extent. The assembling of this work requires the free use of both hands and a man must be able to see the work that is being done.

As a whole, work in ignition, starting and lighting departments is very desirable work. The working conditions are considered very good, the hours reasonable, and the pay about the same as in other manufacturing concerns.

PLAN No. 1134. RADIATORS

The demand for efficient radiators for the up-to-date automobile has almost created a separate industry in itself. Cooling systems for automobile engines have developed to such a point that a large force of experts are employed in the work of improving such systems. There are a number of factories which employ hundreds of employees in the manufacture of radiators for the automotive industry. These factories use a large amount of steel, tin, copper, and brass. They have developed special machines for the purpose of making peculiarly shaped cores in an endeavor to increase the radiating surface without increasing the cost. Large punch machines are used in making these shapes, and these machines have been so perfected that practically all the operator has to do is to feed through the machine one continuous roll of metal and take away the shaped cores. The cores are sent to the assembly department where they are then placed in proper formation. They are then dipped in a molten bath of solder which closes the ends of the tubes or solders them together, and then go to the final assembly department where each core is incased in the proper shaped casing and the radiator pipe and hose connections are soldered on. The radiator is then ready for testing, which is done in a tank where compressed air is forced into the radiator. If there are any leaks, they will show by bubbles arising from them.

The work as done in these factories requires some experts and some novices. Some of it can be done by men who have been handicapped, and there is considerable demand for men capable of handling this particular branch of the work. Working conditions as found in the radiator factories are good and hours are reasonable.

PLAN No. 1135. STEERING GEARS

The steering gear is one of the most important units of the automobile. A number of factories have been organized for the sole purpose of manufacturing a particular type of steering gear. In these factories we find ordinary drop-forging machines, machine-shop equipment, woodworking, and assembly work.

This work requires men who are able to move about freely and who have the free use of both hands. Some of the work is piecework (at least in some factories), and men must be able to come up to at least a reasonable production in order to qualify. The conditions as found in other manufacturing plants are found also in the steering-gear factories.

PLAN No. 1136. WHEELS

In the wheel factories, we find a number of special machines such as spoke machines, felloes machines, and trimming machines. These are practically automatic, the material being fed through them and the finished product coming out. After the parts have been made in their respective departments, they are ready for assembly. This requires a certain amount of handwork. The wheels must be assembled so that they will not loosen when they have been put into use. After they have been assembled, it is often necessary that a band be mounted on them. After a wheel has been assembled, it is put into a machine which trues and trims it, and it is then ready for the automobile manufacturer.

As the woodwork in the wheel factory is covered in the bulletin on woodworking, no further comments are made here.

PLAN No. 1137. BODIES

With the increased production of automobiles, large manufacturers have seen fit to purchase their bodies from body manufacturers. This has encouraged the body manufacturers to increase their production which has brought increased activities in this particular branch of the work.

In the body factories are employed woodworkers, sheet-metal workers, sand blasters, painters, upholsterers, and top builders.

In the woodworking department the work is similar to that of cabinet making, only the men are building skeleton instead of closed-type work. After the frame or skeleton of the body has been built, the metal or covering is fitted and secured to the framework. The body is then sent to be sand-blasted to make it smooth and also to assist in making the paint cling to a shiny surface. It then goes to the painting department where it is given a priming coat, several filler coats, color coat rubbing, varnishing, and a final finishing coat.

The woodworking department requires men who are able to handle tools and who are able to move about freely. The sheet-metal department requires men who are capable of using screw drivers and who are able to drive nails. The sand-blast department requires men with a normal body who can wear a dustproof suit, and who can handle the sand-blast equipment. The paint department requires men who are capable of moving about freely and who have the free use of one hand.

In the upholstering department are found machines for sewing, and racks upon which the upholstering is built before being put into the body. A number of these operations are done sitting, so that a man without legs could very efficiently do this work.

The upholstering is first made upon racks or frames, and is then cut out and tacked to the body. In this way the work is much easier done than by building it upon the body itself. The machine operators should have the use of one foot. However, with special equipment, the loss of both legs could be overcome in some of the work. The work in the upholstery department is very desirable in that it is dry and quiet, and employment is steady. Pay is good, and hours are about the same as in any other factories.

PLAN No. 1138. ACCESSORIES

The word “accessories” means extras or special pieces of equipment which are applied to the automobile. Under this heading are included wind shields, speedometers, clocks, indicators, horns, mirrors, spark plugs, and various other pieces of equipment. As this work inquires a great variety of machines, such as punches and presses, and a varied machine-shop equipment, no attempt will be made here to go into details. What has been said in preceding sections has covered the work carried on in these factories. For example, the work done in speedometer factories is somewhat similar to the work done in starting and lighting factories; and the work done in horn factories is somewhat similar to that done in ignition factories. Suffice it to say, that there are hundreds of occupations in the accessory departments and factories alone which offer employment to men who have met with accidents which prevent them from having the free use of every member of the body. There are a number of occupations which lend themselves particularly to men who are not able to do heavy work, as for instance, in the assembly of speedometers, clocks, and horns.

Conditions in these accessory factories are first class, wages are good, and hours are about the same as in the average manufacturing plant.

CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO DISABILITIES

In passing through an up-to-date automobile factory, there are thousands of operations being carried out at one time. The foregoing account does not cover hundreds of minor operations, skilled and unskilled, which could be efficiently done by disabled men. Many of these operations are entirely suitable for individuals who have been slightly disabled.

The following tabulation classifies the principal occupations which have been mentioned, with reference to certain type disabilities. It will be understood that neither the list of disabilities nor the several lists of occupations specified under these disabilities are complete.

POSSIBLE OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN WITH CERTAIN DISABILITIES

_Total blindness._ Folding cartons, counting parts, armature winding, bolts and nuts, inspector of packing of parts in cartons, inspecting and testing.

_Loss of one eye._ Almost any occupation that the man is otherwise qualified to work at.

_Deafness, total or partial._ Drafting clerk or checker, frame assembly, spring assembly, axle assembly, bearing assembly, transmission assembly, clutch assembly, engine assembly, bearing work, cam-shaft inspection, con-rod assembly, cylinder assembly, ring inspection, oil-pump assembly, carburetor assembly, coil winding, condenser assembly, coil assembly, coil testing, armature winding, generator assembly, magneto assembly, magneto test, general wiring, radiator assembly, wheel building, body building, upholstering, painting, many kinds of inspection work.

_Stiff neck._ Punch press and machine work, and occupations listed under deafness.

_Injured spine._ Drafting, inspection work, light assembly work, checking, timekeeping, messenger, gatekeeper, small electric machine operator, traveling-crane operator, heat treatment checker, employment department clerk.

_Loss of one arm._ Drafting, inspection, checker, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, messenger, electrical machine operator, traveling-crane operator, heat treatment checker, light assembly work, armature winding, electrical testing, drop forge operator, punch press operator, machine shop work, employment department clerk.

_Loss of both arms._ Checking, gatekeeper, and other work in proportion as man becomes skillful in the manipulation of artificial appliances.

_Loss of part of finger an one hand._ Practically any work for which man is otherwise qualified, providing he has learned to use remaining fingers.

_Stiff arm or shoulder, or partial loss of use of arm._ Drafting, checking, inspecting, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, information department, employment department, machine operator, lighter assembly work, magneto work, coil work, generator work, soldering, chipping and trimming, foundry (light work).

_Loss of both legs._ Upholstering, drafting, checking, inspecting, gatekeeper, timekeeper, clerk, information, employment department, machine operator, small assembly work, testing of electrical equipment, soldering, pyrometer checker in heat treatment department.

_Loss of one leg._ Drafting, checker, inspector, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, employment department, practically any assembly work, painting, upholstering, salvage department, body work, soldering, foundry work, machine operator, tester, dynamometer tester. Loss of a leg should not be a serious handicap.

_Shell shock and nervousness._ Drafting, checker, inspector, timekeeper, gatekeeper, lighter assembly work, painting, upholstering, body work, soldering, coil work, generator assembly, magneto assembly, cut-out assembly, electrical testing.

_Heart trouble and epilepsy._ Drafting, checker, inspector, light assembly work, painting, upholstering, coil work, generator assembly, cut-out assembly, electrical testing.

_Tuberculosis._ Loading crew checker (outside), inspector, car clerk, yard stock keeper, special salvage department as found in some factories especially set aside for tubercular people, outside trucking.

_Rheumatism._ Drafting, checker, inspector, painting, upholstering, body mechanic, wheel assembly, general assembly work, salvage department, machine operator, ignition expert, soldering, coil work, magneto assembly, generator assembly, cut-out assembly, testing of electrical equipment, laboratory work.

_Other disabilities, such as body wounds, etc., leaving patient in delicate condition._ Drafting, checker, inspector, foreman, clerk, employment department, information department, gatekeeper, electrical machine operator, light assembly work, machine operator, upholstery, soldering, light inspection work, magneto assembly, generator assembly, stationary motor assembly, Bakelite machine operator; many other operations which require very little strength and skill.

PLAN No. 1139. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This monograph was prepared by Edward Matteossian, Special Agent for the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.

WHAT THE WELDER DOES

He handles a torch, or blowpipe, at the tip of which a flame is produced by the burning of a mixture of two gases--acetylene and oxygen. A high degree of heat is produced by this flame, which can be concentrated at any point by proper handling of the torch.

The welder’s activities may be divided into two operations--welding and cutting.

WELDING

In welding, metals, like or unlike, are joined together by melting them until they fuse, “adding material” being used where it is required. The welder also builds up worn parts or adds metal where it is lacking. Common metals which can be treated by this process include the following: Cast iron, steel, malleable iron, aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, lead, and nickel. Precious metals also can be welded. Each metal has its peculiar characteristics and mode of treatment, and the welder who would turn out a good job must master the special technique for handling each metal.

Welding forms the larger part of the welder’s activities. It is much more difficult than cutting, and also has a wider field of application.

CUTTING

Cutting can be learned in a few hours. It is restricted in its scope, as it can be used only on steel and wrought iron. The cutting torch is similar to the welding torch with the difference that it is equipped with a special outlet for oxygen under pressure. The operator turns on his usual welding flame until the object is heated to a cherry red, and then presses a device which turns on the oxygen, causing the metal to burn away rapidly. The torch is then advanced slowly along the line of the cut to be made. By practice comes the knack of steadiness and of moving the torch at just the right speed to cut clear through the metal--not too fast for complete penetration, nor too slow, causing loss of oxygen.

WORK IN THE OPEN AND IN THE SHOP

Where the job can not be brought into the shop, welding and cutting are done out of doors, and may be carried on under all conditions of weather. Very commonly the process is used in cutting scrap, wreckage, and piling, and in welding piping and mains.

Inside work varies from shop to shop according as the shop is part of a manufacturing plant or of a foundry, or is purely a job welding shop.

Some account of the common uses of the processes in different industries is given in the section below on “Industrial Applications.” In steam and electric railway shops and yards, in shipbuilding, in the manufacture and repair of automobiles, in installing pipes and mains, in sheet-metal and metal plate work, in the manufacture of furniture, containers and other metal products, and in foundry work, welding and cutting is being extensively used to-day, and each day the welder’s field of operations is still further extended.

WHAT LOCALITIES NEED WELDERS?

The answer is: All localities where industrial plants are located, or where street railways are operated, or where farm machinery and implements are made or repaired, or where automobiles are used or built. Such localities will probably include your own home town or some town not far away from home.

THE WELDER’S TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The numerous makes of torches on the market are of two general types--the medium, or positive, pressure torch; and the low pressure, or injector torch. Practically all the oxygen used comes in compressed form in cylinders. Acetylene is more commonly generated on the premises, owing to the cheapness of this method. It is piped into the buildings and is always readily accessible. Generators, like torches, are of various makes, but they vary in type to correspond to the two kinds of torches, _i. e._, pressure generators, and low-pressure generators. Generators are automatic in their action, being controlled by the flow of gas. Where the gas is not generated in the establishment, and especially in outdoor work, dissolved acetylene is used. This comes in cylinders which are filled with porous material and contain acetone, a liquid, in which the gas is dissolved under pressure.

Welding equipment varies according to circumstances. In general a welding unit includes welding and cutting torches; hose and connections; oxygen and acetylene regulators and gauges; a supply of various tips; filler rods; goggles; friction lighters; gloves; asbestos sheets; fluxes; hand tools, such as pliers, files, hammers and cold chisels; welding table; preheating arrangement; fire brick; carbon blocks; and V-blocks. It may include also, hand shear, anvil, hand forge, bench and pipe vises, emery grinders, drill press, hack saw, jigs, lathe, hoist, and work bench.

Practically all of the necessary equipment is furnished to the welder, sometimes with exception of goggles, gloves, and overalls or leather apron, which the welder may have to obtain for himself.

WHY TAKE TRAINING?

The aim of re-education is to turn out a good welder who has not only the manipulative skill, but who in addition is well-grounded in the necessary theoretical knowledge. It can not be too strongly pointed out, in the view of the highly unsatisfactory method of turning out welders obtaining in the past, that the course can not be too thorough. The need is for good welders, not for half-trained men. Really good welders in this country are not many, and there is in this field a splendid opportunity for the well-equipped man, but for him only. An employer will always be looking for a better man if he has a half-trained man on the job.

OVERCOMING YOUR DISABILITY

The question is not primarily one of the handicap, but rather of the man behind the handicap. It is not the exception, but rather the rule, that a partially handicapped person, endowed with ingenuity will, even though at a disadvantage, beat the sound man who does not possess any ingenuity. This is borne out by numerous instances of foreign experience in re-education.

This applies, of course, especially to the less serious disabilities and not at all to those which are manifestly debarring. In the case of a welder, the latter would include blindness or defective vision, paralysis, shell shock and nervous disorders, loss of both arms or hands, tuberculosis, ankylosis of the upper members, spinal trouble, stiff neck, and dizziness.

Ankylosis of the knee or wrist might be overcome to some extent. Amputation of one leg will simply limit the field of activities. Where both legs are gone it would still be possible to enter some specialized field where work at the bench is all that is required. In such cases, however, it might be advisable to take up soldering or electric resistance welding. Loss of limbs would be an embarrassing handicap for most jobs, and prohibitive for outside work which necessitates climbing, crawling, stooping, or getting into abnormal positions. Men who have trouble in getting about should not enter this field. Only physically sound men should undertake work in confined spaces, in a boiler for example. One partially amputated arm would probably not be deterrent. Indoor work is manifestly unsuited to men with weak lungs, as the air in the shop is generally more or less heated and vitiated. Outdoor work might be pursued with benefit. Men with weak backs would generally be at a disadvantage. Kidney or intestinal trouble might or might not be deterrent, depending on the gravity of the trouble and the degree to which physical stamina and general health are affected. Rupture would not be a handicap except where heavy work is to be done, and in that class of work there is usually a helper around. Impairment of efficiency due to loss of one eye, which may make difficult the acquirement of precision in distancing the flame from the material to be welded, may nevertheless generally be overcome.

The welder must have one good arm and hand with which to hold and manipulate the torch, and enough of a stump left in the other arm to be capable of using the filler rod and of puddling. Amputation, ankylosis, or paralysis of a finger or two are not prohibitive, so long as the proper grip and manipulation of the torch can be preserved.

DEVICES FOR OVERCOMING HANDICAPS

Special “automatic pincers” are being used by French autogenous welders, to take the place of a missing hand, for those who have lost only part of the forearm. Drawings of this appliance are here given. The upper drawing shows the opening of the pincers through extension of the forearm, and the lower two drawings represent modification of the upper pincers for the use of welders.

Those who are incapable of using their hand through any cause are equipped with a special tool holder which is attached to the forearm.

Where the handicap consists of the loss of an arm, cutting may be taken up to advantage. There is restricted field of employment for disabled men in the operation of automatic welding or cutting machines.

SAFETY AND HYGIENE

As in other occupations, there are in welding, certain safety measures to be taken to avoid accidents. These are clearly defined and are made an integral part of the welder’s training until observance becomes automatic.

This applies, of course, to the man who is physically sound as well as to the disabled. In the case of the handicapped, the matter becomes one of ascertaining if the disability interferes with the carrying out of these safety measures; and if so, if the difficulty can be overcome. If not, some other occupation must be selected. In the welder’s case, however, these precautions are mostly “don’ts,” and do not present serious difficulties to be overcome.

Acetylene is not poisonous and the impurities in the gas which are poisonous are not present in sufficient quantity in the American carbide to be dangerous. The characteristic odor of the gas is a protection against fire, explosion, and suffocation. One cubic foot thoroughly mixed with 10,000 cubic feet of air can be detected.

HOW PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE HELPS

In selecting any vocation, a man’s former occupation must be carefully taken into account, and particularly is this true in the case of welding. Previous experience, training, and education are such important factors in the student’s success or failure that particular attention should be paid to them. Experience as a blacksmith, machinist, boilermaker, patternmaker, sheet-metal worker, molder, electrician, and in kindred occupations will be in every case of great value.

All experience in handling metals, as well as all mechanical experience is a valuable asset. For a man who has had such experience, it will be comparatively easy to become a good all-round welder. It goes without saying that no disabled man should take up the course unless he feels an interest in the work or in some special branch of it. It is this interest coupled with ingenuity which will make it possible for the welder to handle new problems successfully and to devise better and more efficient ways of doing things.

In the case of a former welder who is capable of taking up his former vocation, a short course of training will suffice. A former welder whose handicap prevents him from taking up his old trade may, with the proper training and necessary qualifications, become an excellent teacher, a welding foreman, or a superintendent.

ARE WELDERS GOING TO BE NEEDED?

The process is of comparatively recent application, dating back to about the year 1904. Its growth has been extremely rapid, especially of later years, as regards development of technique, extension of its applications, and perfection of apparatus. Regardless of this progress, however, it is no exaggeration to state that the process is as yet in its initial stages, and that in the near future its field of utility will be greatly extended. As contrasted with the growth of oxy-acetylene welding, the supply of good welders has lagged far behind the demand. Unlike European countries, this country has only lately come to realize the importance of well-grounded, thorough, practical training for prospective welders. In view of these two factors--the remarkable expansion of the process and the shortage of welders--prospects look bright for the future.

QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER OF THE WELDING PROCESS

In any occupation where the demand for labor is increasing rapidly, there is bound to be a demand for men to teach the processes and practice of the occupation. If you master the trade you yourself may qualify as a teacher.

GETTING TO WORK AFTER TRAINING

In contemplating placement after training the following factors are to be taken into account:

Your choice of a field.

Your special fitness.

The industrial demand.

It is the disabled man’s privilege to decide what he will specialize in and he will be allowed the freedom of choosing which branch of welding he will take up, such choice being of course subject to the guidance of the vocational adviser.

Most welders will exhibit a tendency toward some special branch or type of welding, even while they are learning the art. The instructor will keep in constant touch with the pupil during the course to determine if there is such a trend in him, and if so to encourage it. Some take to one metal in preference to others; some to one operation in preference to others; some may give evidence of ability as all-round welders.

The demand for welders is so varied that knowing the demands in general it will in most cases be possible to satisfy preferences and special aptitudes. This will be the aim always.

If as a trained welder you desire to get started on your own hook, several questions will arise in your mind?

Where shall I be located?

What are the demands of the locality in which I shall live?

What is my fitness for the work?

How about the necessary equipment?

The locality should be such as to give you ample opportunity to make good. It might be hard for you to go against much competition at the start. Likewise, to act as a pioneer of the industry in some locality which knows nothing about the work, might not be desirable.

In placing retrained welders, local demands will be carefully considered to the end that no man shall be placed where he may have work coming in which he is not capable of handling efficiently.

WHAT IF YOU DO NOT TAKE TRAINING?

You will not be a real welder; probably you will not get a chance to try your hand at manipulating the torch at all. If you do get a chance you may get hurt or hurt others trying to weld without training for the trade. Train for it, and then go to it, and if you fail come back for more training or for training in some other trade.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Some idea of the wide range of application of the oxy-acetylene processes may be gained from a brief survey of their uses in several industrial fields.

PLAN No. 1140. STEAM RAILWAYS

Oxy-acetylene welding is used in the shops of practically every railroad in the country as a means of reducing cost of repair and of reclaiming worn parts. Each craft usually does the welding of metals that originates in its department: Blacksmiths handle wrought iron and steel; boilermakers, boiler plates and flues; machinists, cast iron; coppersmiths, brass pipe work.

The process is generally used in the reclamation of broken engine frames, damaged cylinders, broken spokes in driver wheels, cracked valve chamber bushings, broken steam and exhaust pipes and air pump heads; in mending cracks, cutting out and welding patches on side sheets of fire boxes, flue sheets and door collars; in welding front end doors when damaged, engine truck frames and cradles, frame braces and brackets, tender bolsters, guides, and pedestals. The process is used to some extent also in building up worn diamond crossings and frogs. Both cutting and welding are used in the upkeep and repair of steel cars.

At the scrap yard the welder cuts up old boilers and other scrap for salvaging.

PLAN No. 1141. ELECTRIC RAILWAYS

Applications of the process by electric railways are similar to those by steam railways. There are, however, more opportunities for doing welding at the table. Of such a nature are restoring of armature bearing housings and frame heads, worn axle seats for motors and axle caps, journal boxes, pinion seats and keyways, brush holders, trolley bases, and third-rail shoe castings. Heavy broken parts such as truck frames, drawheads, brake hangers and body bolsters are repaired. To some extent the process is used also in bonding rails and in welding steel trolleys. Most of the work is handled in the shop, where, however, electric welding is coming into more general use, owing to the availability and economy of electric power.

PLAN No. 1142. SHIPBUILDING

Extensive use is made of the process in cutting all kinds and shapes of steel plate. Hydrogen is very generally used, instead of acetylene, and welding machines have been introduced. Welding proper is more generally applied in reclamation work, damaged or broken parts of the ship and of its machinery and propellers being often welded by this process.

Electric arc welding is fast coming to the front in this field, except for cutting where the gas process can not be replaced.

PLAN No. 1143. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

Oxy-acetylene welding of automobile parts is not in general very difficult, but as in all other welding mastery of fundamentals is here also essential to success. The work is varied in character, including cast iron, aluminum, steel, and wrought iron welding.

The process is extensively used in the repair of automobiles, and to a lesser degree in their manufacture. Both the industry itself and the repair work provide excellent fields for the prospective welder.

Repair work is done generally in either a job welding shop, where a number of welders are employed and where all kinds of welding is carried on, or else in a garage or automobile repair shop where a welder is employed to do the necessary work. In small communities the welding shop is usually run by one man who owns it and who does all the welding. In the large welding shops acetylene is generated; in other cases dissolved acetylene is used. A welder who is expert in the welding of aluminum is particularly valuable in this work.

In manufacture, the work is done in the shop. It is often simple and well suited to workers who must elect a sedentary employment. The process is broadening its scope in this field.

Closely related to the automobile is the motorcycle. A number of its parts, such as handlebars, special jigs and muffler heads, are welded in manufacture. In repair work the scope is somewhat similar to that of automobile repairing.

PLAN No. 1144. PIPE AND MAIN WORK

In the welding of pipes and mains, the process is finding increased application and this field presents good prospects of expansion in the future. Extensive work in this country as well as in Europe, where it is more largely used, has demonstrated that welding is not only the most economical method but as well the most efficient in that leaky joints are eliminated. Welding does away with threaded joints, and thus makes possible the use of much lighter pipe, since there is no need for making allowance in thickness for threading. Moreover, joint couplings are dispensed with. The expense saved in maintenance alone is tremendous, as the joint is water-tight and there is therefore little likelihood of trouble arising from leaks. In making connections, Y’s, T’s, crosses and drips are made on the spot, being cut out of odd lengths of pipe and fitted together. This effects an economy in that these odd pieces are saved.

The process has its greatest application in the welding of gas, steam, air, oil, water and ammonia pipes and mains, and the work is chiefly outside work, although it is used to some extent on interior pipe connections. Special fittings or connections may be welded in the shop. Outdoors welding is generally performed on sections of pipe while above the ground, the whole section being finally lowered into the ditch. The welding of these several sections to each other has to be done in the ditch or trench, a pit being generally dug in order to give the welder sufficient room for carrying on the work. Obviously this work requires suppleness in the worker.

Where there is a large amount of welding, the apparatus most commonly used is a portable generator, with which is mounted a set of oxygen tanks. In other cases a small two-wheeled truck carrying one oxygen and one dissolved acetylene cylinder may suffice.

In this kind of work, the welder is generally assisted by one or two helpers who do the heavy work, placing, holding, and turning the pipes while the welder keeps on welding. Some overhead welding is done which forces the welder to assume a strained position.

PLAN No. 1145. SHEET METAL