Chapter XLIX: Appendix: On Forestry Schools and Courses (2)

Danger from lead poisoning and acid burns and fumes is prevalent in battery work, but occurs only through carelessness. A man with any skin or lung diseases or wounds probably should not undertake this work. Gloves are worn in handling lead, but they will not protect against skin wounds. The eyes may be injured by lead and acid, but by wearing goggles this can be avoided. A man with any open wounds should not enter battery service work.

SPECIAL APPLIANCES

No special appliances can be arranged satisfactorily to handle the tools and equipment, although stools can be provided for the man who is required to sit.

PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE

A knowledge of chemistry and work in a chemical laboratory will help a man to become a battery expert. Experience in battery construction and in the care of starting and lighting batteries will also be an excellent start, as would experience as a helper in a battery-service station.

WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN

To a large extent the instruction in battery work will be carried on in a service station where equipment is available. A school shop properly equipped will also be made use of.

The course will contain the elements and fundamentals of battery maintenance and service. The length of the course will be from 4 to 6 months.

AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?

Permanent positions as battery experts will be open in battery-service stations. The knowledge will also be necessary for the man who proposes to set up a shop of his own. It is a general condition that battery work be done in an independent and separate shop rather than in a general repair shop. The hours of employment will not vary from those already given for other types of maintenance and service work, and the wage will also be about the same.

In cities and towns of 5,000 or over there will be found work enough for one or more battery stations employing two or more men. Employment will invariably be stable for the highly skilled battery expert. Opportunity for promotion and success will depend upon the man, but there is great demand for expert service, and there is a good field in many places for the establishment of service stations. Future prospects are exceedingly good due to the large increase in the use of storage batteries. It is also true that the average automobile driver and owner is waking up to the fact that the battery must have special care and repair to keep it in good working shape.

PLAN No. 1155. TIRE REPAIRING

THE OCCUPATION

The repair of automobile tires, including casings and tubes, is almost invariably assigned to a specialist, although many of the minor repairs, such as patching tubes, are done by owners or amateur repairers. Tires are probably the most delicate and the most misunderstood part of the car, as well as being the part receiving the hardest use. To secure the greatest mileage and the least trouble from tires they must receive proper treatment and have the attention of a specialist when trouble develops.

The tire repairman should have a knowledge of tire construction and be well versed in tire troubles and their causes in order to make proper diagnoses of the cases. This knowledge is necessary also in making adjustments on tire mileage, which is, in connection with the tire sales agency, a business very often established as an adjunct to the repair business.

The shop work of the repair man deals with casing troubles from punctures, blow-outs, rim cuts, blisters, stone bruises, and with the preparation of the tire for repairing, relining, retreading, and vulcanizing. Tubes have to be patched, spliced, and vulcanized. Valves in the tube stem will often cause trouble by leaking, but can be remedied by replacing with new valves. Sand blisters can be cured by opening the blister with a sharp knife, cleaning out the dirt and filling the hole with a self-curing rubber filler. A blow-out caused by a weak place in the casing usually due to a sand blister or stone bruise can be remedied by the inside method or a combination inside and outside method. Both methods consist in removing layers of fabric and applying fabric patches. When the outside has been properly built up with fabric and the chafing strips applied the cushion gum unit can be applied and the whole casing then placed in a sectional mold, where heat applied to both the inside and out will cure the job. Rim cuts are repaired in a similar way. Retreading is done by first cleaning down to the carcase and applying coats of vulcanizing cement upon which the tread can be built up and vulcanized. Reliners are vulcanized to the inside of a casing to take care of inside fabric breaks.

The work on the inner tube consists in patching to cover small holes, cuts, pinched tubes, and minor injuries.

Vulcanizing, which should be done on large patches, is also the best remedy for any repair. It is done by first cleaning the hole, preparing the patch, and placing and vulcanizing. Inserting new sections or splicing tubes is done by removing the damaged section, inserting a new one, and vulcanizing, one splice being made at a time.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The equipment of a tire repair shop contains vulcanizers of many sizes which apply the heat through the use of gasoline, steam, or electricity. Vulcanizing moulds which are made to fit the tire are necessary for applying casing patches. Vulcanizing kettles, sidewall and retreading vulcanizers, benches, vises and holding forms are also to be found. The small tools required include flat and concave rollers, awls, stickers, rubber knives, large shears, wire brushes, tread gauges, fabric knives, pliers, scrapers, tread chisels and cement brushes. Splicing mandrels, try squares, tweezers, rules, spreaders and other devices and tools may be found in the equipment.

DISABILITIES

The work in a repair shop is not very strenuous, although it requires careful attention and speed. It is necessary that the man have the use of both hands and be able to see his work clearly. Deafness will not interfere to any great extent with his success. Lifting, stooping, or bending, while necessary to a small degree, is not common. The weight of a tire is the heaviest weight to handle around the shop.

There is little danger from poisoning or injury to skin, except as infection may be brought in with dirt on the tires. A man with leg disabilities will certainly not be debarred from this occupation if he can get around without great difficulty. It is possible to do some of the work while seated. A man having lost the use of certain neck movements would be able to handle tire repair work.

PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE

A general education will be of much help in handling the business end of the shop, while technical knowledge of automobile tires will be a good basis for repairing. Experience in a tire manufacturing plant or rubber industry, and in a repair shop as a helper will be very valuable to a man entering this field.

WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN

Classes for tire repairmen will be carried on in schools where equipment is available, but probably to a large extent in the commercial repair shop where actual working conditions exist. Both full-time and part-time schemes may be used.

The course will include practical work on all kinds of repair jobs. Tires will be studied to help a man to determine the cause and remedy of tire trouble and to make adjustments. The time necessary to qualify as an expert tire repairman will be from 4 to 6 months.

AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?

Employment in tire repair shops for a skilled man will be easily found. The field is large and shops are required in nearly every village, town and city. With the increased use of cars the year round will come increased demand for tire repair service and hence year round employment for the tire specialist. The daily hours of work will be from 8 to 10 depending upon local conditions.

The wage of the skilled workman will be about 60 cents per hour, but a man owning his business can make it more profitable. Opportunity for promotion will come through increase of the man’s own business, or through advancement to the position of foreman or manager in a large shop.

PLAN No. 1156. AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK DRIVERS

THE OCCUPATION

Chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers are employed to drive cars and keep them in good running condition. It is very essential that anyone operating a car shall know its construction and the function that each part performs. He should know how to care for the machine and how to make minor adjustments. Lubrication of all parts properly at regular intervals is an important task of the driver. The location of trouble and the detection of its cause and remedy is even more important than driving upon the highway.

The operation of the car includes starting and stopping the engine, starting and stopping the car, and driving. One of the first things to know is how to stop the car. The use of the emergency and service brakes, as well as braking with the engine, requires considerable skill and experience. Cranking and starting apparatus must be understood if it is to be used with ease and without injury. Skill in shifting gears and in controlling the car is attained by experience.

A good driver must have a knowledge of road regulations and precautions, and must also be familiar with city ordinances in regard to the driving and parking of automobiles. He must be cautious, able to see danger, and to avoid it.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

An automobile should always be equipped with a complete set of tools for making repairs and adjustments. A tire repair outfit is a valuable addition to the driver’s equipment. The tools and equipment are of the portable type, easy to manipulate, and convenient to carry around.

DISABILITIES

A chauffeur or truck driver should have good eyesight and be able to hear distinctly. It is necessary to locate trouble and remedy it by seeing or hearing. Danger is averted by carefully watching the road and things likely to interfere with travel, and also by listening for approaching trains and cars.

A man in this employment should have two hands, although he might have lost some of his fingers. It is also well for him to have the free use of his arms and legs. A man with leg amputation below the knee would be able to operate the brakes, clutch, and accelerator without difficulty. Lung diseases and wounds, hernia, and abdominal trouble would not debar a man from work of this kind. It is necessary that he be able to have the full use of his neck and head. A man suffering from shell shock, who is subject to nervousness, loss of memory, or inability to control his actions should not be employed as a chauffeur.

APPLIANCES

A man so disabled that he must have special devices or appliances to operate an automobile should not enter the occupation. Artificial legs which can be properly controlled would not, however, debar him.

PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE

A man who has had experience in operating or repairing automobiles, motor boats, motorcycles, or gas engines will have some knowledge necessary for chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers. A man with ability along mechanical lines and training, also, enabling him to learn the principles of motor-car operation and care readily will have a good foundation for this occupation.

WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN

Classes for motor-car care and operation will be conducted very largely in schools having the necessary space and facilities for work. Instruction will include class-room instruction and study, shop-repair work, and driving. Operation instruction will be conducted on the road.

The course will be arranged to prepare a man adequately for successful motor-car care and operation. He will have an opportunity to come in contact with all problems usually confronted by the automobile and truck driver. It will require from two to four months to complete the course, depending upon the man’s previous experience and ability.

AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT?

Good automobile and truck drivers are in demand. It has been predicted that many of the truck drivers now in Government service will take positions of that type after the war. This condition would probably cause an excess of men for this work, and it is well to say that the men who have the best training and qualifications will ordinarily secure the positions.

The hours of employment will depend upon the man’s position but usually the time is 8 to 12 hours per day. Drivers of pleasure cars are employed for a greater number of hours usually, but much of the time while on duty they are idle. Men in these jobs are paid at the rate of $10 to $35 per week.

Work as driver of light or heavy trucks and pleasure cars is available in nearly all towns and cities. Employment is stable, except for the fact that the cars may be out of use during the season of snow. The work is healthful, inasmuch as the men are out in the air most of the time. Severe weather may cause inconvenience and hardship to some people. There is very little opportunity for promotion, except that gained through changing jobs.

PLAN No. 1157. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND CEMENT MANUFACTURE

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This monograph was prepared by A. J. R. Curtis, of the Portland Cement Association, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance.

Development in the field of concrete construction during the past two decades has been little short of marvelous. This increase may be accredited to the wide variety of uses to which concrete may be put and to the demand on the part of the American public for construction that is permanent, reasonable in cost, and fireproof. The concrete industry has brought in to the field of labor a new type of skilled workmen and its varied phases each call for men with distinct, definite training. Indications point to a greatly increased demand for men in this line of industrial activity. If the increase in the production of Portland cement during the last few years is reviewed one can easily see the constantly increasing importance with which concrete construction is being regarded. The shipments of cement leaped from 8,000,000 barrels in 1900 to 92,000,000 in 1917. A vivid imagination will not be needed to picture a still greater and wider field for its use in the future.

With the cessation of hostilities new construction work of many kinds is being planned in every section of the country. Millions of dollars will be spent for new buildings, highways, bridges, and various other types of public and private improvements. There will be a demand for trained workmen which will probably tax every effort to supply. A large percentage of the occupations in this line of work can be filled efficiently by men who have suffered some disability in the service of their country. The handicap in the loss of a leg or an arm on the battlefields of France can be overcome with the aid of a “Made in America” leg or arm, fitting the wearer to fill efficiently many occupations in the concrete industry.

A careful study has been made of the limitations imposed by various injuries. There are many cases on record where injured men have overcome all handicaps and have made good in positions which from the survey of the re-educationist appeared quite impossible. Many instances have come to light which show that the statement, “A handicap is merely a state of mind,” holds true for a great variety of cases.

The wage question is no doubt one of the first which arises in your mind. It is natural that one should ask, “What wages or salary does this job pay?” and, “What are the chances for advancement?” In a review of the wages of men engaged in concrete construction as compared with the men engaged in other lines of construction work this fact was noted, that although in 1913 the average wage for the concrete worker was somewhat lower, during the year 1916 wages for concrete workers advanced 60 per cent while for workers in the other line the advance was only 20 per cent. For the man with training in this work the salary will average near $150 per month. As regards opportunities for advancement, few other lines of activity seem to hold forth comparable opportunities, when it is considered that a large proportion of competent workers eventually become partners or managing owners in contracting concerns, while the demand for construction superintendents is usually greater than the supply.

For convenience, concrete-work employments may be classified in three distinct groups, namely: (1) Structural group, including the building of reinforced concrete structures, ships, bridges, dams, retaining walls, and a multitude of small structures; (2) roads and highway group, including the construction of concrete roads and highways, pavements, and alleys; (3) products plant group, including the making of blocks, brick, tile, sewer and pressure pipe, and ornamental trim work.

PLAN No. 1158. STRUCTURAL GROUP

ENGINEER OR ARCHITECT

In large structural work the man in charge is usually a civil engineer or an architect, who has specialized during his course of training in structural or reinforced concrete engineering. He is the designer or the creator of the proposed structure. Before any work is done he must picture in his mind the finished product in every detail of its construction; he must be able to design and lay out the plans for the work in its entirety; he must be familiar with the cost of labor and materials, in order that he may know when the contractor is placing a fair price upon the construction. He must know the building laws and codes in any part of the country in which he may be working. He should have business training and experience, as practically all his associations will be with business men, and he must be able to talk intelligently and in business terms to them.

A large percentage of his time will be spent in the office or designing room.

His training is received in one of two ways, namely: By full-time course of training in the civil engineering department of a university or college, or by part-time study in a technical school. Many schools of this last-named type are now giving evening work, which enables young men to attain the degree of a civil engineer or architectural engineer while working. Thus, a man who is working during the day, may increase his efficiency and attain the same end as his brother, who has been more fortunate in that he has received a full four years’ training.

To reach the position of engineer architect, the training described above is an absolute necessity. As a usual thing a civil engineer who has just completed his course starts work in the capacity of draftsman, foreman, inspector, or assistant superintendent, and as he gains in experience is given more responsible positions. His wages range from approximately $100 at the start to $400 or $500 per month as he gains in efficiency and experience.

Often, after gaining experience an engineer will establish a clientage, and gradually work up a business of his own. This is a goal toward which to strive, as it means greater independence and a larger income. His services are in demand in every part of the country the year round.

PLAN No. 1159. INSPECTOR

After designing a structure the engineer lets the job of constructing to a contracting firm. He places as his representative on the job an inspector whose duty it is to see that the engineer’s plans and specifications are properly carried out. The duties of an inspector are not difficult, but it takes a man with diplomacy and consideration, yet one who is sufficiently firm to safeguard his employer’s interests and make sure that every part of the work is performed in a thoroughly acceptable manner. It goes without saying that he must be acquainted with every feature of the construction work as planned by the engineer.

His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or architect. However, it is possible for a man who can not complete his entire training at one time to accept a position as inspector, and gain some very valuable experience in this way. There are also men who work up from the ranks to this position. The demand for his services is greatest in connection with large industrial and public projects and in the general construction work in cities. His wages range from $100 to $200 per month.

PLAN No. 1160. CONTRACTOR

The contractor or firm of contractors are equipped to handle the construction work. At such a time as the engineer or architect has his plans completed he advertises among the contractors for bids on the construction according to his plans. As a rule the responsible firm making the lowest bid gets the job.

PLAN No. 1161. SUPERINTENDENT

The first thing the contractor does after accepting the job is to select a superintendent of construction. Superintendents are usually engineers who have grown up in the service of the firm. The successful superintendent must have resourcefulness, technical knowledge, tact, energy, honesty, and judgment. He must have a personality which drives to activity several hundred originally unorganized men who are without special interest in the company they work for or in the results accomplished, and with tact and judgment he must weld them into a unified working organization, cheerful and self-respecting, with a high morale and finally with enthusiasm for the work at hand. He must be able to build in full size, with permanent materials, a structure the design of which troubled the engineer or architect to show clearly on paper; he must be honest, since his company must leave their reputation in his hands and trust him with funds; he must, through attention and experience, be so trained that dangerous operations are carried on as a matter of routine without worry either to himself or his company; he must have ability to foresee and provide for the problems which are perhaps to come up months later; he should have his temper continually under control, even under the most provoking circumstances; he should have as much pride in the structure he is erecting as the engineer who designed it; he must be able to handle labor and cope with the various labor problems that may arise.

His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or inspector, but he has been fitted by experience for the position of superintendent. He may have served in various capacities with the same contracting firm or with other firms. In some cases men with extraordinary ability have worked up from the ranks by hard work and home study or night-school training. The salary of the superintendent varies in different localities and upon different jobs. It usually ranges from $150 per month upward.

PLAN No. 1162. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT

On the larger jobs the superintendent has an assistant. His duties are dependent largely upon the man under whose direction he may be working. From a study of the duties and qualifications of the superintendent an idea may be gained of the nature of the assistant’s work. The educational requirements are the same as those for the superintendent, but his responsibility is less and therefore as great and varied experience is not required. The opportunity for his services depends upon the number of large jobs under construction. His salary usually ranges from $100 to $200 per month.

PLAN No. 1163. TIMEKEEPER

On all large jobs a timekeeper has a position of responsibility. His duties are clerical in nature; in fact he might be called the superintendent’s clerical assistant. As his name implies he is keeper of the time of the men, and each day checks up the men on the job in order that no mistakes may be made in figuring their time. He handles a large amount of clerical work in connection with the pay roll, and may also be called upon to do other work in connection with construction. He must be a man who is absolutely honest and trustworthy. He has a wonderful opportunity for observation and study of construction operations, and can by application and study advance to a position of greater responsibility and trust. His wage varies somewhat, and is dependent on the amount of responsibility placed upon him and of work required of him. Experience is of secondary importance.

PLAN No. 1164. FOREMAN

On a large job there will be several foremen, usually a general foreman, a concrete foreman, foreman of reinforcing placing, and a carpenter-foreman.

First and most important a foreman must be able to _handle men_. His duties are more than just to hire and fire. He must be acquainted with the problems of his men and spend some time studying their viewpoint of all questions in which they may be interested. As he is ofttimes a man who has advanced from the ranks by hard work, study, and superior ability, he will be acquainted with the men’s side of the various labor questions. However, he must be fair minded and not see the viewpoint of the men alone, but must regard that also of his employer. He must be able to weigh carefully any situation, and to make a fair and just decision.

He must be able to read designs and put them into operation. He may not be called upon to perform actual mechanical operations, but he must be able to tell and to show his men how the work is done. He is, in fact, the superintendent’s right-hand man on the particular portion of the work which has been assigned to him. All of his time will be spent out in the open upon the job. Wherever there are concreting operations in progress, there you will find him.

The general foreman has active charge of all operations. The other foremen, as a rule, come directly under his jurisdiction.

The concrete foreman has charge of all concreting operations; the reinforcing foreman has charge of the placing all reinforcing; and the carpenter foreman has charge of the building of the forms and erecting of all staging and hoist towers necessary for carrying on the concreting operations.

Generally speaking, the foremen gain their training from experience and study; night schools have been started in some of the cities of the country, which are giving courses in concrete work, particularly for the man who is anxious to better his position.

PLAN No. 1165. FINISHERS

The repairing of imperfections in the concrete surfaces and the finishing or floating of flat surfaces requires the work of the finisher. He must possess manual dexterity so that he can handle a float skillfully and must know when a surface has been worked sufficiently. Skill is also required in pointing up or repairing imperfections in surface from which forms have been removed. His wages range from 50 to 60 cents per hour. His training is received on the job.

PLAN No. 1166. MIXER OPERATOR

Several things are required of a mixer operator. First he must have some mechanical skill and be able to handle and to take care of a steam or gas engine or an electric motor. He should be able to repair the mixer in case of a breakdown. He must also know something of proportioning and of consistencies required for different mixtures and under different conditions. Wherever any considerable amount of concreting is done the services of a mixer operator are required. The wages are practically the same as for finishers. His training is gained through experience on the job.

PLAN No. 1167. FORM BUILDERS

Form builders are carpenters and must have the experience and training required in that trade.

PLAN No. 1168. REINFORCING PLACERS

Reinforcing placers are very often laborers under the direction of a skilled foreman. Their duties are to place the reinforcing steel according to the specifications prepared by the engineer. In some of the larger cities the Structural Steel Workers’ Union requires that all placing of reinforcing be done by men from their union. The wages vary according to locality. Very little training or experience is necessary.

PLAN No. 1169. RURAL CONTRACTORS

Rural contractors comprise a very numerous group, handling concrete jobs in the smaller cities and towns throughout the country. Endowed with an ordinary amount of business judgment, the rural contractor usually becomes a well-to-do business man. He usually acts as his own superintendent directing his jobs personally. The average rural contractor is independent and commands the respect of the business men of his community. His income is variable but always affords a good living if his business is well managed. His income is often comparable with that of the larger merchants in the community.

ROAD AND HIGHWAY GROUP

A large number of the occupations in this division are analogous to the positions in the structural division.

PLAN No. 1170. ENGINEER

On practically all public highways the outlining of the plans and specifications are left to the county or state highway engineer. His course of technical training should include specialized work in highway engineering. He must be thoroughly reliable and of unquestionable integrity, as his judgment in matters pertaining to the construction of highways and roads must be faultless.

Only recently the states of Illinois and Pennsylvania voted enormous bond issues to be used in the construction of permanent hard-surfaced roads. Many other states are planning to appropriate huge sums for the same purpose. Never before has the opportunity for the highway engineer been so great. The training required and the salary paid are very similar to those of the structural engineer.

PLAN No. 1171. INSPECTOR

As in structural work the building of highways is usually let to a contractor and the engineer places an inspector as his representative on the job. The duties of the inspector are practically the same as upon structural work.

PLAN No. 1172. SUPERINTENDENT

In a general way all that has been said regarding a superintendent of structural work applies to the superintendent of highway work. He should understand how the grading in preparation for the building of roads should be done and be able to carry on the construction of the road efficiently, with as little delay and as economically as possible.

PLAN No. 1173. FOREMAN

The foreman on road work has usually been trained in the school of experience and has learned the various requirements of good concrete road building. He has shown by hard work and superior ability that he is able to handle the position of foreman of the highway building gang. In a general way his requirements are the same as heretofore mentioned.

PLAN No. 1174. MIXER OPERATOR, FINISHER, REINFORCING PLACER

The requirements are the same as in structural work.

PLAN No. 1175. FORM SETTER

Before it is possible to place any concrete it is necessary to build side rails to contain the concrete. This work is done by form setters. No special training is required.

PRODUCTS GROUP

The making of various concrete products is a field which is increasing in importance. The construction of block, brick, tile, sewer, and pressure pipe, silo staves, ornamental trim, structural units, lamp posts, fence posts, telephone and telegraph poles, burial vaults, kitchen sinks, bath and laundry tubs, garden furniture, roofing and floor tile, cribbing fences, columns and grindstones are included in this group. The concrete products industry is coming into a position of dignity and importance. The day of the incompetent man is passing, and his product--the pasty looking, porous cement block--is giving way to the real concrete unit, structurally sound and architecturally beautiful. The factory-made concrete block of quality has made its way against the prejudice created by inferior products and against a conservatism which requires a new material to prove beyond any possibility of doubt its superiority to materials with which builders are acquainted. Concrete units have suffered through the ignorance which has placed them upon the market as substitutes and imitations rather than as products of a material having its own distinctive qualities and characteristic charm.

The development of concrete stone manufacture depends upon the possibility of the market, skillful workmanship, economical operation and competent management; upon the utilization of the best available materials and equipment in preference to makeshifts and clumsy manual labor. It depends on artistic perception, and also upon the appreciation of public demands.

This line of work presents a wonderful opportunity for the man who desires to eventually go into business for himself. The amount of capital required for the start is comparatively small. However, before entering this line of business a very careful study should be made of the management, manufacture, and marketing of concrete products.

PLAN No. 1176. MANAGER

In large plants a manager is employed by the operating company, but in smaller plants the proprietor usually acts as manager. The man who undertakes the management of an enterprise of this kind should understand business principles and have training and experience in business life; he must be familiar with the requirements of the product which he is manufacturing; he should not attempt to manufacture too large a line of products, but should specialize according to the demands of the locality in which he is situated.

PLAN No. 1177. FOREMAN

The foreman is in active charge of the manufacturing of the products and has direct charge of the labor employed. The requirements for his position are the same as have already been mentioned for a foreman.

PLAN No. 1178. MACHINE OPERATORS

A large percentage of concrete products are manufactured in specially designed machines which require some skill in operating. The operator must know the machine thoroughly. His training is gained by experience.

PLAN No. 1179. MODELER

If ornamental work is undertaken the services of a modeler are absolutely necessary. To produce products artistic in design requires the services of a man trained in an art school. From a clay model, molds of plaster or glue are made in which the concrete is poured. Most of the modeler’s work is done indoors, usually in a well lighted studio. His salary is variable and dependent upon his ability. Demand for his services is not very general at the present, but the occupation holds many very promising allurements for the man who has ability.

PLAN No. 1180. PATTERN MAKER

In some cases it is necessary to make wooden forms for ornamental trim work. The making of these forms requires the services of a pattern maker. The requirements and qualifications for this position have been discussed in other monographs.

PLAN No. 1181. PLASTER AND GLUE MOLD MAKER

It is the work of a plaster and glue mold maker to take the model which has been designed and make a plaster or glue mold in which the concrete will be placed. His experience and training is gained by actual work with the material, either in the shop or in the school. This occupation requires considerable mechanical ability. In smaller plants the modeling and mold making are frequently done by one man.

MISCELLANEOUS

Each one of the various groups which have been mentioned requires an office force, and commonly in the case of the concrete products group salesmen are employed.

RE-EDUCATION

To the man who has been disabled, some place in the field of concrete construction activities may present a life work which has a future both big and bright. The work is vitally interesting and alive. If you have the determination and ability the way is clear to assume almost any of the responsible positions reviewed in this monograph. Do not expect to step from the hospital or from the vocational institution into the highest position; the minor jobs are stepping stones to the bigger ones. Make up your mind that you will attain the highest possible position in that phase of the construction industry in which you are engaged, and by diligent application you will ultimately reach this goal. The industry is large and there are opportunities for everyone to whom the doing of big things appeals. Talk with the re-educational expert with whom you should in any case get acquainted, and learn of schools near your home that are giving instruction in the various phases of concrete construction.

PLAN No. 1182. CEMENT MANUFACTURE

With the increase in construction activities the demand upon the manufacturers of Portland Cement becomes greater. However, the manufacture of this product does not present as large an opportunity to you as does the field of concrete construction. In the actual manufacture of this product there are few positions which make a direct appeal.

However, in the laboratories, which are maintained by all manufacturing companies there is an opportunity for you if you are interested in chemistry or physics. Elaborate tests, both chemical and physical, are made of this product. If you have had training in chemical engineering, here is an opportunity for you to get into work which is interesting, of which the future is assured. If you have not had the training, the chemical engineering departments of our colleges present the opportunity for study and research work. If your mind is made up to enter the cement testing laboratory, specialize on this subject while taking your course of training.

PLAN No. 1183. THE LAW AS A VOCATION

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

For the material of this monograph the Federal Board for Vocational Education is indebted to the Vocation Bureau, Boston, through its publication The Law as a Vocation, of which this pamphlet is largely an abstract. The monograph was prepared by Dr. H. L. Smith, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance.

ARE YOU THINKING OF BECOMING A LAWYER?

If you are and have not yet made up your mind, you will want to read this pamphlet, because it tells what the leading men in the profession of law say about law as a vocation. It tells you the answers that these men give to questions that are in your mind.

If you are thinking of entering the profession of law, you want to know the answers to these questions:

1. What kind of work should I have to do as a lawyer?

2. What personal characteristics should I possess to be successful as a lawyer?

3. How much general education ought I to have as a basis for a course in law?

4. What specific training should I need if I decide to become a lawyer, and how long would it take?

5. How should I be admitted to the bar?

6. What income may I reasonably expect to earn if I am successful in practice?

7. What are some other rewards to a lawyer in addition to the earnings from practice?

8. How many years would it take me to establish myself in practice?

9. How great a need is there for lawyers?

10. How much will it cost me to get an education suitable for the practice of law?

WHAT KIND OF WORK SHOULD I HAVE TO DO AS A LAWYER?

“The work of the law is to establish rights, satisfy claims, protect the innocent against wrongdoers, secure convictions for the guilty, and to maintain a cause in the face of all forms of opposition and misrepresentation.”[35]

[35] The Law as a Vocation, p. 68, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.

The profession of law, therefore, is a profession of action rather than inaction, of fighting for a cause. In this fight the lawyer finds his work in two rather distinct fields, office practice and court practice. Office practice again subdivides itself into practice of a public nature and practice of a private nature. Office practice of a private nature consists very largely in the examination of titles to property, the drafting of legal papers, such as deeds and contracts, the acting as trustee or guardian, the collection of accounts, and the giving of general legal advice. In the office practice of a public nature, the lawyer acts as public administrator, referee in bankruptcy proceedings, auditor of public accounts, etc.

In the field of court practice the lawyer deals with criminal cases, damage suits, etc. It is in this field that there is the greatest nervous strain, but at the same time the greatest opportunity for building up a wide reputation. In court practice an attorney conducting a case usually consults other lawyers and has their aid and counsel as associates in the case.

Both in office and court practice lawyers usually become notaries or justices for the convenience of clients in the acknowledgment of deeds, the making of affidavits, etc. Classified on a still different basis the principal fields of practice in law are five in number. Any lawyer would usually have the bulk of his practice in one of these five fields, acting in one of the following capacities: General practitioner, criminal lawyer, tort lawyer, real estate lawyer, patent lawyer. All but the first of these represent specialized fields.

The general practitioner performs various kinds of legal services, any kind in fact that may be called for in the community in which he lives.

The criminal lawyer limits his practice chiefly to work in criminal courts and deals with offenses that have been committed against society.

The tort lawyer deals with damage suits. The work of the tort lawyer is often divided into two fields, that of the plaintiff lawyer and that of the defendant lawyer. The plaintiff lawyer does work for those parties who are claiming damage. The defendant lawyer does work for those individuals or organizations that are sued for damage. Generally the defendant lawyer serves a liability or insurance company, corporation or other employer.

The real-estate lawyer is engaged largely in examining titles, and in acting as trustee and thus holding funds for investment. His work naturally brings him in close touch with both the buying and the selling end of the real-estate business, so that he usually, himself, engages to some extent in that business.

The patent lawyer assists in getting patents from the National Government, and in acting as an attorney in patent cases.

The following quotation affords a description of the work of a lawyer from another point of view:

“The lawyer spends a part of his time in studying law, reading statutes, decisions, reports, and treatises. The printed decisions in various States range from 1 to 18 or 20 volumes a year. With these and other legal material the lawyer is bound to have some acquaintance. Furthermore, the lawyer spends part of his time studying miscellaneous topics, which become the subject of litigation, such as street paving, the coal business, the chemistry of wall paper, and so on. Every science may have something to say to the lawyer. Part of his time is spent in consultation with his clients; first of all to ascertain the facts of their cases, and afterwards to explain to them their rights on the facts. He also spends time in writing letters and doing sundry business incidental to giving advice to his clients. This work for the client branches out into a search for missing witnesses, examination of records of deeds to discover the ownership of real estate, the perusal of the account books of a client to find out the balance of a claim or similar investigation. Furthermore, part of his time is spent in writing of pleadings and briefs; the pleadings are the statement of claim or defense made by him to the court; the briefs are his written arguments of law giving the legal reasons why the law favors his client’s case. Finally, he spends much of his time in arguments to the judge and jury, and in the examination of witnesses and other proceedings in court. Here, as in all occupations, nine-tenths of the work is what may be called routine work or even drudgery. This can not be escaped. The lawyer does not spend his time in preparing and delivering eloquent orations. As in other occupations, the really interesting work, full of perpetual zest, is usually a small part of the whole.”[36]

[36] The Law as a Vocation, pp. 24-25, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.

WHAT PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS SHOULD I POSSESS TO BE SUCCESSFUL AS A LAWYER?

The answer to the first part of this question is best given in the following quotation:

Certain personal qualities are fundamental for a success in the law; others though of high value are secondary.

The fundamental qualities are as follows:

1. _Moral integrity_, worthy of the trust often involved in handling the property and other interests of clients, or able to withstand inducements to unprofessional conduct. This involves intellectual honesty.

2. _Persistence_, to carry on to completion any piece of work undertaken. This means unlimited capacity for hard work.

3. _Sound judgment_, to take a right and well-informed attitude in questions involving law and facts.

4. _Self-confidence_, a belief in one’s ability successfully to handle a task when once entered into.

5. _Concentration_, power to bring all one’s thought and activities to bear on a case in hand.

These basal qualities, with adequate training in the profession are likely to bring at least a fair degree of success; the lack of any one of them is a serious handicap, and accounts for most failures.[37]

[37] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins
Publ. Serv.

The loss of an eye, a hand, an arm, a foot, or a leg would not seriously interfere with one’s success as a lawyer. Good health is highly desirable but physical strength is not an essential to the practitioner.

HOW MUCH GENERAL EDUCATION OUGHT I TO HAVE AS A BASIS FOR A COURSE IN LAW?

Some years ago even the best law schools did not require any definite amount of education for entrance into the school. In fact many individuals with only a common-school education read law in an office and took up the practice without any training in a law school. At the present, however, every person looking forward to the practice of law is urged to graduate from a law school. All reputable law schools now require at least a four-year high-school course for admission. Many of these law schools, especially those connected with the large universities, require in addition to the four-year high-school work one year, and in some cases two years, of college work as a preparation. Two law schools admit only students who have a college degree of A. B. or B. S.

WHAT SPECIFIC TRAINING SHOULD I NEED, IF I DECIDE TO BECOME A LAWYER, AND HOW LONG WILL IT TAKE?

There was a time when by reading law in an office one could get a fairly adequate training for the practice of law. Particularly was this true of preparation for practice in small towns. Even at the present time this method is followed to some extent in small towns that are long distances from law schools. The rapidly increasing complexity of the law, however, now practically necessitates at least a partial course in a law school and makes desirable a complete course. The late Chief Justice Waite said:

“The time has gone by when an eminent lawyer, in full practice, can take a class of students into his office and become their teacher. Once that was practicable, but now it is not. The consequence is that law schools are now a necessity.”[38]

[38] The Law as a Vocation, p. 40, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.

The method of training for the law now recommended, therefore, is training in a law school rather than in a law office. The practical experience of the office has recently been supplied in the best law schools by the practice court, thus doing away with the former objection to the law school, namely, that it furnished to the student no experience in methods of handling and conducting cases. The practice court or moot court, as now introduced into the progressive law schools of the country, is described by one of our State universities as follows:

“The work of the practice court is divided into three parts, that of the law term, that of the jury term, and that of the appellate jurisdiction. The court is provided with a full corps of officers, including the members of the faculty who may sit from time to time as a presiding judge, the full bench of judges sitting as a supreme court, a clerk, a sheriff, and the necessary deputies. Ample and commodious rooms have been provided for the use of the court, including a court room furnished with the fittings necessary for the trial of jury cases, and a clerk’s office. The latter is provided with the books and records used in actual practice. The purpose of the court is to afford to the student practical instruction in pleading and practice both at law and equity under the common-law system and the “Code” or “reformed” procedure, and actual experience in the commencement and trial of cases through all stages. In commencing the actions the students assigned to the cases are permitted to select the State in which the action is supposed to be brought, thus enabling the student to acquire the practice as prevailing in his own State. All questions of practice, pleading, and procedure are governed by the law of the State in which the action is so laid, but the questions of substantive law are determined according to the weight of authority.”[39]

[39] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins
Publ. Service, Philadelphia, Pa.

The degree LL. B., which is the principal degree given by the American law schools, was granted by 96 schools according to the report of the committee on legal education of the American Bar Association for 1906. Of these 96 schools, 48 required a three-years’ course of study beyond the full four years’ high-school course. Nineteen of these schools granted the master’s degree LL.M., after one year of postgraduate study.

HOW SHOULD I BE ADMITTED TO THE BAR?

Each State has its own bar or legal society and admission is granted to the applicant in accordance with the regulations in force in each State. Twenty-eight States have an examining board; 19 States require the approximate completion of a high-school course; 17 States prescribe no definite period of study; 1 State prescribes a period of 18 months; 12 States prescribe a period of two years; 23 States prescribe a period of three years; and 10 States accept graduates of certain law schools without examination.

The tendency at the present time is to continue the past practice of raising standards of admission. This tendency has been supported by the American Bar Association, and with its promise to continue interest in this matter it should not be long until there are evolved uniform requirements that will constitute a national standard on a high plane.

WHAT INCOME MAY I REASONABLY EXPECT TO EARN IF I AM SUCCESSFUL IN PRACTICE?

It is difficult to estimate, except very generally, what the average yearly earnings of a lawyer will be. It is difficult to do this, because the income will vary according to the locality and the character of the service in which one is engaged. Generally speaking, during the first year of his independent practice a lawyer’s earnings will seldom net him more than a few hundred dollars. With experience and acquaintance, however, his competence will increase. If a lawyer chooses to serve an apprenticeship as it were with another firm, he may reasonably expect from $3 to $10 a week at the beginning, with an increase after three or six months according to the amount of practice in the office in which he is engaged.

The following quotations would tend to discourage one from entering upon the profession, unless he is by nature and training well prepared for the work:

“Its (the profession of law) demands are so high and the conditions of genuine success so exacting, however, that it is inevitable that many of the ill-equipped and misguided beginners who flood the ranks of the legal profession should fail of success.”[40]

[40] The Law as a Vocation, p. 13, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.

“The field is greatly overcrowded and the average earnings very small. This is the great objection. Only the more able and fortunate in securing profitable legal practice can hope to win more than a bare competency. Young men may not only be indebted to their family and friends for a course of study covering three or four years in preparation, but after that for a period of 5, 10, or even 15 years consumed in acquiring a competent practice. Many never reach such a practice, and are obliged to turn to some other occupation for part or full income, or to come down to the end of life in straitened circumstances, unable to do for their families what was earlier done for them to place them in the profession.”[41]

[41] The Law as a Vocation, pp. 66-67, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass.

“In 1912 the secretary of the Harvard Law School sent letters to all of the graduates of the school from 1902 to 1911, inclusive, asking for their net earnings each year since graduation. The reports returned are indicated in the following table, although it is to be remembered in this connection that less than half of those written responded and it can reasonably be assumed that these represent the more successful.”[42]