Chapter L: Formation of Coral Reefs (4)

[737] See a paper by the Author, Phil. Trans. 1835, part i.

[738] See my paper before referred to, Phil. Trans. 1885, part
i. p. 8, 9. Attempts have been since made to explain away the
position of this hut, by conjecturing that a more recent
trench had been previously dug here, which had become filled
up in time by sand drifted by the wind. The engineers who
superintended the works in 1819, and with whom I conversed,
had considered every hypothesis of the kind, but could not so
explain the facts.

[739] Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc. No. 4, p. 534. M. Bravais'
observations were verified in 1849 by Mr. R. Chambers in his
"Tracings of N. of Europe," p. 208.

[740] See Proceedings of Geol. Soc. No. 42, p. 208. I also
conversed with Dr. Pingel on the subject at Copenhagen in
1834.

[741] Keilhau, Bulletin de la Soc. Gaol de France, tom. vii.
p. 18.

[742] Illust. of Hutt. Theory, Section 435-443.

[743] Herschel's Astronomy, chap. iii.

[744] See Hennessy, On Changes in Earth's Figure, &c. Journ.
Geol. Soc. Dublin, 1849; and Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. vol. iv.
p. 337.

[745] Young's Lectures, and Mrs. Somerville's Connection of
the Physical Sciences, p. 90.

[746] Phil. Trans. 1839, and Researches in Physical Geology,
1st, 2d, and 3d series, London, 1839-1842; also on Phenomena
and Theory of Volcanoes, Report Brit. Assoc. 1847.

[747] Ed. Journ. of Sci. April, 1832.

[748] Cordier, Mam. de l'Instit. tom. vii.

[749] Pog. Ann. tom. xv. p. 159.

[750] See M. Cordier's Memoir on the Temperature of the
Interior of the Earth, read to the Academy of Sciences, 4th
June, 1827.--Edin. New Phil. Journal, No. viii. p. 273.

[751] Cordier, Mam. de l'Instit. tom. vii.

[752] Phil. Mag. and Ann. Feb. 1830.

[753] The heat was measured in Wedgwood's pyrometer by the
contraction of pure clay, which is reduced in volume when
heated, first by the loss of its water of combination, and
afterwards, on the application of more intense heat, by
incipient vitrification. The expansion of platina is the test
employed by Mr. Daniell in his pyrometer, and this has been
found to yield uniform and constant results, such as are in
perfect harmony with conclusions drawn from various other
independent sources. The instrument for which the author
received the Rumford Medal from the Royal Society, in 1833, is
described in the Phil. Trans. 1830, part ii., and 1831, part
ii.

[754] The above remarks are reprinted verbatim from my third
edition, May, 1834. A memoir was afterwards communicated by M.
Poisson to the Academy of Sciences, January, 1837, on the
solid parts of the globe, containing an epitome of a work
entitled "Thaorie Mathamatique de la Chaleur," published in
1835. In this memoir he controverts the doctrine of the high
temperature of a central fluid on similar grounds to those
above stated. He imagines, that if the globe ever passed from
a liquid to a solid state by radiation of heat, the central
nucleus must have begun to cool and consolidate first.

[755] Consolations in Travel, p. 271.

[756] Phil. Trans. 1830, p. 399.

[757] Biblioth. Univers. 1833, Electricita.

[758] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 176; also pp. 172, 173, &c.

[759] Hist. Mundi, lib. ii. c. 107.

[760] Reduced, by permission, from a figure in plate 40 of Sir
H. De la Beche's Geological Sections and Views.

[761] Phil. Trans. 1828, p. 250.

[762] Geology of American Exploring Expedition, p. 369.

[763] Davy, Phil. Trans. 1828, p. 244.

[764] Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. iii. p. 181.

[765] Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 240.

[766] Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. tom. xxii.

[767] Quart. Journ. of Sci. 1823, p. 132, note by editor.

[768] Phenom. Gaol. &c. p. 3.

[769] Phil. Trans. 1828.

[770] See Daubeny, Encyc. Metrop. part 40.

[771] Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. li. p. 31.

[772] See Daubeny's Reply to Bischoff, Jam. Ed. New Phil.
Journ. No. lii. p. 291; and note in No. liii. p. 158.

[773] Poggend. Ann. 1851 translated, Sci. Mem. 1852.

[774] Proceed. Americ. Assoc. 1849.

[775] Reduced from a sketch given by Sir W. J. Hooker, in his
Tour in Iceland, vol. i. p. 149.

[776] Journal of a Residence in Iceland, p. 74.

[777] Mackenzie's Iceland.

[778] MS. read to Geol. Soc. of London, Feb. 29, 1832.

[779] From Sir George Mackenzie's Iceland.

[780] See Mr. Horner's Anniversary Address, Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. 1847, liii.

[781] Liebig's Annalen der Chimie und Pharmacie, translated in
"Reports and Memoirs" of Cavendish Soc. London, 1848.

[782] On the Cause and Phenomena of Earthquakes, Phil. Trans.
vol. li. sec. 58, 1760.

[783] Trans. of Assoc. of American Geol. 1840-1842, p. 520.

[784] Mallet, p. 39.

[785] Scrope on Volcanoes, pp. 58-60.

[786] Archiac, Hist, des Progras de la Gaol, 1847, vol. i. pp.
605-610.

[787] Silliman's American Journ. vol. xxii. p. 136. The
application of these results to the theory of earthquakes was
first suggested to me by Mr. Babbage.

[788] Bulletin de la Soc. Gaol. 2d series, vol. iv. p. 1312.

[789] See p. 468.

[790] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 84.

[791] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 62.

[792] Ibid.

[793] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 227.

[794] Ibid. p. 232.

[795] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 234.

[796] Phil. Zool. p. 64.

[797] Animaux sans Vert. tom. i. p. 56, Introduction.

[798] Lamarck's Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 356.

[799] Ibid. p. 357.

[800] Genus omne est naturale, in primordio tale creatum, &c.
Phil. Bot. Section 159. See also ibid. Section 162.

[801] Cuvier, Discours Pralimin. p. 128.

[802] Phil. Zool. tom. i. p. 266.

[803] Dureau de la Malle, An. des Sci. Nat. tom. xxi. p. 53.
Sept. 1830.

[804] Disc. Pral. p. 139. sixth edition.

[805] Ibid.

[806] Guldenstadt, cited by Pritchard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind,
vol. i. p. 96.

[807] History of British Quadrupeds, p. 200. 1837.

[808] Ann. du Musaum d'Hist. Nat. tom. i. p. 234. 1802. The
reporters were MM. Cuvier, Lacapede, and Lamarck.

[809] I by no means wish to express an opinion that seeds
cannot retain their vitality after an entombment of 3,000
years; but one of my botanical friends who entertained a
philosophical doubt on this subject, being desirous of
ascertaining the truth of three or four alleged instances of
the germination of "mummy wheat," discovered, on communicating
with several Egyptian travellers, that they had procured the
grains in question, not directly from the catacombs, but from
the Arabs, who are always ready to supply strangers with an
article now very frequently in demand. The presence of an
occasional grain of Indian corn or maize in several of the
parcels of grain shown to my friend as coming from the
catacombs confirmed his scepticism.

[810] Phil. Zool., tom. i. p. 227.

[811] L'Origine et la Patrie des Caraales, &c., Annales des
Sciences Natur., tom. ix. p. 61.

[812] Smith's Introduction to Botany, p. 138, edit. 1807.

[813] See Mr. Knight's Observations, Hort Trans., vol. ii. p.
160.

[814] Hort. Trans. vol. iv. p. 19.

[815] Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist., Sept. 1830, vol. iii. p.
408.

[816] Hort. Trans. vol. iii. p. 173.

[817] M. Roulin, Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xvi. p. 16. 1829.

[818] Mem. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.--Jameson, Ed. New Phil. Journ.
Nos. 6, 7, 8.

[819] In the New Forest, near Ringwood, Hants, by Mr. Toomer,
keeper of Broomy Lodge. I have conversed with witnesses of the
fact.

[820] Mam. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.

[821] Dureau de la Malle. Ann. des Sci. Nat., tom. xxi. p. 58.

[822] Darwin's Journ. in Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, p. 475.

[823] Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 273.

[824] Mr. Corse on the Habits, &c. of the Elephant, Phil.
Trans., 1799.

[825] Linn. Trans. vol. xiii. p. 244.

[826] Pers. Narr. of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the
New Continent in the years 1779-1804.

[827] Phil. Trans. 1787. Additional Remarks, Phil. Trans.
1789. See also Essays by the late Dr. Samuel G. Morton, on
Prolific Hybrids, &c.; and on Hybridity as a Test of
Species.--American Journ. of Science, vol. iii. 1847.

[828] Prichard, vol. i. p. 217.

[829] Ibid. p. 97.

[830] See Barton on the Geography of Plants, p. 67.

[831] Georg. lib. iii. 273.

[832] Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, Hort. Trans., vol. iv. p. 41.

[833] Ibid.

[834] Essai Elamentaire, &c., 3me partie.

[835] Intr. to Entom. vol. ii. p. 504. ed. 1817.

[836] Prichard's Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 159.

[837] Ch. White on the Regular Gradation in Man, &c. 1799.

[838] R. G. Latham, The Nat. Hist. of the Varieties of Man,
8vo. London, 1850.

[839] Lawrence, Lectures on Phys. Zool. and Nat. Hist. of Man,
p. 190. Ed. 1823.

[840] E. R. A. Serres, Anatomie comparae du Cerveau,
illustrated by numerous plates, tome i. 1824.

[841] Barton's Lectures on the Geography of Plants, p. 2.
1827.

[842] Pers. Nar., vol. v. p. 180.

[843] Ibid.

[844] Essai Elamentaire de Gaographie Botanique. Extrait du
18me vol. du Dict. des Sci. Nat.

[845] Prichard, vol. i. p. 36. Brown, Appendix to Flinders.

[846] Foster, Observations, &c.

[847] Humboldt, Pers. Nar., vol. i. p. 270 of the translation.
Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 37.

[848] Voyage of the Beagle, 2d edition, 1845, p. 377.

[849] See a farther subdivision, by which twenty-seven
provinces are made, by M. Alph. De Candolle, son of De
Candolle. Monogr. des Campanulaes. Paris, 1830.

[850] De Candolle, Essai Elamen. de Gaog. Botan., p. 45.

[851] I am indebted for the above sketch of distinct regions
of algae to my friend Dr. Joseph Hooker, who refers the
botanical student to the labors of Dr. Harvey, of Trinity
College, Dublin.

[852] Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes.

[853] Linn., Tour in Lapland, vol. ii. p. 282.

[854] Fries, cited by Lindley, Introd. to Nat. Syst. of
Botany.

[855] System of Physiological Botany, vol. ii. p. 405.

[856] Brown, Append. to Tuckey, No. v. p. 481.

[857] Phil. Trans. 1696.

[858] System of Physiological Botany, vol. ii. p. 403.

[859] Greville, Introduction to Algae Britannicae, p. 12.

[860] Linnaeus, Amoen. Acad., vol. ii. p. 409.

[861] Amoen. Acad., vol. iv. Essay 75. Section 8.

[862] Ibid., vol. vi. Section 22.

[863] Smith's Introd. to Phys. and Syst. Botany, p. 304. 1807.

[864] This information was communicated to me by Professor
Henslow, of Cambridge.

[865] Book iii. ch. iv.

[866] De Candolle, Essai Elamen. &c., p. 50.

[867] Quarterly Review, vol. xxx. p. 8.

[868] Essay on the Habitable Earth, Amoen. Acad., vol. ii. p.
409.

[869] Principles of Botany, p. 389.

[870] Ibid.

[871] Buffon, vol. v.--On the Virginian Opossum.

[872] Prichard's Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 54.

[873] In the above enumeration of the leading zoological
provinces of land quadrupeds I have been most kindly assisted
by Mr. Waterhouse of the British Museum, author of a most able
and comprehensive work on the "Natural History of the
Mammalia," now in the course of publication. London,
Bailliere, 1846.

[874] Pennant's Hist. of Quadrupeds, cited by Prichard, Phys.
Hist. of Mankind, vol. i. p. 66.

[875] Natural History of the Mammalia, vol. i., on the
Marsupials. London, Bailliere, 1846.

[876] Description of the Equatorial Regions.

[877] Prichard, Phys. Hist., of Mankind, vol. i. p. 75.

[878] Buffon, vol. v. p. 204.

[879] Sir T. D. Lauder, Bart., on the Floods in Morayshire,
Aug. 1829, p. 302, second edition.

[880] Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains, vol.
ii. p. 153.

[881] Richardson's Fauna Boreali-Americana, p. 16.

[882] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 872.

[883] Wood's Zoography, vol. i. p. 11.

[884] On the authority of Mr. Campbell. Library of Entert.
Know., Menageries. vol. i. p. 152.

[885] Cuvier's Animal Kingdom by Griffiths, vol. ii. p. 109.
Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Menageries, vol. i. p. 366.

[886] Horsfield, Zoological Researches in Java, No. ii., from
which the figure is taken.

[887] Append. to Parry's Second Voyage, years 1819-20.

[888] Account of the Arctic Regions, vol. i. p. 518.

[889] Turton in a note to Goldsmith's Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p.
43.

[890] Supplement to Parry's First Voyage of Discovery, p. 189.

[891] Goldman's American Nat. Hist., vol. i. p. 22.

[892] Dr. Richardson, Brit. Assoc. Report, vol. v. p. 161.

[893] System of Geography, vol. v. p. 157.

[894] Spix and Martius, Reise, &c., vol. iii. pp. 1011. 1013.

[895] Sir W. Parish's Buenos Ayres, p. 187., and Robertson's
Letters on Paraguay, p. 220.

[896] United Service Journal, No. xxiv. p. 697.

[897] Krantz, vol. i. p. 129., cited by Goldsmith, Nat. Hist.,
vol. iii. p. 260.

[898] Darwin's Journal, &c., p. 461.

[899] Prichard, vol. i. p. 47.

[900] Bewick's Birds, vol. ii. p. 294., who cites Latham.

[901] Pisa, 1827 (not sold).

[902] Bachman, Silliman's Amer. Journ., No. 61, p. 92.

[903] Voyage aux Ragions Equinoxiales, tome vii. p. 429.

[904] Fleming, Phil. Zool., vol. ii. p. 43.

[905] Silliman's Amer. Journ., No. 61. p. 83.

[906] Richardson, Brit. Assoc. Rep., vol. v. p. 202.

[907] Brit. Animals, p. 149., who cites Sibbald.

[908] Zool. Journ. vol iii. p. 406. Dec. 1827.

[909] Sur les Habitations des Animaux Marins.--Ann. du Mus.,
tome. xv., cited by Prichard, Phys. Hist. of Mankind, vol. i.
p. 51.

[910] Brit. Assoc. Reports, vol. v. p. 203.

[911] Report to the Brit. Assoc., 1845, p. 192.

[912] Richardson, ibid. p. 190.

[913] Sir J. Richardson, ibid. p. 190.

[914] Phil. Trans. 1747, p. 395.

[915] Amoen. Acad., Essay 75.

[916] Report to the Brit Assoc. 1843, p. 130.

[917] Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., 1846, vol. ii. p. 268.

[918] Four individuals of a large species of land shell
(_Bulimus_), from Valparaiso, were brought to England by
Lieutenant Graves, who accompanied Captain King in his
expedition to the Straits of Magellan. They had been packed up
in a box, and enveloped in cotton: two for a space of
thirteen, one for seventeen, and a fourth for upwards of
twenty months: but, on being exposed by Mr. Broderip to the
warmth of a fire in London, and provided with tepid water and
leaves, they revived, and lived for several months in Mr.
Loddiges' palm-house, till accidentally drowned.

[919] Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. iv. 1831.

[920] Edin. New Phil. Journ., April 1844.

[921] Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 303.

[922] The specimen is preserved in the Museum of the Zool.
Soc. of London.

[923] This specimen is in the collection of my friend Mr.
Broderip, who observes, that this crab, which was apparently
in perfect health, could not have cast her shell for six
years, whereas some naturalists have stated that the species
moults annually, without limiting the moulting period to the
early stages of the growth of the animal.

[924] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iv. p. 336.

[925] Voy. aux Terres Australes, tom. i. p. 492.

[926] Gaographie Ganarale des Insectes et des Arachnides. Mam.
du Mus. d'Hist. Nat., tom. iii.

[927] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 487; and other authors.

[928] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 497.

[929] Washington Irving's Tour in the Prairies, ch. ix.

[930] Malte-Brun, vol. v. p. 379.

[931] Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 9. 1817.

[932] Kirby and Spence, vol. ii. p. 12. 1817.

[933] I am indebted to Lieutenant Graves, R.N., for this
information.

[934] I state this fact on the authority of my friend, Mr.
John Curtis.

[935] Brand's Select Dissert. from the Amoen. Acad., vol. i.
p. 118.

[936] Ibid.

[937] Sir H. Davy, Consolations in Travel, p. 74.

[938] W. von Humboldt, "On the Kawi Language," &c. cited in
Cosmos. Introduction.

[939] Egypten's Stelle, &c. Egypt restored to her Place in
Universal History, by C. C. J. Bunsen. 1845.

[940] For Grecian and Asiatic deluges, see above, p. 356.;
Cimbrian, p. 331., Chinese, p. 7. Peruvian, p. 502.; Chilian
or Araucanian deluge, p. 500.

[941] See p. 615.

[942] Malte-Brun's Geography, vol. iii. p. 419.

[943] Chamisso states that the water which they brought up was
cooler, and _in their opinion_, less salt. It is difficult to
conceive its being fresher near the bottom, except where
submarine springs may happen to rise.

[944] Kotzebue's Voyage, 1815-1818. Quarterly Review, vol.
xxvi. p. 361.

[945] Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific, &c., in the years
1825, 1826, 1827, 1828, p. 170.

[946] Gloger, Aband. der Vogel, p. 103.; Pallas, Zoog.
Rosso-Asiat., tom. ii. p. 197.

[947] Syst. of Geog., vol. viii. p. 169.

[948] De terra habitabili incremento; also Prichard, Phys.
Hist, of Mankind, vol. i. p. 17., where the hypotheses of
different naturalists are enumerated.

[949] Necker, Phytozool. Philosoph. p. 21.; Brocchi, Conch.
Foss. Subap., tome i. p. 229.

[950] Amoen. Acad. vol. vi. p. 17. Section 12.

[951] Ibid. vol. vii. p. 409.

[952] Amoen. Acad., vol. vi. p. 17. Section 11, 12.

[953] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 178.

[954] Amoen. Acad., vol. vi. p. 26. Section 14.

[955] Kirby and Spence, vol. iv. p. 218.

[956] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 250.

[957] Wilcke, Amoen. Acad. c. ii.

[958] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 174.

[959] Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. vi.

[960] Lib. Ent. Know., Insect Trans., p. 203. See Haworth,
Lep.

[961] Reaumur, ii. 337.

[962] Lib. Ent. Know., Insect Trans., p. 212.

[963] Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 183. Castle, Phil. Trans.,
xxx. 346.

[964] Travels in Africa, p. 257. Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p.
215.

[965] Journal of a Residence in Iceland, p. 276.

[966] Tour in Iceland, vol. i. p. 64, 2nd edit.

[967] Travels in Brazil, vol. i. p. 260.

[968] Ed. Phil. Journ., No. xxii p. 287. Oct. 1824.

[969] Ray. Syn. Quad., p. 214.

[970] Fleming, Ed. Phil. Journ., No. xxii. p. 295.

[971] Fleming, ibid., p. 292.

[972] Vol. iii. London, 1821.

[973] Land Birds, vol. i. p. 316. ed. 1821.

[974] Some have complained that inscriptions on tomb-stones
convey no general information, except that individuals were
born and died, accidents which must happen alike to all men.
But the death of a _species_ is so remarkable an event in
natural history that it deserves commemoration, and it is with
no small interest that we learn, from the archives of the
University of Oxford, the exact day and year when the remains
of the last specimen of the dodo, which had been permitted to
rot in the Ashmolean Museum, were cast away. The relics, we
are told, were "a musaeo subducta, annuente vice-cancellario
aliisque curatoribus, ad ea lustranda convocatis, die Januarii
8vo, A.D. 1755." Zool. Journ. No. 12. p. 559. 1828.

[975] Penny Cyclopaedia, "Dodo." 1837.

[976] Messrs. Strickland and Melville on "the Dodo and its
Kindred." London, 1848.

[977] Pers. Nar. vol. iv.

[978] Quarterly Review, vol. xxi. p. 335.

[979] Ibid.

[980] Ulloa's Voyage. Wood's Zoog. vol. i. p. 9.

[981] Buffon, vol. v. p. 100. Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii. p. 220.

[982] Travels in Iceland in 1810, p. 342.

[983] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Brit.

[984] See a note on this subject, chap. x. p. 157.

[985] See above, p. 317.

[986] Darwin's Journal, p. 156., 2d ed. p. 133. Sir W. Parish,
Buenos Ayres, &c. p. 371. and 151.

[987] See above, chap. vii. p. 112.

[988] See above, chaps. vi. vii. and viii.

[989] Journ. of Nat. Hist. &c. 2d edit., 1845, p. 175; also
Lyell's 2d Visit to the United States, vol. i. p. 351.

[990] This and the preceding chapter, on the causes of
extinction of species and their present geographical
distribution, are reprinted almost verbatim from the original
edition of the second volume of "The Principles," published in
January, 1832. It was I believe the first attempt to point out
how former changes in the geography and local climate of many
parts of the globe must be taken into account when we endeavor
to explain the actual provinces of plants and animals, the
changes alluded to having been proved by geological evidence
to be subsequent to the creation of a great proportion of the
species now living, and these having been, according to the
view which I advocated, introduced in succession, and not all
at one geological epoch. In my third volume, published in May,
1833, I announced my conviction that the greater part of the
existing Fauna and Flora of Sicily were older than the
mountains, plains, and rivers, which the same species of
animals and plants now inhabit. (Prin. of Geol., vol. iii. ch.
ix.; repeated in Elements of Geol., 2d edit., vol. i. p. 297.)
This line of reasoning has since been ably followed up and
elucidated by Professor E. Forbes in an excellent paper
(published in 1846) already alluded to. (See page 86.)

[991] Essai Elamentaire, &c. p. 46.

[992] Geog. des Plantes. Diet. des Sci.

[993] See Catalogue of Brit. Insects, by John Curtis, Esq.

[994] See some good remarks on the Formation of Soils,
Bakewell's Geology, chap. xviii.

[995] See Professor Sedgwick's Anniversary Address to the
Geological Society, Feb. 1831, p. 24.

[996] Treatise on Rivers and Torrents, p. 5. Garston's
translation.

[997] De la Beche, Geol. Man., p. 184., 1st ed.

[998] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 294.

[999] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Britannica.

[1000] Maclaren, art. America, Encyc. Britannica, where the
position of the American forests, in accordance with this
theory, is laid down in a map.

[1001] Annuaire du Bureau des Long. 1834.

[1002] Since this was written I have seen in New Brunswick
(1852) a lake formed by beavers who had thrown a dam,
consisting of stakes, stones, and mud, across the course of a
small streamlet, between Dorchester and the Portage south of
the Peticodiac river. The beavers have since been extirpated
by man, but the lake remains, and musk rats have taken
possession of the shallow parts of the lake to build their
habitations in them.

[1003] For a catalogue of plants which form peat, see Rev. Dr.
Rennie's Essays on Peat, p. 171; and Dr. MacCulloch's Western
Isles, vol. i. p. 129.

[1004] Irish Bog Reports, p. 209.

[1005] System of Geology, vol. ii. p. 353.

[1006] Rev. Dr. Rennie on Peat, p. 260.

[1007] Darwin's Journal, p. 349.; 2d ed. p. 287.

[1008] Rennie's Essays on Peat, p. 65.

[1009] Ibid. p. 30.

[1010] Essays on Peat, &c., p. 74.

[1011] See above, p. 388, note.

[1012] Ehrenberg, Taylor's Scientific Mem. vol. i. part iii.
p. 402.

[1013] Dr. Rennie, on Peat, p. 521; where several other
instances are referred to.

[1014] Phil. Trans., vol. xxxviii. 1734.

[1015] Dr. Rennie, on Peat, &c., p. 521.

[1016] Syst. of Geol. vol. ii. pp. 340-346.

[1017] Ibid. p. 531.

[1018] Phil. Trans. vol. xv. p. 949.

[1019] Gilpin, Observ. on Picturesque Beauty, &c., 1772.

[1020] Travels, &c., in 1841, 1842, vol. i. p. 143.

[1021] Bulletin de la Soc. Gaol. de France, tom. ii. p. 26.

[1022] Dr. Rennie, Essays on Peat Moss, p. 205.

[1023] M. G. A. De Luc, Mercure de France, Sept. 1809.

[1024] See p. 262.

[1025] Stratton, Ed. Phil. Journ., No. v. p. 62.

[1026] Travels in North Africa in the Years 1818, 1819, and
1820, p. 83.

[1027] Mam. de l'Acad. des Sci. de Paris, 1772. See also the
case of the buried church of Eccles, above, p. 306.

[1028] Phil. Trans., vol. ii. p. 722.

[1029] Boase on Submersion of Part of the Mount's Bay, &c.,
Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 140.

[1030] Narrative of Journey from Agra to Oujein, Asiatic
Researches, vol. vi. p. 36.

[1031] Asiatic Journal, vol. ix. p. 35.

[1032] See above, p. 460.

[1033] Sir J. Malcolm's Central India. Appendix, No. 2. p.
324.

[1034] Sir T. D. Lauder, Bart., on Floods in Morayshire, Aug.
1839, p. 177.

[1035] Dodsley's Ann. Regist., 1788.

[1036] Edwards, Hist. of West Indies, vol. i. p. 235, ed.
1801.

[1037] Journ. of Asiat. Soc., Nos. xxv. and xxix., 1834.

[1038] Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xxii. p. 117, Feb. 1831.

[1039] Malte-Brun's Geog., vol. i. p. 435.

[1040] Bakewell, Travels in the Tarentaise, vol. i. p. 201.

[1041] Nahum Ward, Trans. of Antiq. Soc. of Massachusetts.
Holmes's United States, p. 438.

[1042] Bull. de la Soc. Gaol. de France, tom. ii. p. 329.

[1043] See above, p. 240.

[1044] See remarks by M. Boblaye, Ann. des Mines, 3me sarie,
tom. iv.

[1045] Ann. des Mines, 3me sarie, tom. iv., 1833.

[1046] Bull. de la Soc. Gaol. de France, tom. iii. p. 223.

[1047] Mam. de la Soc. d'Hist, Nat. de Paris, tom. iv.

[1048] Reliquiae Diluvianae, p. 108.

[1049] Journ. de Gaol., tom. i. p. 286. July, 1830.

[1050] Reliquiae Diluvianae, p. 165.

[1051] M. Marcel de Serres, Gaognosie des Terrains Tertiaires,
p. 64. Introduction.

[1052] Bull. de la Soc. Gaol. de France, tom. ii. pp. 56-63.

[1053] Desnoyers, Bull. de la Soc. Gaol. de France, tom. ii.
p. 252.

[1054] Hist. Rom. Epit., lib. iii. c. 10.

[1055] Buckland, Reliquiae Diluvianae, p. 25.

[1056] See above, pp. 730, 731.

[1057] On the Lake Mountains of North of England, Geol. Soc.
Jan. 5, 1831.

[1058] Notes on Geol. of Cuba, 1836, Phil. Mag., July, 1837.

[1059] See above, p. 67.

[1060] Account of the Arctic Regions, vol. ii. p. 193.

[1061] Ibid. p. 202.

[1062] Dr. Richardson's Geognost Obs. on Capt. Franklin's
Polar Expedition.

[1063] Malte-Brun, Geog., vol. v. part 1. p. 112.--Brantz,
Hist. of Greenland, tom. 1. pp. 53, 54.

[1064] Olafsen, Voyage to Iceland, tom. i.--Malte-Brun's
Geog., vol. v. part i. p. 112.

[1065] See above, pp. 303 and 323.

[1066] Geol. Trans., second series, vol. v. p. 212.

[1067] Goppert, Poggendorff's Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
vol. xxxviii. part iv., Leipsic, 1836. See also Lyell's Manual
of Geol., p. 40.

[1068] Trans. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. part i. p. 201, second
series.

[1069] Sir T. D. Lauder's Account, 2d. ed., p. 312.

[1070] Treatise on Practical Store Farming, p. 25.

[1071] Sir T. D. Lauder's Floods in Morayshire, 1829; and
above, p. 196.

[1072] Humboldt's Pers. Nar., vol. iv. p. 394.

[1073] Buenos Ayres and La Plata, p. 187.

[1074] Malte-Brun's Geog., vol. iii. p. 22.

[1075] This account I had from Mr. Baumhauer, Director-General
of Finances in Java.

[1076] Tracts on India, p. 397.

[1077] Scots Mag., vol. xxxiii.

[1078] Darwin's Journal, p. 372. 2d ed., 1845, p. 304.

[1079] Narrative of Discovery in Egypt, &c., London, 1820.

[1080] Scots Mag., vol. xxxiii., 1771.

[1081] Quart. Journ. of Agricult., No. ix p. 433.

[1082] Caesar Moreau's Tables of the Navigation of Great
Britain.

[1083] I give these results on the authority of Captain W. H.
Smyth, R. N.

[1084] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 379.

[1085] This account I received from the Honorable and Rev.
Charles Harris.

[1086] Von Hoff, vol. i. p. 368.

[1087] Lieut. Carless, Geograph. Journ., vol. viii. p. 338.

[1088] Silliman's Geol. Lectures, p. 78, who cites Penn.

[1089] Leigh's Lancashire, p. 17, A. D. 1700.

[1090] Geol. Trans., second series, vol. ii. p. 87.

[1091] Phil. Trans., 1799.

[1092] Phil. Trans., vol. lxix., 1779.

[1093] Phil. Trans., 1826, part. ii. p. 55.

[1094] See above, pp. 453. 457. 499. 501.

[1095] Thomson's Western Himalaya and Thibet, p. 292. London,
1852. Cunningham, vol. xvii. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, pp.
241, 277.

[1096] Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, vol. ii. pp. 84,
85, 1732.

[1097] Davy, Consolations in Travel, p. 276.

[1098] Essay on the Vicissitude of Things.

[1099] On Freshwater Marl, &c. By C. Lyell. Geol. Trans., vol.
ii., second series, p. 73.

[1100] See Desmarest's Crustacea, pl. 55.

[1101] Dr. Bigsby, Journ. of Science, &c. No. xxxvii. pp. 262,
263.

[1102] Mantell, Geol. of Sussex, p. 285; also Catalogue of
Org. Rem., Geol. Trans., vol. iii. part i p. 201., 2nd series.

[1103] Page 276.

[1104] Page 460.

[1105] Page 599.

[1106] Forchhammer, Report British Assoc. 1844.

[1107] Fleming's Brit. Animals, p. 37; in which work other
cases are enumerated.

[1108] Quart. Journ. of Lit. Sci., &c., No. xv., p. 172. Oct.
1819.

[1109] This specimen has been presented by Mr. Lonsdale to the
Geological Society of London.

[1110] The most conspicuous of the bones represented within
the shell in fig. 107, appear to be the clavicle and coracoid
bone. They are hollow; and for this reason resemble, at first
sight, the bones of birds rather than of reptiles; for the
latter have no medullary cavity. Prof. Owen, of the College of
Surgeons, in order to elucidate this point, dissected for me a
very young turtle, and found that the exterior portion only of
the bones was ossified, the interior being still filled with
cartilage. This cartilage soon dried up and shrank to a mere
thread upon the evaporation of the spirits of wine in which
the specimen had been preserved, so that in a short time the
bones became as empty as those of birds.

[1111] Ehrenberg, Nat. und Bild. der Coralleninseln. &c.,
Berlin, 1834.

[1112] See Ehrenberg's work above cited, p. 751.

[1113] Stutchbury, West of England Journal, No. i. p. 49.

[1114] Darwin's Coral Reefs, p. 77.

[1115] Ibid. 78.

[1116] Voyage to the Pacific, &c. in 1825-28.

[1117] Darwin's Journal, &c., p. 540, and new edit., of 1845,
p. 453.

[1118] Darwin's Journal, &c., pp. 547, 548., and 2d edit., of
1845, p. 460.

[1119] Kotzebue's Voy., 1815-18, vol. iii. pp. 331-333.

[1120] Stutchbury, West of Eng. Journ., No. i. p. 50.

[1121] Captain Beechey, part i. p. 188.

[1122] Captain Moresby on the Maldives, Journ. Roy. Geograph.
Soc., vol. V. part ii. p. 400.

[1123] See above, p. 442.

[1124] Darwin, Volcanic Islands, p. 113.

[1125] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 4. XCIII.

[1126] Darwin's Journal, p. 557. 2d edit. chap. 20, and Coral
Islands, chapters 1, 2, 3.

[1127] See Principles of Geology, 1st edit., vol. ii. p. 296.

[1128] Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 189.

[1129] See Principles of Geology, 1st ed., 1832, vol. ii. p.
293.

[1130] Beechey's Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 46.

[1131] Voyage to the Pacific, &c., p. 194.

[1132] Scotsman, Nov. 1842, and Jameson's Edin. Journ. of
Science, 1843.

[1133] Trans. Geol. Soc., London, 2d series, vol. v.

[1134] Beechey's Voyage, vol. i. p. 45.

[1135] Paper read to Brit. Assoc., Southampton, 1846.

[1136] Letter to Mr. Maclaren, Scotsman, 1843.

GLOSSARY

OF GEOLOGICAL AND OTHER SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN THIS
WORK.

ACEPHALOUS. The Acephala are that division of molluscous animals
which, like the oyster and scallop, are without heads. The class
Acephala of Cuvier comprehends many genera of animals with bivalve
shells, and a few which are devoid of shells. _Etym._, [Greek: a],
_a_, without, and [Greek: kephale], _cephale_, the head.

ACIDULOUS. Slightly acid.

ACROGENS. One of five classes into which all plants may be divided;
it includes such flowerless ones as grow from the top only, and
whose stems consequently do not increase materially in bulk, as
Mosses, Ferns, Lycopodiums, Equisetums, &c. The trunk of a tree fern
is a good example. They are also called Acrobrya. _Etym._, [Greek:
akron], _acron_, the top, and [Greek: genesis], _genesis_, increase.

ADIPOCIRE. A substance apparently intermediate between fat and wax,
into which dead animal matter is converted when buried in the earth,
and in a certain stage of decomposition. _Etym._, _adeps_, fat, and
_cera_, wax.

ALBITE. See "Felspar."

ALEMBIO. An apparatus for distilling.

ALGAE. An order or division of the cryptogamic class of plants. The
whole of the sea-weeds are comprehended under this division, and the
application of the term in this work is to marine plants. _Etym._,
_alga_, sea-weed.

ALLUVIAL. The adjective of alluvium, which see.

ALLUVION. Synonymous with alluvium, which see.

ALLUVIUM. Earth, sand, gravel, stones, and other transported matter
which has been washed away and thrown down by rivers, floods, or
other causes upon land not _permanently_ submerged beneath the
waters of lakes or seas. _Etym._, _alluo_, to wash upon, or
_alluvio_, an inundation.

ALUM-STONE, ALUMEN, ALUMINOUS. Alum is the base of pure clay, and
strata of clay are often met with containing much iron pyrites. When
the latter substance decomposes, sulphuric acid is produced, which
unites with the aluminous earth of the clay to form sulphate of
alumine, or common alum. Where manufactories are established for
obtaining the alum, the indurated beds of clay employed are called
Alum-stone.

AMMONITE. An extinct and very numerous genus of the order of
molluscous animals called Cephalopoda, allied to the modern genus
Nautilus, which inhabited a chambered shell, curved like a coiled
snake. Species of it are found in all geological periods of the
secondary strata; but they have not been seen in the tertiary beds.
They are named from their resemblance to the horns on the statues of
Jupiter Ammon.

AMORPHOUS. Bodies devoid of regular form. _Etym._, [Greek: a], _a_,
without, and [Greek: morphe], _morphe_, form.

AMYGDALOID. One of the forms of the Trap-rocks, in which agates and
simple minerals appear to be scattered like almonds in a cake.
_Etym._, [Greek: amygdala], _amygdala_, an almond.

ANALCIME. A simple mineral of the Zeolite family, also called
Cubizite, of frequent occurrence in the Trap-rocks.

ANALOGUE. A body that resembles or corresponds with another body. A
recent shell of the same species as a fossil shell is the analogue
of the latter.

ANGOIOSPERMS. A term applied to all flowering plants in which the
ovules are inclosed in an ovary, and the seeds in a pericarp or
covering, as in all flowering plants except those mentioned under
gymnosperms and gymnogens, which see. _Etym._, [Greek: angos],
_angos_, a vessel, and [Greek: sperma], a seed.

ANOPLOTHERIUM. A fossil extinct quadruped belonging to the order
Pachydermata, resembling a pig. It has received its name because the
animal must have been singularly wanting in means of defence, from
the form of its teeth and the absence of claws, hoofs, and horns.
_Etym._, [Greek: anoplos], _anoplos_, unarmed, and [Greek: therion],
_therion_, a wild beast.

ANTAGONIST POWER. Two powers in nature, the action of the one
counteracting that of the other, by which a kind of equilibrium or
balance is maintained, and the destructive effect prevented that
would be produced by one operating without a check.

ANTENNAE. The articulated horns with which the heads of insects are
invariably furnished.

ANTHRACITE. A shining substance like black-lead; a species of
mineral charcoal. _Etym._, [Greek: anthrax], _anthrax_, coal.

ANTHRACOTHERIUM. A name given to an extinct quadruped, supposed to
belong to the Pachydermata, the bones of which were first found in
lignite and coal of the tertiary strata. _Etym._, [Greek: anthrax],
_anthrax_, coal, and [Greek: therion], _therion_, wild beast.

ANTHROPOMORPHOUS. Having a form resembling the human. _Etym._,
[Greek: anthropos], _anthropos_, a man, and [Greek: morphe],
_morphe_, form.

ANTISEPTIC. Substances which prevent corruption in animal and
vegetable matter, as common salt does, are said to be antiseptic.
_Etym._, [Greek: anti], _anti_, against, and [Greek: sepo], _sepo_,
to putrefy.

ARENACEOUS. Sandy. _Etym._, _arena_, sand.

ARGILLACEOUS. Clayey, composed of clay. _Etym._, _argilla_, clay.

ARRAGONITE. A simple mineral, a variety of carbonate of lime, so
called from having been first found in Aragon in Spain.

ATOLLS. Coral islands of an annular form, or consisting of a
circular strip or ring of coral surrounding a central lagoon.

AUGITE. A simple mineral of a dark green, or black color, which
forms a constituent part of many varieties of volcanic rocks. Name
applied by Pliny to a particular mineral, from the Greek [Greek:
auge], _auge_, lustre.

AVALANCHES. Masses of snow which, being detached from great heights
in the Alps, acquire enormous bulk by fresh accumulations as they
descend; and when they fall into the valleys below often cause great
destruction. They are also called _lavanges_ and _lavanches_ in the
dialects of Switzerland.

BASALT. One of the most common varieties of the Trap-rocks. It is a
dark green or black stone, composed of augite and felspar, very
compact in texture, and of considerable hardness, often found in
regular pillars of three or more sides called basaltic columns.
Remarkable examples of this kind are seen at the Giant's Causeway,
in Ireland, and at Fingal's Cave, in Staffa, one of the Hebrides.
The term is used by Pliny, and is said to come from _basal_, an
AEthiopian word signifying iron. The rock often contains much iron.

"BASIN" of Paris, "BASIN" of London. Deposits lying in a hollow or
trough, formed of older rocks; sometimes used in geology almost
synonymously with "formations," to express the deposits lying in a
certain cavity or depression in older rocks.

BELEMNITE. An extinct genus of the order of molluscous animals
called Cephalopoda, having a long, straight, and chambered conical
shell. _Etym._, [Greek: belemnon], _belemnon_, a dart.

BITUMEN. Mineral pitch, of which the tar-like substance which is
often seen to ooze out of the Newcastle coal when on the fire, and
which makes it cake, is a good example. _Etym._, _bitumen_, pitch.

BITUMINOUS SHALE. An argillaceous shale, much impregnated with
bitumen, which is very common in the Coal Measures.

BLENDE. A metallic ore, a compound of the metal zinc with sulphur.
It is often found in brown shining crystals; hence its name among
the German miners, from the word _blenden_, to dazzle.

BLUFFS. High banks presenting a precipitous front to the sea or a
river. A term used in the United States of North America.

BOTRYOIDAL. Resembling a bunch of Grapes. _Etym._, [Greek: botrys],
_botrys_, a bunch of grapes, and [Greek: eidos], _eidos_, form.

BOULDERS. A provincial term for large rounded blocks of stone lying
on the surface of the ground, or sometimes imbedded in loose soil,
different in composition from the rocks in their vicinity, and which
have been therefore transported from a distance.

BRECCIA. A rock composed of angular fragments connected together by
lime or other mineral substance. An Italian term.

CALC SINTER. A German name for the deposits from springs holding
carbonate of lime in solution--petrifying springs. _Etym._, _kalk_,
lime, and _sintern_, to drop.

CALCAIRE GROSSIER. An extensive stratum, or rather series of strata,
found in the Paris Basin, belonging to the Eocene tertiary period.
_Etym._, _calcaire_, limestone, and _grossier_, coarse.

CALCAREOUS ROCK. Limestone. _Etym._, _calx_, lime.

CALCAREOUS SPAR. Crystallized carbonate of lime.

CARBON. An undecomposed inflammable substance, one of the simple
elementary bodies. Charcoal is almost entirely composed of it.
_Etym._, _carbo_, coal.

CARBONATE OF LIME. Lime combines with great avidity with carbonic
acid, a gaseous acid only obtained fluid when united with
water,--and all combinations of it with other substances are called
_Carbonates_. All limestones are carbonates of lime, and quicklime
is obtained by driving off the carbonic acid by heat.

CARBONATED SPRINGS. Springs of water, containing carbonic acid gas.
They are very common, especially in volcanic countries; and
sometimes contain so much gas, that if a little sugar be thrown into
the water it effervesces like soda-water.

CARBONIC ACID GAS. A natural gas which often issues from the ground,
especially in volcanic countries. _Etym._, _carbo_, coal; because
the gas is obtained by the slow burning of charcoal.

CARBONIFEROUS. A term usually applied, in a technical sense, to an
ancient group of secondary strata; but any bed containing coal may
be said to be carboniferous. _Etym._, _carbo_, coal, and _fero_, to
bear.

CATACLYSM. A deluge. _Etym._, [Greek: kataklyzo], _catacluzo_, to
deluge.

CEPHALOPODA. A class of molluscous animals, having their organs of
motion arranged round their head. _Etym._, [Greek: kephale],
_cephale_, head, and [Greek: poda], _poda_, feet.

CETACEA. An order of vertebrated mammiferous animals inhabiting the
sea. The whale, dolphin, and narwal are examples. _Etym._, _cete_,
whale.

CHALCEDONY. A siliceous simple mineral, uncrystallized. Agates are
partly composed of chalcedony.

CHALK. A white earthy limestone, the uppermost of the secondary
series of strata.

CHERT. A siliceous mineral, nearly allied to chalcedony and flint,
but less homogeneous and simple in texture. A gradual passage from
chert to limestone is not uncommon.

CHLORITIC SAND. Sand colored green by an admixture of the simple
mineral chlorite. _Etym._, [Greek: chlorys], _chlorus_, green.

CLEAVAGE. Certain rocks, usually called Slate-rocks, may be cleaved
into an indefinite number of thin laminae which are parallel to each
other, but which are generally not parallel to the planes of the
true strata or layers of deposition. The planes of cleavage,
therefore, are distinguishable from those of stratification.

CLINKSTONE, called also phonolite, a felspathic rock of the trap
family, usually fissile. It is sonorous when struck with a hammer,
whence its name.

COAL FORMATION. This term is generally understood to mean the same
as the Coal Measures, or Carboniferous group.

COLEOPTERA. An order of insects (Beetles) which have four wings, the
upper pair being crustaceous and forming a shield. _Etym._, [Greek:
koleos], _coleos_, a sheath, and [Greek: pteron], _pteron_, a wing.

CONFORMABLE. When the planes of one set of strata are generally
parallel to those of another set which are in contact, they are said
to be conformable. Thus the set _a_, _b_, Fig. 98, rest conformably
on the inferior set _c_, _d_; but _c_, _d_ rest unconformably on E.]

CONGENERS. Species which belong to the same genus.

CONGLOMERATE, or PUDDINGSTONE. Rounded water-worn fragments of rock
or pebbles, cemented together by another mineral substance, which
may be of a siliceous, calcareous, or argillaceous nature. _Etym._,
_con_, together, _glomero_, to heap.

CONIFERAE. An order of plants, all of which have disks in their wood
fibres, by which they are recognized in a fossil state. Their ovules
are naked (see GYMNOGENS). Most of the northern kinds bear the seeds
in cones; but the yew does not, nor do a host of tropical and south
temperate species. _Etym._, _conus_, a cone, and _fero_, to bear.

COSMOGONY, COSMOLOGY. Words synonymous in meaning, applied to
speculations respecting the first origin or mode of creation of the
earth. _Etym._, [Greek: kosmos], _kosmos_, the world, and [Greek:
gone], _gonee_, generation, or [Greek: logos], _logos_, discourse.

CRAG. A provincial name in Norfolk and Suffolk for certain tertiary
deposits usually composed of sand with shells, belonging to the
Older Pliocene period.

CRATER. The circular cavity at the summit of a volcano, from which
the volcanic matter is ejected. _Etym._, _crater_, a great cup or
bowl.

CRETACEOUS. Belonging to chalk. _Etym._, _creta_, chalk.

CROP OUT. A miner's or mineral surveyor's term, to express the
rising up or exposure at the surface of a stratum or series of
strata.

CRUST OF THE EARTH. See "Earth's crust."

CRUSTACEOUS. Animals having a shelly coating or crust which they
cast periodically. Crabs, shrimps, and lobsters are examples.

CRYPTOGAMIC. Asexual, flowerless, or Acotyledonous plants; a term
applied to half the vegetable kingdom in contradistinction to
Phaenogamic, sexual, or flowering plants. It includes Fungi,
Sea-weeds, Lichens, Mosses, Ferns, &c., which have no obvious
flowers, and no cotyledons (seed-lobes) to their spores or seeds.
_Etym._, [Greek: kryptos], _cruptos_, concealed, and [Greek: gamos],
_gamos_, marriage.

CRYSTALS. Simple minerals are frequently found in regular forms,
with facets like the drops of cut glass of chandeliers. Quartz being
often met with in rocks in such forms, and beautifully transparent
like ice, was called _rock-crystal_, [Greek: krystallos],
crystallos, being Greek for ice. Hence the regular _forms_ of other
minerals are called crystals, whether they be clear or opake.

CRYSTALLIZED. A mineral which is found in regular forms or crystals
is said to be crystallized.

CRYSTALLINE. The internal texture which regular crystals exhibit
when broken, or a confused assemblage of ill-defined crystals.
Loaf-sugar and statuary-marble have a _crystalline_ texture.
Sugar-candy and calcareous spar are crystallized.

CUPRIFEROUS. Copper-bearing. _Etym._, _cuprum_, copper, and _fero_,
to bear.

CYCADEAE. A small and very anomalous order of flowering plants,
chiefly found in Mexico, the East Indian Islands, South Africa, and
Australia. They are Gymnogens as to ovules, and neither Exogens nor
Endogens in the wood of their short, simple, or branched trunks, and
they have dicotyledonous seeds. The leaves are pinnated (like those
of cocoa-nut palms), and when young are rolled inwards as in Ferns.
The wood fibres are curiously perforated, and marked, by which they
are recognized in a fossil state as well as by the trunk and
foliage, and the cones, which contain the male flowers. The term is
derived from [Greek: kykas], _cycas_, a name applied by the ancient
Greek naturalist Threophrastus to a palm.

CYPERACEAE. A tribe of plants answering to the English sedges; they
are distinguished from grasses by their stems being solid, and
generally triangular, instead of being hollow and round. Together
with _Gramineae_, they constitute what writers on botanical geography
often call _glumaceae_.

DEBACLE. A great rush of waters, which, breaking down all opposing
barriers, carries forward the broken fragments of rocks, and spreads
them in its course. _Etym._, _dabacler_, French, to unbar, to break
up as a river does at the cessation of a long-continued frost.

DELTA. When a great river, before it enters the sea, divides into
separate streams, they often diverge and form two sides of a
triangle, the sea being the base. The land included by the three
lines, and which is invariably alluvial, was first called, in the
case of the Nile a delta, from its resemblance to the letter of the
Greek alphabet which goes by that name [Greek: D]. Geologists
apply the term to alluvial land formed by a river at its mouth,
without reference to its precise shape.

DENUDATION. The carrying away by the action of running water of a
portion of the solid materials of the land, by which inferior rocks
are laid bare. _Etym._, _denudo_, to lay bare.

DEOXIDIZED, DEOXIDATED. Deprived of oxygen. Disunited from oxygen.

DESICCATION. The art of drying up. _Etym._, _desicco_, to dry up.

DETRITUS. Matter worn or rubbed off from rocks. _Etym._, _de_, from,
and _tero_, to rub.

DICOTYLEDONOUS. A grand division of the vegetable kingdom, founded
on the plant having two _cotyledons_, or seed-lobes. _Etym._,
[Greek: dis], _dis_, double, and [Greek: kotyledon], _cotyledon_.

DIKES. When a mass of the unstratified or igneous rocks, such as
granite, trap, and lava, appears as if injected into a rent in the
stratified rocks, cutting across the strata, it forms a dike. They
are sometimes seen running along the ground, and projecting, like a
wall, from the softer strata on both sides of them having wasted
away; whence they were first called in the north of England and in
Scotland _dikes_, a provincial name for wall. It is not easy to draw
the line between dikes and veins. The former are generally of larger
dimensions, and have their sides parallel for considerable
distances; while veins have generally many ramifications, and these
often thin away into slender threads.

DILUVIUM. Those accumulations of gravel and loose materials, which,
by some geologists, are said to have been produced by the action of
a diluvian wave or deluge sweeping over the surface of the earth.
_Etym._, _diluvium_, deluge.

DIP. When a stratum does not lie horizontally, but is inclined, it
is said to dip towards some point of the compass, and the angle it
makes with the horizon is called the angle of dip or inclination.

DIPTERA. An order of insects, comprising those which have only two
wings. _Etym._, [Greek: dis], _dis_, double, and [Greek: pteron],
_pteron_, wing.

DOLERITE. One of the varieties of the Trap-rocks, composed of augite
and felspar.

DOLOMITE. A crystalline limestone, containing magnesia as a
constituent part. Named after the French geologist Dolomieu.

DUNES. Low hills of blown sand that skirt the shores of Holland,
England, Spain, and other countries.

EARTH'S CRUST. Such superficial parts of our planet as are
accessible to human observation.

EOPYROSIS. A Greek term for a destruction by fire.

ELYTRA. The wing-sheaths, or upper crustaceous membranes, which form
the superior wings in the tribe of beetles. They cover the body, and
protect the true membranous wing. _Etym._, [Greek: elytron],
_elytron_, a sheath.

ENDOGENS. A class of flowering plants, whose stems present no
distinction of wood, pith, and bark. The wood is disposed in
bundles, placed nearer the axis than those of the previous year, as
in palm trunks. This class answers to the Monocotyledones of
Jussieu. _Etym._, [Greek: endon], _endon_, within, and [Greek:
genesis], _genesis_, increase.

ENTOMOSTRACA. Cuvier's second section of Crustacea; so called from
their relationship to insects. _Etym._, [Greek: entoma], _entoma_,
insects.

EOCENE. A name given to the lowest division of the tertiary strata,
containing an extremely small percentage of living species amongst
its fossil shells, which indicate the first commencement or dawn of
the existing state of the animate creation. _Etym._, [Greek: eos],
_eos_, aurora or the dawn, and [Greek: kainos], _kainos_, recent.

ESCARPMENT. The abrupt face of a ridge of high land. _Etym._,
_escarper_, French, to cut steep.

ESTUARIES. Inlets of the land, which are entered both by rivers and
the tides of the sea. Thus we have the estuaries of the Thames,
Severn, Tay, &c. _Etym._, _aestus_, the tide.

EXOGENS. A class of flowering plants whose stems have bark, wood,
and pith. The bark is increased by layers deposited within the
previously formed layers and the wood of layers or rings placed
outside of those of the previous year. This class answers to the
Dicotyledones of Jussieu, and includes all common English trees
except pines, &c. (See GYMNOGENS.) _Etym._, [Greek: exo], _exo_,
outside, [Greek: genesis], _genesis_, increase.

EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS. A decisive experiment, so called, because, like
a cross or direction-post, it directs men to true knowledge; or, as
some explain it, because it is a kind of torture whereby the nature
of the thing is extorted, as it were, by violence.

EXUVIAE. Properly speaking, the transient parts of certain animals
which they put off or lay down to assume new ones, as serpents and
caterpillars shift their skins; but in geology it refers not only to
the cast-off coverings of animals, but to fossil shells and other
remains which animals have left in the strata of the earth. _Etym._,
_exuere_, to put off or divest.

FALUNS. A French provincial name for some tertiary strata abounding
in shells in Touraine, which resemble in lithological characters the
"Crag" of Norfolk and Suffolk.

FAULT, in the language of miners, is the sudden interruption of the
continuity of strata in the same plane, accompanied by a crack or
fissure, varying in width from a mere line to several feet, which is
generally filled with broken stone, clay, &c.

The strata, _a_, _b_, _c_, &c., must at one time have been
continuous; but a fracture having taken place at the fault F, either
by the upheaving of the portion A, or the sinking of the portion B,
the strata were so displaced that the bed _a_ in B is many feet
lower than the same bed _a_ in the portion A.

FAUNA. The various kinds of animals peculiar to a country constitute
its FAUNA, as the various kinds of plants constitute its FLORA. The
term is derived from the FAUNI, or rural deities, in Roman
Mythology.

FELSPAR. A simple mineral, which, next to quartz, constitutes the
chief material of rocks. The white angular portions in granite are
felspar. This mineral always contains some alkali in its
composition. In _common felspar_ the alkali is potash; in another
variety, called Albite or Cleavlandite, it is soda. Glassy felspar
is a term applied when the crystals have a considerable degree of
transparency. _Compact_ felspar is a name of more vague
signification. The substance so called appears to contain both
potash and soda.

FELSPATHIC. Of or belonging to felspar.

FERRUGINOUS. Any thing containing iron. _Etym._, _ferrum_, iron.

FISSILE, easily cleft, dividing readily into an indefinite number of
parallel laminae, like slates.

FLOETZ ROCKS. A German term applied to the secondary strata by the
geologists of that country, because these rocks were supposed to
occur most frequently in flat horizontal beds. _Etym._, _flotz_, a
layer or stratum.

FLORA. The various kinds of trees and plants found in any country
constitute the FLORA of that country in the language of botanists.

FLUVIATILE. Belonging to a river. _Etym._, _fluvius_, a river.

FORAMINIFERA. A name given by D'Orbigny to a family of microscopic
shells. Their different chambers are united by a small perforation
or _foramen_. Recent observation has shown that some at least are
not Cephalopoda, as D'Orbigny supposed.

FORMATION. A group, whether of alluvial deposits, sedimentary
strata, or igneous rocks, referred to a common origin or period.

FOSSIL. All minerals were once called fossils, but geologists now
use the word only to express the remains of animals and plants found
buried in the earth. _Etym._, _fossilis_, any thing that may be dug
out of the earth.

FOSSILIFEROUS. Containing organic remains.

GALENA. A metallic ore, a compound of lead and sulphur. It has often
the appearance of highly polished lead. _Etym._, [Greek: galeo],
_galeo_, to shine.

GARNET. A simple mineral, generally of a deep red color,
crystallized; most commonly met with in mica slate, but also in
granite and other igneous rocks.

GASTEROPODS. A division of the Testacea, in which, as in the limpet,
the foot is attached to the body. _Etym._, [Greek: gaster],
_gaster_, belly, and [Greek: poda], _poda_, feet.

GAULT. A provincial name in the east of England for a series of beds
of clay and marl, the geological position of which is between the
Upper and Lower Greensand.

GAVIAL. A kind of crocodile found in India.

GEM, or GEMMULE, from the Latin _gemma_, a bud. The term, applied to
zoophytes, means a young animal not confined within an envelope or
egg.

GEOLOGY, GEOGNOSY. Both mean the same thing; but with an unnecessary
degree of refinement in terms, it has been proposed to call our
description of the structure of the earth _geognosy_ (_Etym._,
[Greek: gea], _gea_, earth, and [Greek: ginosco, _ginosco_, to
know), and our theoretical speculations as to its formation
_geology_ (_Etym._, [Greek: gea], and [Greek: logos], _logos_, a
discourse).

GLACIER. Vast accumulations of ice and hardened snow in the Alps and
other lofty mountains. _Etym._, _glace_, French for ice.

GLACIS. A term borrowed from the language of fortification, where it
means an easy insensible slope or declivity, less steep than a
_talus_, which see.