Chapter L: Formation of Coral Reefs (5)

GNEISS. A stratified primary rock, composed of the same materials as
granite, but having usually a larger proportion of mica and a
laminated texture. The word is a German miner's term.

GRAMINEAE. The order of plants to which grasses belong. _Etym._,
_gramen_, grass.

GRANITE. An unstratified or igneous rock, generally found inferior
to or associated with the oldest of the stratified rocks, and
sometimes penetrating them in the form of dikes and veins. It is
usually composed of three simple minerals, felspar, quartz, and
mica, and derives its name from having a coarse _granular_
structure; _granum_, Latin for grain. Waterloo bridge, and the
paving-stones in the carriage-way of the London streets, afford good
examples of the most common varieties of granite.

GREENSAND. Beds of sand, sandstone, limestone, belonging to the
Cretaceous Period. The name is given to these beds because they
often, but not always, contain an abundance of green earth or
chlorite scattered through the substance of the sandstone,
limestone, &c.

GREENSTONE. A variety of trap, composed of hornblende and felspar.

GREYWACKE. _Grauwacke_, a German name, generally adopted by
geologists for some of the most ancient fossiliferous strata. The
rock is very often of a gray color; hence the name, _grau_, being
German for gray, and _wacke_, being a provincial miner's term.

GRIT. A provincial name for a coarse-grained sandstone.

GYMNOSPERMOUS. _Etym._, [Greek: gymnos], _gymnos_, naked, and
[Greek: sperma], _sperma_, a seed. (See GYMNOGENS.)

GYMNOGENS. A class of flowering plants, in which the ovules are not
inclosed in an ovary. They are also called _gymnosperms_, the seeds
in like manner not being inclosed in a pericarp. It includes all
_Coniferae_, as pine, fir, juniper, cypress, yew, cedar, &c., and
_Cycadeae_. All are Dicotyledonous (a few have many cotyledons), and
all Exogenous, except _Cycas_, the growth of which is anomalous. The
term is applied in contradistinction to _Angiosperms_, which see.
_Etym._, [Greek: gymnos], naked, and [Greek: genesis], increase.

GYPSUM. A mineral composed of lime and sulphuric acid, hence called
also _sulphate_ of _lime_. Plaster and stucco are obtained by
exposing gypsum to a strong heat. It is found so abundantly near
Paris, that plaster of Paris is a common term in this country for
the white powder of which casts are made. The term is used by Pliny
for a stone used for the same purposes by the ancients. The
derivation is unknown.

GYPSEOUS, of or belonging to gypsum.

GYROGONITES. Bodies found in freshwater deposits, originally
supposed to be microscopic shells, but subsequently discovered to be
seed-vessels of freshwater plants of the genus _Chara_. See above
p. 742. _Etym._, [Greek: gyros], _gyros_, curved, and [Greek:
gonos], _gonos_, seed, on account of their external structure.

HEMIPTERA. An order of insects, so called from a peculiarity in
their wings, the superior being coriaceous at the base and
membranous at the apex, [Greek: hemisy], _hemisu_, half, and [Greek:
pteron], _pteron_, wing.

HORNBLENDE. A simple mineral of a dark green or black color, which
enters largely into the composition of several varieties of the
Trap-Rocks.

HORNSTONE. A siliceous mineral substance, sometimes approaching
nearly to flint, or common quartz. It has a conchoidal fracture, and
is infusible, which distinguishes it from compact felspar.

HUMERUS. The bone of the upper arm.

HYDROPHYTES. Plants which grow in water. _Etym._, [Greek: hydor],
_hydor_, water, and [Greek: phyton], _phyton_, plant.

HYPOGENE ROCKS. Those rocks which are _nether-formed_, or which have
not assumed their present form and structure at the surface, such as
granite, gneiss, &c. The term, which includes both the plutonic and
metamorphic rocks, is substituted for _primary_, because some
members of both these classes, such as granite and gneiss, are
posterior to many secondary or fossiliferous rocks. _Etym._, [Greek:
hypo], _hypo_, under, and [Greek: ginomai], _ginomai_, to be formed
or produced.

ICEBERG. Great masses of ice, often the size of hills, which float
in the polar and adjacent seas. _Etym._, ice, and _berg_, German for
hill.

ICHTHYOSAURUS. A gigantic fossil marine reptile, allied in part of
its structure to a fish. _Etym._, [Greek: ichthus], _ichthus_, a
fish, and [Greek: saura], _saura_, a lizard.

IGNEOUS ROCKS. All rocks, such as lava, trap, and granite, known or
supposed to have been melted by volcanic heat.

INCANDESCENT. White hot--having a more intense degree of heat than
red heat.

INDUCTION. A consequence, inference, or general principle drawn from
a number of particular facts or phenomena. The inductive philosophy,
says Mr. Whewell, has been rightly described as a science which
ascends from particular facts to general principles, and then
descends again from these general principles to particular
applications.

INFUSORY ANIMALCULES. Minute living creatures found in many
_infusions_; and the term _infusori_ has been given to all such
animalcules, whether found in infusions or in stagnant water,
vinegar, &c.

INSPISSATED. Thickened. _Etym._, _spissus_, thick.

INVERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Animals which are not furnished with a
back-bone. For a further explanation, see "Vertebrated Animals."

ISOTHERMAL. Such zones or divisions of the land, ocean, or
atmosphere, which have an equal degree of mean annual warmth, are
said to be isothermal, from [Greek: isos], _isos_, equal, and
[Greek: therme], _therme_, heat.

IOINTS. Fissures or lines of parting in rocks, often at right angles
to the planes of stratification. The partings which divide columnar
basalt into prisms are joints.

IURA LIMESTONE. The limestones belonging to the Oolite Group
constitute the chief part of the mountains of Jura between France
and Switzerland; and hence the geologists of the Continent have
given the name to the group.

KEUPER. A German name for a member of the Upper New Red Sandstone.

KIMMERIDGE CLAY. A thick bed of clay, constituting a member of the
Oolite Group. So called because it is found well developed at
Kimmeridge, in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorsetshire.

LACUSTRINE. Belonging to a lake. _Etym._, _lacus_, a lake.

LAMANTINE. A living species of the herbivorous Cetacea or whale
tribe which inhabits the mouth of rivers on the coasts of Africa and
South America: the sea-cow.

LAMELLIFEROUS. Having a structure consisting of thin plates or
leaves like paper. _Etym._, _lamella_, the diminutive of _lamina_,
plate, and _fero_, to bear.

LAMINAE. Latin for plates; used in geology for the smaller layers of
which a stratum is frequently composed.

LANDSLIP. A portion of land that has slid down in consequence of
disturbance by an earthquake, or from being undermined by water
washing away the lower beds which supported it.

LAPIDIFICATION. Lapidifying process. Conversion into stone. _Etym._,
_lapis_, stone, and _fio_, to make.

LAPILLI. Small volcanic cinders. _Lapillus_, a little stone.

LAVA. The stone which flows in a melted state from a volcano.

LEPIDODENDRON, a genus of fossil plants of the Coal Measures,
intermediate in character between the Lycopodiums and coniferous
plants.

LEUCITE. A simple mineral found in volcanic rocks, crystallized, and
of a white color. _Etym._, [Greek: leucos], _leucos_, white.

LIAS. A provincial name for an argillaceous limestone, characterized
together with its associated beds by peculiar fossils, and forming a
particular group of strata, interposed between the Oolite and the
New Red Sandstone.

LIGNIPERDOUS. A term applied to insects which destroy wood. _Etym._,
_lignum_, wood, and _perdo_, to destroy.

LIGNITE. Wood converted into a kind of coal. _Etym._, _lignum_,
wood.

LITHODOMI. Molluscous animals which form holes in the solid rocks in
which they lodge themselves. The holes are not perforated
mechanically, but the rock appears to be dissolved. _Etym._, [Greek:
lithos], _lithos_, stone, and [Greek: demo], _demo_, to build.

LITHOGENOUS POLYPS. Animals which form coral.

LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. A slaty compact limestone, of a yellowish color
and fine grain, used in lithography, which is the art of drawing
upon and printing from stone _Etym._, [Greek: lithos], _lithos_,
stone, and [Greek: grapho], _grapho_, to write.

LITHOIDAL. Having a stony structure.

LITHOLOGICAL. A term expressing the stony structure or character of
a mineral mass. We speak of the lithological character of a stratum
as distinguished from its zoological character. _Etym._, [Greek:
lithos], _lithos_, stone, and [Greek: logos], _logos_, discourse.

LITHOPHAGI. Molluscous animals which form holes in solid stones. See
"Lithodomi." _Etym._, [Greek: lithos], _lithos_, stone, and [Greek:
phagein], _phagein_, to eat.

LITHOPHITES. The animals which form Stone-coral.

LITTORAL. Belonging to the shore. _Etym._, _littus_, the shore.

LOAM. A mixture of sand and clay.

LOPHIODON. A genus of extinct quadrupeds, allied to the tapir, named
from eminences on the teeth.

LYCOPODIACEAE. Plants of an inferior degree of organization to
Coniferae, some of which they very much resemble in foliage, but all
recent species are infinitely smaller. Many of the fossil species
are as gigantic as recent Coniferae. Their mode of reproduction is
analogous to that of ferns. In English they are called club-mosses,
generally found in mountainous heaths in the north of England.

LYDIAN STONE. Flinty slate; a kind of quartz or flint, allied to
Hornstone, but of a grayish black color.

MACIGNO. In Italy this term has been applied to a siliceous
sandstone sometimes containing calcareous grains, mica, &c.

MADREPORE. A genus of corals, but generally applied to all the
corals distinguished by superficial star-shaped cavities. There are
several fossil species.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE. An extensive series of beds, the geological
position of which is immediately above the Coal Measures; so called,
because the limestone, the principal member of the series, contains
much of the earth magnesia as a constituent part.

MAMMIFEROUS. Mammifers. Animals which give suck to their young. To
this class all the warm-blooded quadrupeds, and the Cetacea, or
whales, belong. _Etym._, _mamma_, a breast, _fero_, to bear.

MAMMILLARY. A surface which is studded over with rounded
projections. _Etym._, _mammilla_, a little breast or pap.

MAMMOTH. An extinct species of the elephant (_E. primigenius_), of
which the fossil bones are frequently met with in various countries.
The name is of Tartar origin, and is used in Siberia for animals
that burrow under ground.

MANATI. One of the Cetacea, the sea-cow, or lamantine (_Trichechus
manatus_, Lin.)

MARL. A mixture of clay and lime; usually soft, but sometimes hard,
in which case it is called indurated marl.

MARSUPIAL ANIMALS. A tribe of quadrupeds having a sack or pouch
under the belly, in which they carry their young. The kangaroo is a
well-known example. _Etym._, _marsupium_, a purse.

MASTODON. A genus of fossil extinct quadrupeds allied to the
elephants; so called from the form of the hind teeth or grinders,
which have their surface covered with conical mammillary crests.
_Etym._, [Greek: mastos], _mastos_, pap, and [Greek: odon], _odon_,
tooth.

MATRIX. If a simple mineral or shell, in place of being detached, be
still fixed in a portion of rock, it is said to be in its matrix.
_Matrix_, womb.

MECHANICAL ORIGIN, ROCKS OF. Rocks composed of sand, pebbles, or
fragments, are so called to distinguish them from those of a uniform
crystalline texture, which are of chemical origin.

MEDUSAE. A genus of marine radiated animals, without shells; so
called, because their organs of motion spread out like the snaky
hair of the fabulous Medusa.

MEGALOSAURUS. A fossil gigantic amphibious animal of the saurian or
lizard and crocodile tribe. _Etym._, [Greek: megale], _megale_,
great, and [Greek: saura], _saura_, lizard.

MEGATHERIUM. A fossil extinct quadruped, resembling a gigantic
sloth. _Etym._, [Greek: mega], _mega_, great, and [Greek: therion],
_therion_, wild beast.

MELASTOMA. A genus of MELASTOMACEA, an order of exotic plants of the
evergreen tree and shrubby kinds. _Etym._, [Greek: melas], _melas_,
black, and [Greek: stoma], _stoma_, mouth; because the fruit of one
of these species stains the lips.

MESOTYPE. A simple mineral, white, and needle-shaped, one of the
Zeolite family, frequently met with in the Trap-rocks.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS. A stratified division of hypogene rocks, highly
crystalline, such as gneiss and mica-schist, and so named because
they have been _altered_ by plutonic action. _Etym._, [Greek: meta],
_meta_, trans, and [Greek: morphe], _morphe_, form.

MICA. A simple mineral, having a shining silvery surface, and
capable of being split into very thin elastic leaves or scales. It
is often called _talc_ in common life; but mineralogists apply the
term talc to a different mineral. The brilliant scales in granite
are mica. _Etym._, _mico_, to shine.

MICA-SLATE, MICA-SCHIST, MICACEOUS SCHISTUS. One of the metamorphic
or crystalline stratified rocks of the hypogene class, which is
characterized by being composed of a large proportion of mica united
with quartz.

MIOCENE. A division of tertiary strata intervening between the
Eocene and Pliocene formations; so called, because a minority of its
fossil shells are referable to living species. _Etym._, [Greek:
meion], _meion_, less, and [Greek: kainos], _kainos_, recent.

MOLASSE. A provincial name for a soft green sandstone, associated
with marl and conglomerates, belonging to the Miocene Tertiary
Period, extensively developed in the lower country of Switzerland.
_Etym._, French, _molle_, soft.

MOLLUSCA, MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Animals, such as shell-fish, which,
being devoid of bones, have soft bodies. _Etym._, _mollis_, soft.

MONAD. The smallest of visible animalcules, spoken of by Buffon and
his followers as constituting the elementary molecules of organic
beings.

MONITOR. An animal of the saurian or lizard tribe, species of which
are found in both the fossil and recent state.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS. A grand division of the vegetable kingdom
(including palms, grasses, Lilaceae, &c.), founded on the plant
having only one _cotyledon_, or seed-lobe. _Etym._, [Greek: monos],
_monos_, single.

MORAINE, a Swiss term for the dabris of rocks brought into valleys
by glaciers. See p. 228.

MOSCHUS. A quadruped resembling the chamois or mountain goat, from
which the perfume musk is obtained.

MOUNTAIN LIMESTONE, OR CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE. A series of
limestone strata of marine origin, usually forming the lowest member
of the Coal Measures.

MOYA. A term applied in South America to mud poured out from
volcanoes during eruptions.

MULTILOCULAR. Many-chambered; a term applied to those shells which,
like the nautilus, ammonite, and others, are divided into many
compartments. _Etym._, _multus_, many, and _loculus_, a partition.

MURIATE OF SODA. The scientific name for common culinary salt,
because it is composed of muriatic acid and the alkali soda.

MUSACEAE. A family of tropical monocotyledonous plants, including the
banana and plantains.

MUSCHELKALK. A limestone, belonging to the Upper New Red Sandstone
group. Its position is between the Magnesian Limestone and the Lias.
This formation has not yet been found in England, and the German
name is adopted by English geologists. The word means shell
limestone. _Etym._, _muschel_, shell, and _kalkstein_, limestone.

NAPHTHA. A very thin, volatile, inflammable, and fluid mineral
substance, of which there are springs in many countries,
particularly in volcanic districts.

NENUPHAR. A yellow water-lily. P. 618.

NEW RED SANDSTONE. A formation so named, because it consists chiefly
of sandy and argillaceous strata, the predominant color of which is
brick-red, but containing portions which are of a greenish-gray.
These occur often in spots and stripes, so that the series has
sometimes been called the variegated sandstone. This formation is
divided into the Upper New Red in which the Muschelkalk is included,
and the Lower New Red, of which the Magnesian Limestone is a member.

NODULE. A rounded irregular-shaped lump or mass. _Etym._, diminutive
of _nodus_, knot.

NORMAL GROUPS. Groups of certain rocks taken as a rule or standard.
_Etym._, _norma_, rule or pattern.

NUCLEUS. A solid central piece, around which other matter is
collected. The word is Latin for kernel.

NUMMULITES. An extinct genus of the order of molluscous animals,
called Cephalopoda, of a thin lenticular shape, internally divided
into small chambers. _Etym._, _nummus_, Latin for money, and [Greek:
lithos], _lithos_, stone, from its resemblance to a coin.

OBSIDIAN. A volcanic product, or species of lava, very like common
green bottle glass, which is almost black in large masses, but
semi-transparent in thin fragments. Pumice-stone is obsidian in a
frothy state; produced, most probably, by water that was contained
in or had access to the melted stone, and converted into steam.
There are very often portions in masses of solid obsidian, which are
partially converted into pumice.

OCHRE. A yellow powder, a combination of some earth with oxide of
iron.

OGYGIAN DELUGE. A great inundation mentioned in fabulous history,
supposed to have taken place in the reign of Ogyges in Attica, whose
death is fixed in Blair's Chronological Tables in the year 1764
before Christ. See p. 341.

OLD RED SANDSTONE. A formation immediately below the Carboniferous
Group. The term Devonian has been recently proposed for strata of
this age, because in Devonshire they are largely developed, and
contain many organic remains.

OLIGOCLASE. A mineral of the felspar family.

OLIVINE. An olive-colored, semi-transparent, simple mineral, very
often occurring in the form of grains and of crystals in basalt and
lava.

OOLITE, OOLITIC. A limestone; so named because it is composed of
rounded particles like the roe or eggs of a fish. The name is also
applied to a large group of strata, characterized by peculiar
fossils, in which limestone of this texture occurs. _Etym._, [Greek:
oon], _oon_, egg, and [Greek: lithos], _lithos_, stone.

OPALIZED WOOD. Wood petrified by siliceous earth, and acquiring a
structure similar to the simple mineral called opal.

OPHIDIOUS REPTILES. Vertebrated animals, such as snakes and
serpents. _Etym._, [Greek: ophis], _ophis_, a serpent.

ORGANIC REMAINS. The remains of animals and plants (_organized_
bodies) found in a fossil state.

ORTHOCERATA OR OHTHOCERAE. An extinct genus of the order of
molluscous animals, called Cephalopoda, that inhabited a
long-chambered conical shell, like a straight horn. _Etym._, [Greek:
orthos], _orthos_, straight, and [Greek: keras], _ceras_, horn.

OSSEOUS BRECCIA. The cemented mass of fragments of bones of extinct
animals found in caverns and fissures. _Osseous_ is a Latin
adjective, signifying bony.

OSTEOLOGY. That division of anatomy which treats of the bones; from
[Greek: osteon], _osteon_, bone, and [Greek: logos], _logos_, a
discourse.

OUTLIERS. When a portion of a stratum occurs at some distance,
detached from the general mass of the formation to which it belongs,
some practical mineral surveyors call it an _outlier_, and the term
is adopted in geological language.

OVATE. The shape of an egg. _Etym._, _ovum_, egg.

OVIPOSITING. The laying of eggs.

OXIDE. The combination of a metal with oxygen; rust is oxide of
iron.

OXYGEN. One of the constituent parts of the air of the atmosphere;
that part which supports life. For a farther explanation of the
word, consult elementary works on chemistry.

PACHYDERMATA. An order of quadrupeds, including the elephant,
rhinoceros, horse, pig, &c., distinguished by having thick skins.
_Etym._, [Greek: pachus], _pachus_, thick, and [Greek: derma],
_derma_, skin, or hide.

PACHYDERMATOUS. Belonging to Pachydermata.

PALAEOTHERIUM, PALEOTHERE. A fossil extinct quadruped, belonging to
the order Pachydermata, resembling a pig, or tapir, but of great
size. _Etym._, [Greek: palaios], _palaios_, ancient, and [Greek:
therion], _therion_, wild beast.

PALEONTOLOGY. The science which treats of fossil remains, both
animal and vegetable. _Etym._, [Greek: palaios], _palaios_, ancient,
[Greek: onta], _onta_, beings, and [Greek: logos], _logos_, a
discourse.

PELAGIAN, PELAGIC. Belonging to the _deep_ sea. _Etym._, _pelagus_,
sea.

PEPERINO. An Italian name for a particular kind of volcanic rock,
formed like tuff, by the cementing together of volcanic sand,
cinders, or scoriae, &c.

PETROLEUM. A liquid mineral pitch, so called because it is seen to
ooze like oil out of the rock. _Etym._, _petra_, rock, and _oleum_,
oil.

PHAENOGAMOUS or PHANEROGAMIC PLANTS. A name given by Linnaeus to those
plants in which the reproductive organs are apparent. _Etym._,
[Greek: phaneros], _phaneros_, evident, or [Greek: phaino],
_phaino_, to show, and [Greek: gamos], _gamos_, marriage.

PHLEGRAEAN FIELDS. Campi Phlegraei, or "the Burnt Fields." The country
around Naples, so named by the Greeks, from the traces of igneous
action everywhere visible.

PHONOLITE. See "Clinkstone."

PHRYGANEA. A genus of four-winged insects, the larvae of which,
called caddis-worms, are used by anglers as a bait.

PHYSICS. The department of science which treats of the properties of
natural bodies, laws of motion, &c.; sometimes called natural
philosophy and mechanical philosophy. _Etym._, [Greek: physis],
_physis_, nature.

PHYTOLOGY, PHYTOLOGICAL. The department of science which relates to
plants--synonymous with, botany and botanical. _Etym._, [Greek:
phyton], _phyton_, plant, and [Greek: logos], _logos_, discourse.

PHYTOPHAGOUS. Plant-eating. _Etym._, [Greek: phyton], _phyton_,
plant, and [Greek: phagein], _phagein_, to eat.

PISOLITE. A stone possessing a structure like an agglutination of
peas. _Etym._, [Greek: pison], _pison_, pea, and [Greek: lithos],
_lithos_, stone.

PISTIA. P. 618. The plant mentioned by Malte-Brun is probably the
_Pistia Stratiotes_, a floating plant, related to English duckweed,
but very much larger.

PIT COAL. Ordinary coal; called so, because it is obtained by
sinking pits in the ground.

PITCHSTONE. A rock of a uniform texture, belonging to the
unstratified and volcanic classes, which has an unctuous appearance
like indurated pitch.

PLASTIC CLAY. One of the beds of the Eocene Tertiary Period; so
called, because it is used for making pottery. The formation to
which this name is applied is a series of beds chiefly sands, with
which the clay is associated. _Etym._, [Greek: plasso], _plasso_, to
form or fashion.

PLESIOSAURUS. A fossil extinct amphibious animal, resembling the
saurian, or lizard and crocodile tribe. _Etym._, [Greek: plesion],
_plesion_, near to, and [Greek: saura], _saura_, a lizard.

PLIOCENE, OLDER and NEWER. Two divisions of the Tertiary Period
which are the most modern, and of which the largest part of the
fossil shells are of recent species. _Etym._, [Greek: pleion],
_pleion_, more, and [Greek: kainos], _kainos_, recent.

PLUTONIC ACTION. The influence of volcanic heat and other
subterranean causes under pressure.

PLUTONIC ROCKS. Granite, porphyry, and other igneous rocks supposed
to have consolidated from a melted state at a great depth from the
surface.

POLIPARIA. CORALS. A numerous class of invertehrated animals,
belonging to the great division called Radiata.

PORPHYRY. An unstratified or igneous rock. The term is as old as the
time of Pliny, and was applied to a red rock with small, angular,
white bodies diffused through it, which are crystallized felspar,
brought from Egypt. The term is hence applied to every species of
unstratifled rock in which detached crystals or felspar or some
other mineral are diffused through a base of other mineral
composition. _Etym._, [Greek: porphyra], _porphyra_, purple.

PORTLAND LIMESTONE, PORTLAND BEDS. A series of limestone strata,
belonging to the upper part of the Oolite Group, found chiefly in
England in the Island of Portland on the coast of Dorsetshire. The
great supply of the building-stone used in London is from these
quarries.

POZZUOLANA. Volcanic ashes, largely used as mortar for buildings,
similar in nature to what is called in this country Roman cement. It
gets its name from Puzzuoli, a town in the Bay of Naples, from which
it is shipped in large quantities to all parts of the Mediterranean.

PRECIPITATE. Substances which, having been dissolved in a fluid, are
separated from it by combining chemically and forming a solid, which
falls to the bottom of the fluid. This process is the opposite to
that of chemical solution.

PRODUCTA. An extinct genus of fossil bivalve shells occurring only
in the older secondary rocks. It is closely allied to the living
genus Terebratula.

PTERODACTYL. A flying reptile: species of this genus have been found
in the Oolite and Muschelkalk. Some of the finger-joints are
lengthened, so as to serve as the expansors of a membranous wing.
Hence the name _wing-fingered_. _Etym._, [Greek: pteron], _pteron_,
a wing, and [Greek: daktylos], _dactylos_, a finger.

PUBESCENCE. The soft hairy down on insects. _Etym._, _pubesco_, the
first growth of the beard.

PUDDINGSTONE. See "Conglomerate."

PUMICE. A light spongy lava, chiefly felspathic, of a white color,
produced by gases or watery vapor getting access to the particular
kind of glassy lava called obsidian, when in a state of fusion; it
may be called the froth of melted volcanic glass. The word comes
from the Latin name of the stone, _pumex_.

PURBECK LIMESTONE, PURBECK BEDS. Limestone strata, belonging to the
Wealden Group, which intervenes between the Greensand and the
Oolite.

PYRITES. (Iron.) A compound of sulphur and iron, found usually in
yellow shining-crystals like brass, and in almost every rock,
stratified and uustratifled. The shining metallic bodies so often
seen in common roofing slate are a familiar example of the mineral.
The word is Greek, and comes from [Greek: pyr], _pyr_, fire; because
tinder particular circumstances, the stone produces spontaneous
heat, and even inflammation.

PYROMETER. An instrument for measuring intense degrees of heat.

QUADRUMANA. The order of mammiferous animals to which apes belong.
_Etym._, _quadrus_, a derivative of the Latin word for the number
four, and _manus_, hand, the four feet of those animals being in
some degree usable as hands.

QUA-QUA-VERSAL DIP. The dip of beds to all points of the compass
around a centre, as in the case of beds of lava round the crater of
a volcano. _Etym._, _qua-qua-versum_, on every side.

QUARTZ. A German provincial term, universally adopted in scientific
language for a simple mineral composed of pure silex, or earth of
flints: rock-crystal is an example.

QUARTZITE or QUARTZ ROCK. An aggregate of grains of quartz,
sometimes passing into compact quartz.

RED MARL. A term often applied to the New Red Sandstone.

RETICULATE. A structure of cross lines, like a net, is said to be
reticulated, from _rete_, a net.

ROCK SALT. Common culinary salt, or muriate of soda, found in vast
solid masses or beds, in different formations, extensively in the
New Red Sandstone formation, as in Cheshire; and it is then called
_rock_-salt.

RUBBLE. A term applied by quarry-men to the upper fragmentary and
decomposed portion of a mass of stone.

RUMINANTIA. Animals which ruminate or chew the cud, such as the ox,
deer, &c. _Etym._, the Latin verb _rumino_, meaning the same thing.

SACCHAROID, SACCHARINE. When a stone has a texture resembling that
of loaf-sugar. _Etym._, [Greek: sakchar], _sacchar_, sugar, and
[Greek: eidos], _eidos_, form.

SALIENT ANGLE. In a zigzag line _a a_ are the salient angles, _b b_
the re-entering angles. _Etym._, _salire_, to leap or bound forward.

SALT SPRINGS. Springs of water containing a large quantity of common
salt. They are very abundant in Cheshire and Worcestershire, and
culinary salt is obtained from them by mere evaporation.

SANDSTONE. Any stone which is composed of an agglutination of grains
of sand, whether calcareous, siliceous, or of any other mineral
nature.

SAURIAN. Any animal belonging to the lizard tribe. _Etym._, [Greek:
saura], _saura_, a lizard.

SAXICAVOUS. Hollowing out stone.

SCHIST is often used as synonymous with slate; but it may be very
useful to distinguish between a schistose and a slaty structure. The
hypogene or primary _schists_, as they are termed, such as gneiss,
mica-schist, and others, cannot be split into an indefinite number
of parallel laminae like rocks which have a true slaty cleavage. The
uneven schistose layers of mica-schist and gneiss are probably
layers of deposition, which have assumed a crystalline texture. See
"Cleavage." _Etym._, _schistus_, adj. Latin, that which may be
split.

SCHISTOSE ROCKS. See "Schist."

SCORIAE. Volcanic cinders. The word is Latin for cinders.

SEAMS. Thin layers which separate two strata of greater magnitude.

SECONDARY STRATA. An extensive series of the stratified rocks which
compose the crust of the globe, with certain characters in common,
which distinguish them from another series below them called
_primary_, and from a third series above them called _tertiary_.

SECULAR REFRIGERATION. The periodical cooling and consolidation of
the globe from a supposed original state of fluidity from heat.
_Saeculum_, age or period.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are those which have been formed by their
materials having been thrown down from a state of suspension or
solution in water.

SELENITE. Crystallized gypsum, or sulphate of lime--a simple
mineral.

SEPTARIA. Flattened balls of stone, generally a kind of iron-stone,
which, on being split, are seen to be separated in their interior
into irregular masses. _Etym._, _septa_, inclosures.

SERPENTINE. A rock usually containing much magnesian earth, for the
most part unstratified, but sometimes appearing to be an altered or
metamorphic stratified rock. Its name is derived from frequently
presenting contrasts of color, like the skin of some serpents.

SHALE. A provincial term, adopted by geologists, to express an
indurated slaty clay. _Etym._, German _schalen_, to peel, to split.

SHELL MARL. A deposit of clay, peat, and other substances mixed with
shells, which collects at the bottom of lakes.

SHINGLE. The loose and completely water-worn gravel on the
sea-shore.

SILEX. The name of one of the pure earths, being the Latin word for
_flint_, which is wholly composed of that earth. French geologists
have applied it as a generic name for all minerals composed
entirely of that earth, of which there are many of different
external forms.

SILICA. One of the pure earths. _Etym._, _silex_, flint, because
found in that mineral.

SILICATE. A chemical compound of silica and another substance, such
as silicate of iron. Consult elementary works on chemistry.

SILICEOUS. Of or belonging to the earth of flint. _Etym._, _silex_,
which see. A siliceous rock is one mainly composed of silex.

SILICIFIED. Any substance that is petrified or mineralized by
_siliceous_ earth.

SILT. The more comminuted sand, clay, and earth, which is
transported by running water. It is often accumulated by currents in
banks. Thus the mouth of a river is silted up when its entrance into
the sea is impeded by such accumulation of loose materials.

SIMPLE MINERAL. Individual mineral substances, as distinguished from
rocks, which last are usually an aggregation of simple minerals.
They are not simple in regard to their nature; for when subjected to
chemical analysis, they are found to consist of a variety of
different substances. Pyrites is a simple mineral in the sense we
use the term, but it is a chemical compound of sulphur and iron.

SINTER, CALCAREOUS OR SILICEOUS. A German name for a rock
precipitated from mineral waters. _Etym._, _sintern_, to drop.

SLATE. See "Cleavage" and "Schist."

SOLFATARA. A volcanic vent from which sulphur, sulphureous, watery,
and acid vapors and gases are emitted.

SPORULES. The reproductory corpuscula (minute bodies) of cryptogamic
plants. _Etym._, [Greek: spora], _spora_, a seed.

STALACTITE. When water holding lime in solution deposits it as it
drops from the roof of a cavern, long rods of stone hang down like
icicles, and these are called _stalactites_. _Etym._, [Greek:
stalazo], _stalazo_, to drop.

STALAGMITE. When water holding lime in solution drops on the floor
of a cavern, the water evaporating leaves a crust composed of layers
of limestone: such a crust is called _stalagmite_, from [Greek:
stalagma], _stalagma_, a drop, in opposition to _stalactite_, which
see.

STATICAL FIGURE. The figure which results from the equilibrium of
forces. From [Greek: statos], _statos_, stable, or standing still.

STERNUM. The breast-bone, or the flat bone occupying the front of
the chest.

STILBITE. A crystallized simple mineral, usually white, one of the
Zeolite family, frequently included in the mass of the Trap-rocks.

STRATIFIED. Rocks arranged in the form of _strata_, which see.

STRATIFICATION. An arrangement of rocks in _strata_, which see.

STRATA, STRATUM. The term stratum, derived from the Latin verb
_struo_, to strew or lay out, means a bed or mass of matter spread
out over a certain surface by the action of water, or in some cases
by wind. The deposition of successive layers of sand and gravel in
the bed of a river, or in a canal, affords a perfect illustration
both of the form and origin of stratification. A large portion of
the masses constituting the earth's crust are thus stratified, the
successive strata of a given rock preserving a general parallelism
to each other; but the planes of stratification not being perfectly
parallel throughout a great extent like the planes of _cleavage_,
which see.

STRIKE. The direction or line of bearing of strata, which is always
at right angles to their prevailing dip.

STUFAS. Jets of steam issuing from fissures in volcanic regions at a
temperature often above the boiling point.

SUBAPENNINES. Low hills which skirt or lie at the foot of the great
chain of the Apennines in Italy. The term. Subapennine is applied
geologically to a series of strata of the Older Pliocene Period.

SYENITE. A kind of granite; so called, because it was brought from
Syene in Egypt.

TALUS. When fragments are broken off by the action of the weather
from the face of a steep rock, as they accumulate at its foot, they
form a sloping heap, called a talus. The term is borrowed from the
language of fortification, where _talus_ means the outside of a wall
of which the thickness is diminished by degrees, as it rises in
height, to make it the firmer.

TARSI. The feet in insects, which are articulated, and formed of
five or a less number of joints.

TERTIARY STRATA. A series of sedimentary rocks, with characters
which distinguish them from two other great series of strata--the
secondary and primary--which lie _beneath_ them.

TESTACEA. Molluscous animals, having a shelly covering. _Etym._,
_testa_, a shell, such as snails, whelks, oysters, &c.

THALLOGENS. A class of flowerless plants including all those that
have no defined axis, stem, or leaves; as Lichens, Seaweeds, and
Fungi. _Etym._, [Greek: thallos], _thallos_, a branch, and [Greek:
genesis], _genesis_, increase.

THERMAL. Hot. _Etym._, [Greek: thermos], _thermos_, hot.

THERMO-ELECTRICITY. Electricity developed by heat.

THIN OUT. When a stratum, in the course of its prolongation in any
direction, becomes gradually less in thickness, the two surfaces
approach nearer and nearer; and when at last they meet, the stratum
is said to thin out or disappear.

TRACHYTE. A variety of lava essentially composed of glassy felspar,
and frequently having detached crystals of felspar in the base or
body of the stone, giving it the structure of porphyry. It sometimes
contains hornblende and augite; and when these last predominate, the
trachyte passes into the varieties of trap, called Greenstone,
Basalt, Dolorite, &c. The term is derived from [Greek: trachus],
_trachus_, rough, because the rock has a peculiar rough feel.

TRAP and TRAPPEAN ROCKS. Volcanic rocks composed of felspar, augite,
and hornblende. The various proportions and state of aggregation of
these simple minerals, and differences in external forms, give rise
to varieties, which have received distinct appellations, such as
Basalt, Amygdaloid, Dolorite, Greenstone, and others. The term is
derived from _trappa_, a Swedish word for stair, because the rocks
of this class sometimes occur in large tabular masses, rising one
above another like steps.

TRAVERTIN. A white concretionary limestone, usually hard and
semi-crystalline, deposited from the water of springs holding lime
in solution.--_Etym._ This stone was called by the ancients Lapis
Tiburtinus, the stone being formed in great quantity by the river
Anio, at Tibur, near Rome. Some suppose travertin to be an
abbreviation of trasterverino from transtiburtinus.

TRIPOLI. The name of a powder used for polishing metals and stones,
first imported from Tripoli, which, as well as a certain kind of
siliceous stone of the same name, has been lately found to be
composed of the flinty cases of Infusoria.

TROPHI, of Insects. Organs which form the mouth, consisting of an
upper and under lip, and comprising the parts called mandibles,
maxillae, and palpi.

TUFA, CALCAREOUS. A porous rock deposited by calcareous waters on
their exposure to the air, and usually containing portions of plants
and other organic substances incrusted with carbonate of lime. The
more solid form of the same deposit is called "travertin," into
which it passes.

TUFA, VOLCANIC. See "Tuff."

TUFACEOUS. A rock with the texture of tuff, or tufa, which see.

TUFF, or TUFA VOLCANIC. An Italian name for a variety of volcanic
rock of an earthy texture, seldom very compact, and composed of an
agglutination of fragments of scoriae and loose materials ejected
from a volcano.

TURBINATED. Shells which have a spiral or screw-form structure.
_Etym._, _turbinatus_, made like a top.

TURRILITE. An extinct genus of chambered shells, allied to the
Ammonites, having the siphuncle near the dorsal margin.

UNCONFORMABLE. See "Conformable."

UNOXIDIZED, UNOXIDATED. Not combined with oxygen.

VEINS, MINERAL. Cracks in rocks filled up by substances different
from the rock, which may either be earthy or metallic. Veins are
sometimes many yards wide; and they ramify or branch off into
innumerable smaller parts, often as slender as threads, like the
veins in an animal, hence their name.

VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. A great division of the animal kingdom,
including all those which are furnished with a back-bone, as the
mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. The separate joints of the
back-bone are called _vertebrae_, from the Latin verb _verto_, to
turn.

VESICLE. A small, circular, inclosed space, like a little bladder.
_Etym._, diminutive of _vesica_, Latin for a bladder.

VITRIFICATION. The conversion of a body into glass by heat.

VOLCANIC BOMBS. Volcanoes throw out sometimes detached masses of
melted lava, which, as they fall, assume rounded forms (like
bomb-shells), and are often elongated into a pear-shape.

VOLCANIC FOCI. The subterranean centres of action in volcanoes,
where the heat is supposed to be in the highest degree of energy.

WACKE. A rock nearly allied to basalt, of which it may be regarded
as a soft and earthy variety.

WARP. The deposit of muddy waters, artificially introduced into low
lands. See p. 326.

ZEOLITE. A family of simple minerals, including stilbite, mesotype,
analcime, and some others, usually found in the trap or volcanic
rocks. Some of the most common varieties swell or boil up when
exposed to the blow-pipe, and hence the name of [Greek: zeo], _zeo_,
to boil, and [Greek: lithos], _lithos_, stone.

ZOOPHITES. Corals, sponges, and other aquatic animals allied to
them; so called because, while they are the habitation of animals,
they are fixed to the ground, and have the form of plants. _Etym._,
[Greek: zoon], _zoon_, animal, and [Greek: phyton], _phyton_, plant.

INDEX.

A.

Abich, M., on eruption of Vesuvius in 1834, 378, 380, 550.

Abo, 522, 523.

Acosta cited, 499, 502.

Adams, Mr., on fossil elephant, 80.

Adanson on age of the baobab tree, 422.

Addison on Burnet's theory, 32.

Adige, embankment of the, 255.
----, delta of the, 257.

Adour, R., new passage formed by, 338.

Adria, formerly a seaport, 256.

Adriatic, deposits in, 36, 88, 71, 257, 774.

AEgean Sea, Prof. E. Forbes dredging in, 649.

Africa, fossil shells of, mentioned by ancients, 15.
----, indigenous quadrupeds of, 82.
----, heat radiated by, 94.
----, currents on coast of, 292, 342.
----, drift sands of deserts, 726.
----, devastations of locusts in, 674.
----, strata forming off tropical coast of, 774.
----, desert of its area, 694.

Agassiz, M., on fish of coal formation, 136.
----, on abrupt transition from one fossil fauna to another, 184.
----, on motion, &c., of glaciers, 224, 226.

Agricola on fossil remains, 21.

Airthrey, fossil whale found at, 771.

Alabama, coal plants, 88.

Alaska, volcanoes in, 352.

Aldborough, incursions of sea at, 311.

Alderney, race of, 293.

Aleutian Isles, eruptions, &c., in, 352, 468.

Alexandria, temple of Serapis at, 512.

Algae, known provinces of, 617.

Allan, Dr., on coral in Madagascar, 778.

Alloa, whale cast ashore at, 771.

Alluvium, imbedding of organic remains in, 780.
----, volcanic, 386.
----, stalagmite, alternating with, in caves, 736.

Alps, Saussure on the, 45.
----, tertiary rocks of the, 119.
----, greatly raised during tertiary epoch, 124.
----, signs of lateral pressure in the, 171.

Altered rocks, 177.

Amazon, R., land formed by its deposits, 342.
----, animals floated down on drift-wood by, 640.

America, its coast undermined, 331.
----, recent strata in lakes of, 254, 768.
----, specific distinctness of animals of, 612, 629.
----, domesticated animals run wild in, 585, 685.
----, N., continuous beds of coal in, 115.
----, N., deposit "New red" like English, 158.
----, N. and S., mammiferous fauna of, 633.

Ammonia in lavas, 550.

Amonoosuck, flood in valley of, 209.

Ampere, M., on electric currents in the earth, 543.

Amphitherium, in oolite of Stonesfleld, 138.

Andes, changes of level in, 762.
----, height of perpetual snow on, 112.
----, volcanoes of, 346.
----, sudden upheaval of, 170.
----, signs of lateral pressure in, 171.

Andesite, rock described, 347.

Angiospermous plants wanting in older rocks, 133.

Animals, extinction of, 700.
----, quantity of food required by large, 82.
----, Lamarck on production of new organs in, 568.
----, imported into America have ran wild, 585, 685.
----, aptitude of some kinds to domestication, 593, 598.
----, hereditary instincts of, 593.
----, domestic qualities of, 592, 595.
----, their acquired habits rarely transmissible, 595, 600.
----, changes in brain of foetus in, 609.
----, plants diffused by, 623.
----, their geographical distribution, 76, 77.
----, migrations of, 685.
----, causes which determine the stations of, 669, 676.
----, influence of man on their distribution, 682.
----, fossil, in peat caves, &c., 722, 725, 730, 732, 749, 752.

Anio, R., flood of the, 212.
----, travertin formed by, 244.

Anoplotherium, fossil of Isle of Wight, 142.

Antarctic circle, area still unexplored, 99.

Antwerp, sunk region near, 327.

Apennines, their relative age, 119, 124.

Aphides, account of a shower of, 656.
----, their multiplication, 673.

Aqueous causes, supposed former intensity of, 153.
----, their action described, 198.

Aqueous lavas, description of, 374, 385, 728.

Arabian Gulf filling with coral, 776.

Arabian writers, 17.

Arago, M., on influence of forests on climate, 715.
----, on solar radiation, 127.
----, on level of Mediterranean and Red Sea, 294.
----, on formation of ground ice, 221.

Araucanian tradition of a flood, 499.

Araucaria, fir in coal, 88.

Arbroath, houses, &c., swept away by sea at, 302.

Archiac, M., 257.

Arctic fauna extended farther south than now, 125.

Arduino, memoirs of, 41.
----, on submarine volcanoes, 41, 71.

Areas of elevation and subsidence proved by coral islands, 792.

Aristarchus, 212.

Aristotle, opinions of, 12.
----, on spontaneous generation, 22.
----, on deluge of Deucalion, 356.

Arkansas, R., 264.
----, floods of, 270.

Arso, volcanic eruption of, in Ischia, 365.

Artesian well at Paris, temperature of water, 234.
----, well, at Fort William, near Calcutta, 280.
----, well in delta of Po, 257.

Artesian wells near London, 234.
----, wells, phenomena brought to light by, 233, 538.

Arve, sediment transported by the, 258.
----, section of dabris deposited by, 289.

Ascension, Island of, bounded by lofty shores, 622.
----, fossil eggs of turtle from, 771.

Ashes, volcanic, transported to great distances, 106, 349, 464.

Asia, subject to earthquakes, 9.
----, coast of, changed, 18.
----, causes of extreme cold of part of, 94.
----, Minor, gain of land on coast of, 260.
----, Western, great cavity in, 692.

Ass, wild, 638, 686.

Astruc, on Delta of Rhone, 258.

Atchafalaya, R., 264.
----, drift-wood in, 267.

Atlantic, mean depth of, 104.
----, its relative level, 294.
----, rise of the tide in, 295.
----, absence of coral reefs in, 796.

Atlantis, submersion of, 9.

Atolls described, 782, 786.
----, theory of, Mr. Maclaren's objections to, 792.

Atrio del Cavallo, 381.

Aubenas, fissures filled with breccia near, 741.

Austen, Mr. R. A. C., on shores of English Channel, 319.
----, on new strata formed in, 341.

Australia, animals of, 139, 143, 684.
----, coral reefs of, 776, 784.
----, land quadrupeds of, 633.

Auvergne, salt springs in, 248.
----, carbonic acid gas disengaged in, 248.
----, state of in tertiary period, 122.
----, fossils in volcanic ashes of, 349.
----, volcanic rocks of, 48.
----, tertiary red marl and sandstone of, 158.

Ava, fossils of, 28.

Avantipura, in Cashmere, 763.

Avernus lake, 368.

Avicenna on cause of mountains, 17.

Axmouth, great landslip near, 321.

Azores, icebergs drifted to, 99.
----, volcanic line from, to central Asia, 354.
----, siliceous springs of, 246.

B.

Babbage, Mr., on the coast near Puzzuoli, 507.
----, on Temple of Serapis, 517.
----, on expansion of rocks by heat, 562.

Bachman, Mr., on birds, 643, 644.

Bacon, Lord, cited, 765.

Baden, gypseous springs of, 245.

Baffin's Bay, icebergs in, 96.

Bagnes, valley of, bursting of a lake in the, 210.

Baiae, changes on coast of the bay of, 507.
----, ground plan of the coast of, 507.
----, sections in bay of, 508, 510.

Baker, on Caspian, mud volcanoes at, 448.

Baker, Lieut., on fossil quadrumana, 144.

Bakewell, Mr., on formation of soils, 709.
----, on fall of Mount Grenier, 782.

Bakewell, Mr. jun., on Falls of Niagara, 217.

Bakie loch, charae fossil in, 767.

Baku, inflammable gas of, 11, 355.

Balaruc, thermal waters of, 259.

Baldassari, on Sienese fossils, 39.

Balize, mouth of Mississippi, 263, 272.

Baltic Sea, lowering of level of, 520.
----, drifting of rocks by ice in, 219, 231.
----, currents on its shores, 330.

Banks of Mississippi higher than alluvial plain, 266.

Baobab tree, its size, probable age, &c., 422.

Barbadoes, rain diminished by felling of forests in, 713.

Barren Island described, 447.

Barrow, Mr., on a bank formed in sea by locusts, 675.

Barrow, Mr. jun., on the Geysers of Iceland, 247.

Barton, Mr., on geography of plants, 612.

Basalt, opinions of the early writers on, 48, 71.

Batavia, effects of earthquake at, 502.

Baton Rouge, in Louisiana, 265.

Bay of Bengal, its depth, recent deposits in, &c., 279.

Bayfield, Capt., on geology of Lake Superior, 254.
----, on drifting of rock by ice, 221, 230.
----, on bursting of a peninsula by Lake Erie, 333.
----, on earthquakes in Canada, 470.

Beaches, raised, 184.

Beachey Head, 317.

Bears, once numerous in Wales, 683.
----, black, migrations of, 637.
----, drifted on ice, 679.

Beaufort, Sir F., on gain of land in Asia Minor, 260.
----, on rise of tides, 291.

Beaumont, M. Elie de, geological map of France, 122.
----, on pentagonal network of mountain chains, 170.
----, his theory of contemporaneous origin of parallel
mountain chains considered, 163.
----, on structure and origin of Etna, 400, 416.
----, on sand-dunes, 307.
----, on inroads of sea in Holland, 327.

Beaver once inhabited Scotland and Wales, 683.
----, fossil in Perthshire, 752.
----, lake formed by, in New Brunswick, 716.

Beche, Sir H. de la. See De la Beche.

Bee, migrations of the, 655.

Beechey, Capt., upheaval of Bay of Conception, 500.
----, on drifting of canoes, 662.
----, on temple of Ipsambul, 727.
----, on coral islands, 780, 782, 787.
----, on changes of level in Pacific, 788.
----, on dead coral in Elizabeth Island, 794.

Beila, in India, mud volcanoes, 449.

Belcher, Sir E., on upheaval of Conception, 500.
----, on strata forming off coast of Africa, 774.

Bell, Mr., on the Dog, 585.

Bell rock, stones thrown up by storms on, 302.

Belzoni, on temple of Ipsambul, 726.
----, on a flood of the Nile, 753.

Benin, currents in Bay of, 292.

Barard, M., on depth and temperature of Mediterranean, 296, 336.

Berkeley, on recent origin of man, 764.

Bermudas, only coral reef far out in Atlantic, 796.
----, coral reefs of the, 776, 778.

Bewick cited, 310, 643, 683.

Bhooj, in Cutch, destroyed by earthquake, 459.
----, volcanic eruption at, 460, 729.

Bies Bosch formed, 328.

Bigsby, Dr., on North American lakes, 768.

Birds, diffusion of plants by, 624.
----, geographical distribution of, 642, 663.
----, fossils in secondary rocks, 137.
----, tameness of, in uninhabited Islands, 597.
----, rate of flight of, 644.
----, migrations of, 643.
----, recent extermination of some species of, 683.
----, bones of, in Gibraltar breccia, 741.
----, rarity of their remains in new strata, 748.
----, rare in deposits of all ages, 137.

Bischoff, Professor, on volcanoes, 551.
----, on carbonic acid in extinct craters on Rhine, 248.

Biscoe, Capt., discoveries in south Polar Seas, 99.

Bison, fossil, in Yorkshire, 76.

Bisons, in Mississippi valley, 636.

Bistineau lake, 269.

Bitumen, oozing from bottom of sea, near Trinidad, 250.

Bituminous springs, 250.

Black Sea, salt by evaporation in, 335.
----, _See_ Euxine.

Blue mountains in Jamaica, 505.

Bluffs of Mississippi described, 264.

Boa constrictor, migration of, 646.

Boase, Mr., on inroads of sea in Cornwall, 323.
----, on drift-sand in Cornwall, 728.

Boblaye, M., on ceramique, in Morea, 731.
----, on engulfed rivers and caves in Morea, 734.
----, on earthquakes in Greece, 736.

Bog iron-ore, whence derived, 722.

Bogota, earthquake of, 457.

Bonpland, on plants common to Old and New World, 614.

Bore, a tidal wave frequent in Bristol Channel and Ganges, 332.

Bory de St. Vincent, M., on isle of Santorin, 445.

Bosphorus, 334.
----, traditions of deluges on shores of the, 356.

Botanical evidence bearing on theory of progressive development, 133.
----, geography, 613.
----, provinces, their number, 616, 666, 668.

Bothnia, Gulf, gradual elevation of coast of, 520.

Bourbon, island, volcanic, 546.

Bournmouth, submarine forest at, 746.

Boussingault. M., on volcanoes in Andes, 348.
----, on gases evolved by volcanoes, 549.

Bowen, Lieut., on drifting of rocks by ice, 220, 230.

Boyle, on bottom of the sea, 26.

Bracini, on Vesuvius before 1631, 374.

Brahmapootra, delta of, 275, 278.

Brahmins, their doctrines, 4.

Brander, on fossils of Hampshire, 46.

Brandt, Professor, cited, 80.
----, on Wilui rhinoceros, 80.

Bravais, M., on upraised sea-coast in Finmark, 530.

Breccias, in Val del Bove, 411.
----, in caves now forming in the Morea, 734.

Brenta, delta of the, 256.

Brieslak, on temple of Serapis, 517.
----, on Vesuvius, 381, 384.

Briggs, Mr., his discovery of water in African desert, 235.

Brighton, waste of cliffs of, 317.

Brine springs, 247.

Bristol Channel, currents in, 293.

Brittany, village, buried under blown sand, 727.
----, marine tertiary strata of, 122.
----, waste of coast of, 324.

Brocchi, on fossil conchology, 20.
----, on Burnet's theory, 34.
----, on delta of Po, 257.
----, on extinction of species, 668.
----, on the Subapennines, 118.

Broderip, Mr., on opossum of Stonesfield, 139.
----, on shells from Conception Bay, 500.
----, on bulimi revived, 650.
----, on moulting of crabs, 653.
----, on naturalization of a foreign landshell, 664.
----, on the Dodo, 684.

Brongniart, M. Adolphe, 87.
----, on fossil plants of coal, 88, 117, 133.
----, on plants in islands, 112.

Brongniart, M. Alex., on modern lava streams, 427.
----, on elevated beaches in Sweden, 527.

Brown, Mr. R., on structure of vessels in myzodendron, 88.
----, on plants common to Africa, Guiana, and

Brazil, 621.
----, on wheat in Egyptian tombs, 587.

Buch. _See_ Von Buch.

Buckland, Rev. Dr., on landslip near Axmouth, 321.
----, on fossil elephants, &c., in India, 7.
----, on fossils from Eschscholtz's Bay, 82.
----, on fossils in caves and fissures, 739, 740.
----, on Val del Bove, 402.

Buffon, his theory of the earth, 39.
----, reproved by the Sorbonne, 39.
----, on geographical distribution of animals, 590, 612, 629.
----, on extinction of species, 701.

Buist, Mr., on submarine forests in the estuary of Tay, 303.
----, on mud volcanoes in India, 448.

Bunbury, Mr., on coal plants of Alabama, 88.
----, on ferns in carboniferous era, 87.

Bunsen, Chevalier, on Ancient Egypt, 659.

Bunsen, Professor, on Geysers of Iceland, 558.
----, on mineral springs in Iceland, 246.
----, on mud volcanoes of Iceland, 447.
----, on solfataras of Iceland, 551.

Bunter Sandstein, fossils of, 193.

Bura, submerged Grecian town, 15, 762.

Buried cones on Etna, section of, 397.
----, temples of Cashmere, 762.

Burnes, Sir A., on Cutch, earthquake of, 461, 464.

Burnet, his theory of the earth, 31.

Burntisland, whale cast ashore near, 771.

Burrampooter, R., delta of the, 275. _See_ Brahmapootra.
----, bodies of men, deer, &c. floated off by, 751.

Bustards recently extirpated in England, 688.

C.

Calabria, geological description of, 474.
----, earthquake of 1783 in, 471.
----, tertiary strata of, 74.

Calanna, lava of Etna turned from its course by hill of, 409, 410.
----, valley of, 402, 404.

Calcareous springs, 239.

Calcutta, artesian well at, 280.

Caldcleugh, Mr., on earthquake in Chili, 1835, 453.
----, on eruption of Coseguina, 349.

California, volcanoes in, 349.

Callao town destroyed by sea, 502.
----, changes caused by earthquakes at, 501, 761.

Camels, carcasses of, imbedded in drift sand, 727.

Campagna di Roma, calcareous deposits of, 242.

Campania, aqueous lavas in, 728.

Camper, on facial angle, 608.

Canada, earthquakes frequent in, 470.
----, climate of, 582.
----, probably colder in newest tertiary period, 125.

Canary Islands, eruptions in, 436.

Cannon in calcareous rock, 759.
----, account of one taken up near the Downs, 726.

Canoes drifted to great distances, 661.
----, fossil, 759.

Cape May, encroachment of sea at, 332.
----, of Good Hope, icebergs seen off, 100.

Capocci, M., on temple of Serapis, 518.

Caraccas, earthquakes in, 465, 470.

Carang Assam volcano, 465.

Carbonated springs, 248.

Carbonic acid, supposed atmosphere of, 248.
----, gas, its effects on rocks, 249.

Carboniferous series, 115, 137.
----, era, predominance of ferns in, 87.
----, era, climate in, 87.
----, flora, knowledge of, recently acquired, 126.
----, period, vast duration of, 249.
----, _See_ Coal.

Cardiganshire, tradition of loss of land in, 324.

Cardium, locomotive powers when young, 652.

Caribbean Sea, tides in, 342.

Carpenter, Dr., observations on Mississippi R., 272.
----, on encroachment of sea at Lyme Regis, 321.

Carrara marble, 177.

Cashmere, temples buried in freshwater strata, 762.

Caspian, Pallas on former extent of, 45.
----, evaporation of the, 260.
----, its level, 156, 692.

Catalonia, devastation of torrents in, 713.

Catania, in part overwhelmed by lava, 400, 728.
----, destroyed by earthquakes, 503.
----, tools discovered in digging a well at, 753.

Catastrophes, theories respecting, 7.

Catcott, on deluges in different countries, 42.

Cattegat, devastations caused by current in the, 331.

Cautley, Capt., on buried Hindoo town, 731.
----, on fossil quadrumana, 144.
----, on bones in ancient wells, 740.

Caves, organic remains in, 732.
----, alternations of, and stalagmite in, 736.
----, on Etna, 401.

Celestial Mountains, 77, 355.

Celsius, on diminution of Baltic, 33, 521.

Central America, volcanoes of, 349.
----, Asia, volcanic line from, to the Azores, 354.
----, France, lavas excavated in, 213.
----, France, comparison between the lavas of Iceland and, 426, 427.

Centres, specific doctrine of, 630.

Centrifugal force, 534, 544.

Cephalonia, earthquakes in, 474.
----, infusoria in submarine caverns in, 389.

Cesalpino, on organic remains, 22.

Cetacea, geographical range of, 635.
----, migrations of the, 642.
----, imbedding of, in recent strata, 770.
----, fossil, absence of in secondary rocks, 145.
----, fossil in New Jersey chalk, 145.
----, rarity of in secondary rocks, 145.

Chagos coral isles, 783.

Chaluzet, calcareous spring at, 239.
----, volcanic cone of, 248.

Chambers, Robert, cited, 530.

Chamisso, M., on coral islands, 781.

Chamouni, glaciers of, 223.

Chara, growing in lakes of N. America, 768.