Chapter XXXI: Section C: Proboscis short, not formed for (3)

[These puparia are often found in masses at the base of trees,
in hollows in trees and rocks just buried under vegetal debris.
These insects are generally confined to definite tracts known as
“fly-belts.” They usually occur in damp, hot places on the borders
of rivers and lakes, and never far from water in the case of the
_palpalis_ group, although others of the _morsitans_ group may be
found a considerable distance from water. They are usually absent
on grass plains, but may now and then occur there (Kinghorn, _vide_
Hindles’ “Flies and Disease, Blood-sucking Flies,” 1914, p. 274);
cover of trees, shrubs, or thick reeds is essential to them.

[Their range in Africa extends roughly from 18° N. to 31° S.

[_Glossina palpalis_ is the chief carrier of the more prevalent type
of sleeping sickness. Two distinct types of parasites can produce
this disease, _viz._, _Trypanosoma gambiense_, which produces the
ordinary sleeping sickness, transmitted by _G. palpalis_, and
_Trypanosoma rhodesiense_ the Rhodesian or Nyasaland sleeping
sickness, transmitted by _G. morsitans_, and possibly identical with
_T. brucei_, the parasite of N’agana. Koch has also shown that _G.
pallidipes_, Austen, and _G. fusca_, Walker, can be artificially
infected with the human trypanosome. It appears probable that
Koch used _G. brevipalpis_, not _G. fusca_, in his transmission
experiments, as at that time fusca included nearly all the large
tsetses, but _brevipalpis_ is its Eastern representative.

[A TABLE OF SPECIES (modified after Austen) is appended here:--

I.

_Glossina palpalis_ GROUP.

1. Dorsum of abdomen ochraceous buff or buff;
third and following segments exhibiting
sharply defined, dark brown or clove brown,
interrupted transverse bands _tachinoides_, Westwood.
Dorsum of abdomen not so marked 2.

2. Third joint of antennæ pale (cream buff to
ochraceous buff), clothed with long and
fine hair, forming a conspicuous fringe on
front and hind margins _pallicera_, Bigot.
Third joint of antennæ entirely dark
(mouse-grey) except at extreme base on
outer side, and without a conspicuous
fringe of long and fine hair 3.

3. Dorsal surface of abdomen dark sepia brown;
median paler area on second segment broad,
and more or less quadrate or irregular in
outline; hypopygium of ♂ buff or ochraceous
buff _caliginea_, Austen.
Dorsal surface of abdomen blackish-brown;
median paler area cuneate (i.e., triangular
in outline); hypopygium of ♂ grey _palpalis_, Rob. Desv.

II.

_Glossina morsitans_ GROUP.

1. Hind tarsi entirely dark; small slender
species; abdomen bright ochreous or reddish
ochreous with dark lateral markings _austenii_, Newstead.
Hind tarsi not entirely dark; abdomen drab-
grey, buff or ochreous buff with conspicu-
ous dark interrupted transverse bands 2.

2. Last two joints of front and middle tarsi
with sharply defined clove brown or black
tips 3.
Last two joints of front and middle tarsi
without sharply defined clove brown or black
tips (front and middle tarsi either entirely
pale or, at most, two joints of front tarsi
faintly brownish at the tips), and last
joint and distal half of penultimate joint
of middle tarsi light brown, never so dark
as to form a sharp contrast with the
remaining joints _pallidipes_, Austen.

3. Third joint of antennæ with a distinct fringe
of fine hair on front margin; dark brown or
clove-brown bands on abdominal segments
extending close to hind margins (_i.e._,
pale ground colour, apart from the median
interspace, confined to a very narrow hind
border) _longipalpis_, Wiedeman.
Third joint of antennæ without a distinct
fringe of fine hair on front margin; dark
brown or clove-brown bands on abdominal
segments not extending close to hind margins _morsitans_, Westwood.

III.

_Glossina fusca_ GROUP.

1. Third joint of antennæ fringed with fine hair
on anterior and posterior margins; fringe on
anterior margin conspicuous under a hand
lens magnifying 15 diameters (nominal)
when head is viewed in profile 2.
Third joint of antennæ with fringe of fine
hair on anterior margin so short as to be
scarcely noticeable under a hand lens magni-
fying 15 diameters (nominal) when head is
viewed in profile (longest hairs in fringe
in length not exceeding one-sixth of width
of third joint); palpi long and slender 3.

2. Longest hairs in fringe on front margin of
third joint of antennæ, in length equal to
from one-fourth to one-third (not exceeding
one-third) of width of third joint; palpi
of moderate length _tabaniformis_, Westwood.
Longest hairs in fringe on front margin of
third joint of antennæ in length equal to
from one-half to three-fourths of width of
third joint; palpi noticeably long and
slender _nigrofusca_, Newstead.

3. Pleuræ drab-grey or isabella-coloured, hind
coxæ buff or greyish-buff _fusca_, Walker.
Pleuræ dark grey; hind coxæ mouse-grey _fuscipleuris_, Austen.

IV.

_Glossina brevipalpis_ GROUP.

1. Dorsum of thorax with four sharply defined
brown, more or less oval or elongate spots,
arranged in a parallelogram, two in front
and two behind the transverse suture;
proboscis bulb with a sharply defined brown
or dark brown tip _longipennis_, Corti.
Dorsum of thorax without such spots;
proboscis bulb not brown or dark brown at
tip 2.
Wings with upper thickened portion of anterior
transverse vein much darker in colour than
adjacent veins and thus standing out con-
spicuously against the rest of the wing _brevipalpis_, Newstead.
Wings with upper, thickened portion of
anterior transverse vein not much darker
in colour than adjacent veins, and thus
not standing out conspicuously against the
rest of the wings (wings practically
unicolorous) _medicorum_, Austen.[424]

[424] Newstead has recently described another species as _G. severini_ (_Ann. Trop. Med. and Par._, 1913, vii, No. 2, pp. 331–334). It is allied to _G. fuscipleuris_, Austen.

*Glossina palpalis*, Rob. Desv.

[This is the chief carrier of sleeping sickness in Nature. It
is found in places over the whole of West Africa from the mouth
of the Senegal River to Angola, and extends eastwards into the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. The eastern boundary follows the valley of the Nile
and includes the eastern shores of Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika;
from the southern end of the lake the boundary tends south-west,
approximately following the frontier between North-eastern Rhodesia
and the Congo Free State, and passing through the Katanga district
of the latter country into Angola (Austen). It may occur up to
3,000 ft.; but, according to Bagshawe, it has not been recorded above
4,000 ft. It feeds on the blood of many animals, including reptiles,
amphibia, birds, and even amphibious fishes, as well as all the wild
mammals. It seems, however, to possess a decided predilection for
man, and undoubtedly thrives better upon mammals and birds than upon
cold-blooded animals.

[It is not usually found far from water, requiring a humid atmosphere
and temperature of about 85° F. (shade). But a marked seasonal
distribution is shown, the flies considerably extending their range
during the rainy season, and thus visiting districts which are
dry for the greater part of the year; as the rains diminish the
fly gradually leaves the temporary haunts and returns to the more
permanent ones. It bites only by day, and then only in sunny weather,
and usually lives in shade.

[Roubaud has shown that the first larva produced is about three
weeks after copulation, and that others are produced at an interval
of nine or ten days. The puparium stage is rapidly produced after
the expulsion of the larva, often in three-quarters of an hour. The
puparium stage lasts from thirty-two to thirty-five days. The puparia
occur in well-drained humus close to water, sheltered by trees or
bushes, in crevices in rocks, and between the exposed roots of trees,
sometimes in sand.

[Bruce has shown that only a very small percentage of flies fed
experimentally on infected animals ultimately become infective, and
that the infectivity of this small percentage depends upon a delayed
infection of the salivary glands.

[A variety, _wellmani_ of Austen, is found in Angola, Gambia, the
Katanga district of the Congo Free State, the Matondwi Islands of
Tanganyika, etc.

*Glossina morsitans*, Westwood.

[This species has been shown by Kinghorn and Yorke, and also by
Bruce, to be responsible for the transmission of _Trypanosoma
rhodesiense_, the micro-organism producing sleeping sickness in man
in Rhodesia and Nyasaland and also in parts of German and Portuguese
East Africa. Fisher and Taute have demonstrated experimentally
that _Trypanosoma gambiense_--the sleeping sickness parasite of
other parts of Africa--may also be transmitted by this fly, and in
addition it is known to be capable of disseminating several species
of trypanosomes pathogenic to animals. Of these, _T. brucei_ (=? _T.
rhodesiense_), the parasite of tsetse disease, first incriminated by
Bruce, is perhaps the most important.

[It is the most widely spread of all tsetse-flies; its range
extends from Senegambia in the north-west to Southern Kordofan and
Southern Abyssinia in the north-east, and then southwards to the
Bechuanaland Protectorate, North-eastern Transvaal and Zululand. The
actual localities given by Austen are Gambia, French Guinea, Gold
Coast, Togoland, Dahomey, Northern Nigeria, Congo Free State, the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, the Uganda Protectorate, German East Africa, and
Portuguese East Africa.

[This species is confined to “belts,” often of very limited extent,
and appears to prefer regions where there is sufficient vegetation
for moderate but not excessive cover and a hot, moderately dry
climate. It is not nearly so dependent upon water as is _G.
palpalis_, and generally is most active in a dry atmosphere; some
observers, however, state that in certain districts it is more common
along the banks and edges of rivers. This tsetse-fly has been taken
as high as 5,500 ft. altitude. It infests native villages as well
as the bush. Like other tsetse-flies it bites not only during the
hottest part of the day, but also on bright warm moonlight nights,
and it feeds on the blood of all mammals.

[The structure of the male genitalia of those representatives of _G.
morsitans_ occurring on the West Coast of Africa and in parts of the
Soudan presents certain constant differences from that of the typical
form of this species; this form is known as _G. morsitans_, race
_submorsitans_, Newst.

Genus. *Stomoxys*, Geoffroy.

[The members of this genus which occur in temperate and tropical
countries are provided with a hard, slender, shiny black proboscis
which projects horizontally from beneath the head; by means of this
structure they can bite severely. In general appearance they resemble
house flies, but the proboscis at once distinguishes them. In many
parts of Britain they are known as storm flies on account of their
frequent appearance indoors previous to a storm of rain or wind,
which I have invariably found to be correct; they are also called
stinging flies. In colour they are greyish, dusky or brownish-grey
or black, varying from 5 to 7 mm. in length; the thorax has dark
longitudinal stripes and the abdomen dark spots or bands. In the male
the eyes are closer together than in the female. These flies usually
occur in stables and farmyards, along woods and in lanes, and mainly
attack mammals.

[One species (_Stomoxys calcitrans_, Linnæus) occurs practically all
over the world. The female lays her eggs in moist, warm, decaying
vegetation; as many as eighty may be laid by a single female. The
ova are white, banana-shaped, with a broad groove on the shorter
curvature; they may hatch in two or three days. The creamy-white
larva tapers to a point at the head end, and is truncated at the
tail end. Two black mouth hooks are plainly visible at the cephalic
extremity. There are two plates on the posterior surface of the last
segment which bear the respiratory pores, nearly circular in outline.
It reaches maturity in fourteen to twenty-one days; when mature it
is 11 mm. long. The pupal stage is passed in the old larva skin and
lasts from nine to thirteen days; it is barrel-shaped, 5 to 8 mm.
long, and of a bright reddish-brown to dark chestnut-brown colour.

[This insect may act as a carrier of anthrax, and has been proved to
be the agent of an extensive epidemic of malignant pustule in the
Isle of Pines, New Caledonia.[425]

[425] _Bull. des Séances de la Soc. ent. de France_, 1878, pp. cxliv, cxlv.

[Noè’s[426] experiments tend to show that it is an intermediate host
and transmitter of _Filaria labiato-papillosa_ of the ox.

[426] _Atti della Reale Accad. dei Lincei, Anno CCC. Se Quinta_, 1903, xii, 2 sem. fasc., pp. 387–393.

[Surra is generally stated to be transmitted by Stomoxys as well
as Tabanus, and yet Nitzman in the Philippines obtained uniformly
negative results in exhaustive experiments. Others have also been
unsuccessful. Certainly Stomoxys can transmit the disease in French
West Africa (Bonet and Roubaud), and mechanically has been proved
to be capable of disseminating other trypanosomes (experimentally):
sleeping sickness (_T. gambiense_); nagana (_T. brucei_); souma (_T.
cazalboui_); and el debat (_T. soudanense_).

[_S. calcitrans_ may also be a carrier of poliomyelitis (Rosenau and
Brues, _Harvard Alumni Bulletin_, 1912, xv, No. 9, pp. 140–142).
Several species are now known (_S. brunnipes_, Grünb.; _S. inornata_,
Grünb.; _S. nigra_, Macq.; _S. omega_, Newst.; _S. ochrosoma_,
Speiser, etc.).

Genus. *Lyperosia*, Rondani.

[A genus of small flies which bite man and animals, but are not so
far connected with the transmission of any disease in man, but in
Java it appears to carry surra (P. Schat, _Meeledeel Praefstation
Oost-Java_, 1903, 3e ser., No. 44), the species being _Lyperosia
exigua_, Meijere. These flies can be told from Stomoxys by the palpi
being broader, flattened laterally, and as long, or nearly so, as the
proboscis. When not feeding the palpi enclose the proboscis, as in
Glossina. They are usually about half the size of Stomoxys, and are
the smallest blood-sucking _Muscidæ_. They frequently swarm around
and upon domesticated animals.

[The life-history of the horn fly in America (_L. irritans_, Linn.)
is well known. It lays its ova singly in freshly dropped cow-dung,
and there the maggots feed, pupating in the soil beneath.

[Patton and Cragg also give some details as to the life-history of
_Liperosia exigua_ (“Medical Entomology,” p. 375) as follows: “_L.
exigua_, whose habits have been observed in Madras, usually lays
twelve eggs at a time. The flies immediately return to the cow and
the process is repeated when the dung is again dropped. The larvæ
migrate from the dung when about to pupate, and the puparia are
always found in the earth at some distance away or under the sides of
the patch of dung. The fly usually hatches out in five days, though
sometimes as late as the eighth. Weiss has studied the life-history
of _irritans_ var. _weisii_ from Algeria; its larval stage lasts five
days, and the flies hatch out of the puparia in another five days.”

[The other biting genera of _Muscidæ_, Hæmatobia, Hæmatobosca,
Bdellolarynx, Stygeromyia, and Philæmatomyia, although sometimes
annoying to man, have not in any way been connected with any disease.

[The horse fly (_Hæmatobia irritans_, L.[427]) attacks cattle
chiefly, but now and then man is bitten. The different species can be
told from Stomoxys by the palpi being nearly as long as the proboscis.

[427] This is apparently the _stimulans_ of Meigen.

[The genus *Philæmatomyia*, Austen, is intermediate between Stomoxys
and Musca in structure, and between the non-blood-sucking Musca, as
_M. domestica_, and the blood-sucking _Musca pattoni_, Austen, which
feeds on the blood exuding from the bites of true blood-suckers. They
occur in Central Africa and India, Ceylon and Cyprus (_vide_ “The
Life-history of _Philæmatomyia insignis_, Austen,” _Ann. Trop. Med.
and Par._, 1912, v, p. 515).

[Two flies belonging to the family *Anthomyidæ* also attack man,
namely:--

[_Hydrotæa meteorica_, L. (the meteoric fly). This fly attacks man as
well as animals. They especially bite around the eyes and nostrils
of animals, but are not so particular with man; the head, however,
is usually chosen. Linnæus called it the meteoric fly because it
often forms clouds around horses’ heads at the approach of rain. The
Hydrotæas are usually black or blue-black in colour with bare eyes
and simple abdomen, the front femora peculiarly constructed. _H.
meteorica_, L., occurs in Britain.

[The members of the genus Hydrophoria, Desvoidy, also bite man.

*Pupipara* or *Eproboscidæ*.

[The _Pupipara_ are all blood-suckers, the majority occurring as
parasites on mammals and birds, where they are more or less permanent
parasites. Occasionally some may attack man. They all produce their
young fully formed, and they assume the pupal stage immediately
after extrusion. The puparia are large. They are mostly flat,
louse-like flies which may or may not be winged. In the case of
Melophagus I have found the puparia are often passed by the female.
The winged forms have a short quick flight, and when disturbed will
seek shelter in man’s hair or beard. Two main families occur: (1)
the _Hippoboscidæ_, and (2) the _Nycteribiidæ_. The former occur on
animals and birds, the latter on bats only, but may invade man. Two
other families are known--the _Braulidæ_ (bee parasites) and the
_Streblidæ_ (bat parasites).

[The mouth of the _Hippoboscidæ_ is long and sharp, forming a
proboscis. The thorax and abdomen are flat and leathery. The legs
are stout and strong, and terminate in large dentate claws and other
structures of use in holding on to the hair or feathers of their host
when blood-sucking.

[Austen says it is probable that the _Hippoboscidæ_ are descended
from ancestors belonging to the _Muscidæ_, which underwent
modification in bodily structure as the consequence of the adoption
of a parasitic mode of life.

[Two wings are present in the true Hippoboscæ, _Hippobosca equina_
(of the horse), _H. camelina_ (of the camel), _H. maculata_ (of
oxen), and _H. capensis_ (of dogs), but are absent in Melophagus, the
sheep tick or ked fly (_M. ovinus_).

[In two genera, Lipoptena and Echestypus, wings are at first present,
but are lost as soon as the fly finds its permanent host.

[With regard to their biting man, such is only occasional. I have
known sheep shearers to be badly bitten by _Melophagus ovinus_, and
have more than once been attacked myself when standing where shearing
is taking place. Sharp records the grouse parasite, _Ornithomyia
lagopodis_, as once biting severely a gamekeeper in Scotland. There
are also records of _H. maculata_ biting man in Africa and India.

[Although so far not connected with any human disease, it is
interesting to note Theiler has shown that _Hippobosca rufipes_,
v. Olfers, and _H. maculata_, Leach, are capable of transmitting
_Trypanosoma theileri_, Laveran, the cause of gall sickness amongst
cattle in the Transvaal. It is now considered, however, that
_Trypanosoma theileri_ is non-pathogenic, and that the cause of
gall sickness is a piroplasma-like organism known as _Anaplasma
marginale_. Theiler, Laveran and Mesnil all hold this view (_vide_
Laveran and Mesnil, “Trypanosomes and Trypanosomiases,” second
edition, 1912, p. 330).

[_Lynchia._--Three members of this genus have been shown to transmit
the non-pathogenic (?) organism, _Hæmoproteus columbæ_ amongst
pigeons in Algeria and S. America.

Insects and Epidemic Poliomyelitis.

[In a recent number of the _Journal of Economic Entomology_,[428]
Brues and Sheppard point out the possibility of acute epidemic
poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis) being an insect-borne disease.
They summarize as follows:--

[428] Charles T. Brues and Philip A. E. Sheppard, “The Possible Etiological Relation of certain Biting Insects to the Spread of Infantile Paralysis,” _Journ. Econ. Ent._, 1912, cciv, pp. 305–324.

[Many facts connected with the distribution of cases and the spread
of epidemics of this disease with histories of insects bites, suggest
at least that the disease may be insect-borne. Field work during
the past summer, together with a consideration of the epidemiology
of the disease so far known, points strongly towards biting flies
as possible carriers of the virus. It seems probable that the
common stable fly (_Stomoxys calcitrans_, L.) may be responsible to
a certain extent for the spread of acute epidemic poliomyelitis,
possibly aided by other biting flies such as _Tabanus lineola_. No
facts which disprove such a hypothesis have as yet been adduced, and
experiments based upon it are now in progress.

[If the disease should prove to be common to any species of domestic
animals, as is now strongly suspected, a secondary connection of
ticks in spreading the disease among such animals seems probable, as
has been mentioned.

[The following is some of the more important literature on
_Diptera_ in general: Meigen, J. W., “Syst. Besch. d. bek. europ.
zweiflügligen insecten,” 1818–1838, 7 vols.; Brauer, F., “Monographie
der Oestriden,” Wien, 1863; _Idem_, “Nachtr. hiersu,” _Wien. ent.
Zeit._, 1887, vi, pp. 4, 71; Schiner, J. R., “Fauna austriaca: die
Fliegen,” Wien, 1860–64; Löw, Fr., “Ueber Myiasis und ihre Erzeuger,”
_Wien. med. Wochenschr._, 1882, xxii, p. 247; 1883, xxxiii, p. 972;
Joseph, G., “Ueb. Fliegen als Schädlinge und Parasiten des Menschen,”
_Deutsch. med. Zeit._, 1885, i, p. 37; 1887, iii, pp. 713 and 725;
Peiper, E., “Fliegenlarven als gelegentl. Paras. d. Mensch.,” Berlin,
1900; Theobald, F. V., “Monograph of the Culicidæ of the World,”
1901–1911, 5 vols. and 1 atlas, plates; Austen, E., “A Monograph
of Glossina Tsetse-flies,” 1903, 1 vol.; Van der Wulp, “Diptera
neerlandica,” 1877; Walker, “Insecta Britannica: Diptera,” 1851–53
and 1856; Lundbeck, “Diptera danica,” 1907–12; Zetterstedt, “Diptera
scandinaviæ,” 1850; Theobald, “British Flies,” 1892; Aldrich, “N.
American Diptera,” 1905; Loew and Osten Sacken, “Monographs of the N.
American Diptera,” 1862–63 and 1869; Macquart, “Diptera exotique,”
1830–47; Rondani, “Diptera exotica et Italica,” 1863–68; Williston,
“Manual of Families and Genera of N. American Diptera,” second
edition; Verrall, “British Flies.” A fuller literature will be found
in Peiper, as well as in Huber’s “Bibliographie d. klin. Ent.,” 1899,
iii, Jena, in the Bibliography at the end of this work and in the
_Rev. of App. Ent._ (Dulau and Co., London), where all references to
modern research can be found.--F. V. T.]

ADDENDA.

*Akamushi or Kedani Sickness* (_vide_ also p. 487).--Schuffner (Far East. Assoc. Trop. Med., _Compt. rend. Trois. Cong. Biennial_, 1913, Saigon, 1914, pp. 309–315) states he observed a peculiar fever in Deli, Sumatra, somewhat resembling typhoid. This he traced either to a mite or tick. He figures the possible carriers, namely, a Trombidium and _Cheyletidæ_. He calls this disease pseudo-typhus--a variant of Japanese kedani sickness, which, he says, also occurs in the Philippines.

*Ticks.*--AFRICAN TICK FEVER: Marzinovsky (_Proc. of Conference of Bacteriologists and Representatives of Medical Sanitary Authorities on the Campaign against Infectious Diseases in connection with the War, Soc. Russ. Physicians in mem. Pirosov_, Moscow, 1915, pp. 56–68), states that African tick fever has been imported into Persia, and that it is there carried by _Ornithodorus tholosani_.

TICK PARALYSIS: Todd (“Paralysis and Tick-bite,” _Can. Med. Assoc. Journ._, 1914, iv, No. 9, pp. 825–826) refers to paralysis ascribed to the bites of ticks in children, and possibly adults, in America, British Columbia and Australia. He states that a young child, perfectly well one day, has more or less complete paresis or paralysis on the next, fever, a rapid pulse, and other constitutional symptoms. The child may be dull and stupid, and may have convulsions. If the tick is not found and removed the child may die, but if it is removed, the symptoms disappear and recovery is complete in a few hours. The tick must be entirely removed.

*Diptera.*--PSYCHODIDÆ: Bolt (_China Med. Journ._, Shanghai, xxix, No. 2, pp. 78–86) states that sand-flies (Plebotomus) and the fever due to them are common in North China, May and June being the worst months. The natives of the region appear to be immune, but all others suffer. Old ruined buildings are the favourite haunts of the Phlebotomus. The species of Phlebotomus has not been determined.

*Pulicidæ.*--DERMATOPHILUS (SARCOPSYLLA) PENETRANS, OR THE “JIGGER.”--This flea (_vide_ p. 544) is believed by Lama (_Giorn. Ital. Mal. Ven._, Milan, 1914, xlix, pp. 465–472) frequently to carry leprosy and he points out that the early lesions of leprosy usually appear on the uncovered parts of the body. This flea also attacks rats.

*Brachycera.*--LEPTIDÆ (_vide_ p. 603): White, A. (“The _Diptera-Brachycera_ of Tasmania,” part I, _Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. of Tasmania_ for 1914, 1915, pp. 35–74), describes a new blood-sucking Leptid, _Spaniopsis tabaniformis_, which resembles a small gad fly (Tabanus) in appearance.

_Pycnosoma putorium_: This is believed by Roubaud (“Les Producteurs de Myiases et Agents similaires chez l’homme et les animaux,” Paris, 1914, part I) to be largely concerned in the spread of amœbic dysentery in French West Africa.

_Lucilia argyrocephala_, Macquart: This green-bottle fly is described by Roubaud as producing myiasis in Africa (“Les Producteurs de Myiases et Agents similaires chez l’homme et les animaux,” 1914, Paris, part I). It attacks ulcers and sores in man and animals.

_Auchmeromyia luteola_, Fabr.: Schwetz (_Ann. Trop. Med. and Par._, 1914, viii, No. 3, pp. 497–507), collected a large quantity of this insect at Kabinda. He placed them in flasks with sand and a few days later they pupated, and in fifteen days several flies hatched out. The larval period varies from an unknown minimum up to several months. The larva may live for at least two months without food. A female oviposited on the 17th, and on the 18th one larva hatched. The pupal stage seems to last eight to fifteen days. The larvæ appear to bite by day as well as night according to native information.

_Cordylobia anthropophaga_, Grünb.: Roubaud (“Etudes sur la Faune parasitaire de l’Afrique occidentale française,” part I, “Les Producteurs des Myiases et Agents similaires chez l’homme et les animaux,” Paris, 1914) gives the life-history of this species. One fly laid 150 ova in a glass vessel, on the sides, and on some rotten fruit, and died the following day. He found that fifteen larvæ just hatched placed on sand in a glass vessel with a guinea-pig gave rise to characteristic tumours on the ventral surface of the body and the anus. Other experiments failed. It thus seems that infection takes place from larvæ which have hatched apart from the host. Infection of man is regarded as accidental; no positive infection of horses, oxen, sheep or pigs is known--it is rare in goats, and poultry never seem to be attacked. The result of experiments tends to show that the apparent choice of a host is mainly a question of body temperature. The larva, whether freshly emerged or eight to ten days old, penetrates the skin immediately, boring obliquely between the epidermis and dermis. Once removed from the tumour the maggot cannot bore again. The first moult takes place about three days after penetration, and the total period of residence in the host is seven to eight days. Upon emerging the larva falls to the ground and buries itself. In two or three days it pupates and this stage lasts no longer than twenty days. High temperatures, such as 95° F., appear to be fatal.

*Myiasis.*--Coates, G. M., “A Case of Myiasis Aurium accompanying the Radical Mastoid Operation,” _Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc._, Chicago, Ill., 1914, lxiii, pp. 479–480: Apparently _C. macellaria_, forty to fifty coming away with the gauze after the operation.

Huber, G. U., and Flack, F. L., “An Unusual Case of Screw-worms in the Nose and Nasal Accessory Sinuses,” _Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc._, Chicago, 1914, lxiii, pp. 2288–2289.

*Auricular Myiasis.*--Francaviglia, M. C., “An cora sulla myiasi auricolare,” _Boll. Sedute Accad. Gioenia_, Catania, 1914, No. 31, pp. 15–23. This writer mentions the following parasites in the human ear: _Sarcophaga carnaría_, L.; _Wohlfartia magnifica_, Schiner; _Chrysomyia macellaria_, F.; _Calliphora vomitoria_, L.; and _Anthomyia pluvialis_, L. He refers to a severe myiasis in Russia, due to a fly variously recorded as _Sarcophaga wohlfarti_, Rond.; _S. ruralis_, Meig.; or _Sarcophila meigeni_, Portsch. These are all probably synonyms of _W. magnifica_. _Chrysomyia macellaria_, in Central America and South America, is quite as harmful as _S. carnaria_, causing perforation of the tympanum and meningitis. _Lucilia nobilis_ and _L. cæsar_ have also been incriminated. Of the sub-family _Anthomyinæ_, the larvæ of _Fannia scalaris_, Meig., _F. canicularis_, Meig., _F. incisurata_, Zett, and _Hydrotæa meteorica_, L., are chiefly associated with myiasis. He recommends, if the larvæ are outside the tympanum, an injection of chloroform vapour by a few drops of water saturated with chloroform, by an emulsion of 5 per cent. carbon bisulphide or with benzine. When detached they may be removed with forceps or a solution of boric acid. If the tympanum has been perforated, the larvæ must be removed at once.

Francaviglia also records the larva of _Oestrus ovis_ in the human ear (_Boll. Sedute Accad. Gioenia_, Catania, 1914, No. 31, pp. 23–27).

*Body, Head, and Clothes Lice.*--Lobaczewski (_Wien. klin. Wochenschr._, Vienna, 1915, xxviii, pp. 373–374) recommends the impregnation of body linen with a 30 per cent. solution of oleum betæ in 96 per cent. alcohol as an efficient method of keeping the body free of lice. But the process must be renewed each time the linen is washed and it takes fifteen minutes to carry out. On adding the oil to the alcohol, a portion of the former is precipitated, the supernatant fluid is decanted and poured over the linen, which is wrung out in it and dried. The garments retain their lice-proof properties until washed. Three days after wearing the clothes thus treated no lice remain on the body.

Portnikov, _Proc. of Conference of Bacteriologists and Representatives of Medical Sanitary Authorities on the Campaign against Infectious Diseases in connection with the War, Soc. Russ. Physicians in mem. Pirosov_, Moscow, 1915, p. 131.

_Pediculus capitis_ and _Phthirus pubis_ are shown to be successfully controlled by applying spirit extract of sabadilla and both white and grey mercury ointment, solution of corrosive sublimate of a strength of 1 in 250 to 1 in 100, amyl and ethyl alcohol, benzine, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methane, birch tar, liquid of malinin, etc. The control of _Pediculus vestimenti_ by the mixture of tartaric acid and sodium sulphite slightly moistened with water is advised. It is placed in small linen bags underneath the shirt; the heat of the body produces a reaction which continues for two days, giving off a large amount of SO_{2}, which spreads beneath the shirt and kills all the parasites but does not affect the skin. Marzinovsky, in the same _Proceedings_ (pp. 56–68), gives a number of remedies for _Pediculus vestimenti_ (called _humanus_), and mentions quinine or mercury, which latter the natives in Turkestan carry on their hands and legs in bracelets soaked in mercury compounds. He also mentions ethereal oils, the most effective being clove oil, eucalyptus, oil of anise and camphor. He recommends for disinfecting clothing for army purposes the chamber used by the Japanese on a large scale. Kummerfelds’ wash is advised, and is prepared as follows: 20 parts of precipitated sulphur are incorporated in a mortar with 50 parts of glycerine; 2 parts of camphor are separately ground with 50 of eau-de-Cologne and 20 of borax, and 870 parts of distilled water are added; the whole is mixed together and 3 drops of an extract of musk are added; shake in order to prevent the sulphur settling down; 50 parts of ether are added to the mixture. This sounds an expensive and troublesome preparation to make.

Shipley A. E., “Flowers of Sulphur and Lice,” _Brit. Med. Journ._, 1915, p. 295. It is here stated by Dr. Lounsbury that the South African troops were supplied by the Government with bags of flowers of sulphur sewn in small calico bags and secured to the underclothing next the skin as a preventive of lice. The bags were 2 in. square, one on the trunk and one against each leg. This is a generally accepted preventive, but is best mixed with equal parts of creosote and naphthalene.

Shipley, A. E., “Insects and War,” _Brit. Med. Journ._, September 19 to November 14, 1914. General advice given _re_ lice.

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