Chapter XIV: Introduction (13)

In the remaining species (_Rhinoptilus_ of some authors) the bill is almost straight. _C. bicinctus_ of South Africa is mottled with brown above, having much chestnut on the wings, white tail-coverts, and buff under parts crossed by two black pectoral bars. _C. bisignatus_, ranging from East Africa to Benguela, and _C. hartingi_ of Somali-Land, are hardly more than races of the above. _C. cinctus_ of East Equatorial Africa, and the barely separable _C. seebohmi_ of South-West Africa, are easily recognised by the four bands on the white lower surface, the highest and lowest being brown, and the two intermediate black, with a streaky buff space between them. _C. chalcopterus_, of the Ethiopian Region generally, and _C. albifasciatus_ with a more distinct white alar bar, are plain brown birds with metallic purple hues on the black primaries, white post-ocular streak and throat, and white belly surmounted by a black band. _C. bitorquatus_, of the districts near Madras, differs in shewing below three successive bands or gorgets, one of rufous and two of brown, separated by white. Though all Coursers agree in general habits, the last three seem to prefer bushy ground, and _C. rufus_ will perch in trees.

_Pluvianus aegyptius_, apparently allied to _Cursorius_, inhabits West and North-East Africa, wandering to Palestine and South Europe, and being even recorded from Sweden. The head, nape, and long mantle-feathers overhanging the grey back are glossy black; the wings and tail are black and white varied with grey, the lower parts rufous-white with a black pectoral band, while a line of white encircles the crown. This bird, called "Zic-zac" from its noisy chattering cry (cf. p. 276), is usually seen skimming swiftly over the water, or running and feeding along the shores. The yellowish stone-coloured eggs, with umber and grey markings, are commonly found buried in the sand, but so are those of the Ringed Plover in wind-swept spots. Probably this species, and not _Hoplopterus spinosus_, is the τροχίλος of Herodotus, the Crocodile-bird of later writers, which enters the Crocodile's mouth to feed.

Here may possibly be placed the mottled rufous, black, and white _Ortyxelus meiffreni_ of West and North-East Africa.[193]

{296}Sub-fam. 2. _Dromadinae._–This contains only _Dromas ardeola_, the curious Crab-Plover, with its straight, hard compressed bill, long legs, webbed toes, and pectinated middle claw. It is white, with the elongated dorsal feathers and most of the wings black, the tail chiefly grey. Found from the Red Sea to Natal, and through the Indian Ocean to the Bay of Bengal, it haunts sandy islands or sandbanks on the coast, flying, running, or walking with equal ease. This bird feeds on small crustaceans, and breeds in company, depositing a single large white egg on the bare sand in a deep burrow, where the young remain for a considerable time.

Fam. IV. THINOCORYTHIDAE.–The so-called South American Seed-Snipes are a generalized group of somewhat Fowl-like birds, with long wings and short legs. _Thinocorys rumicivorus_, of Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentina, and Patagonia, is yellowish-brown and black above, with whitish tips to the dark remiges and rectrices, and creamy white below with a black pectoral band, which sends a streak upwards to bifurcate round the white throat. The female has a less extensive band, and an ashy-brown fore-neck. _T. orbignianus_, of Peru, Chili, and Bolivia, differs in its grey breast with no central streak; it has a black border to the throat, and a grey nape, which is absent in the female. _Attagis gayi_, of the same countries, has grey and rufous upper parts with black spots and vermiculations, and pale cinnamon under parts, with a greyish fore-neck shewing fine black lines. _A. chimborazensis_ of Ecuador is blacker above and darker below; _A. malouina_, of the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, has a white lower surface and a rufous chest with round black spots. These forms usually frequent hill-country, and to the north of their range even haunt the higher Andes, living on vegetable substances, and especially seeds of docks and other plants. They run with great celerity over the stony ravines or grassy plains, but they often squat or creep away from intruders; when flushed they rise sharply with twisting flight like the Snipe, and utter a similar cry. On the ground they make curious hollow or whistling noises, the flocks answering one another as they sit, and being very hard to distinguish, from their earthy coloration. The nest of _Thinocorys_ is a depression slightly lined with grass, and contains some four drab or pinkish-buff pear-shaped eggs, thickly speckled with chocolate and purplish-grey, which the female is said to cover when she leaves them, while the male anxiously keeps watch from some neighbouring stone.

{297}Fam. V. OEDICNEMIDAE.–Of these birds, which lack the hind toe, _Oedicnemus scolopax_, the Stone-Curlew, or Norfolk Plover, a summer visitor to the warrens of East Anglia, and the downs or stony flats of the South of England, ranges from our shores and the Atlantic Islands through temperate Europe and North Africa to Lake Saisan and Burma in Asia. This largest of European Plovers is light brown above and buff below, with blackish streaks throughout; the throat, belly, a line below the eye, and two narrow alar bars are white, the remiges otherwise black, the tail brown, black, and white. The feet, base of the bill, and very large iris are yellow. This skulking semi-nocturnal species flies strongly, though it prefers to squat or run, and takes to the wing reluctantly; towards winter it is gregarious, as are so many of the Charadriiformes. The mournful whistling cry, more mellow than that of the Golden Plover, is chiefly heard at twilight, when the bird feeds upon worms, insects, molluscs, or even reptiles, frogs, and mice. Two oval stone-coloured eggs, blotched or scrawled with black, are laid on bare ground or among stones, and in India sometimes under bushes; while the newly-hatched young are decidedly torpid, contrary to Limicoline custom. Other species with streaked breasts are _Oe. senegalensis_, of West and North-East Africa, with only one white wing-bar; _Oe. vermiculatus_, of East and South Africa, with vermiculated upper parts; _Oe. capensis_, of much the same districts, with coarse blotches and bars above; and the large _Oe. grallarius_ of Australia with a broad brown stripe down each side of the neck. _Oe. affinis_ of North-East Africa is barely distinct from _Oe. capensis_. The forms with almost uniform breasts, and a black patch or line over the eye, are _Oe. bistriatus_,[194] ranging from Mexico to North Brazil, with mottled, and _Oe. superciliaris_ of Peru with vermiculated, back; as well as two fine birds separated as _Aesacus_. _Ae. recurvirostris_, of India, Ceylon, and Burma, has a stout, slightly recurved bill and nearly plain upper surface; _Ae. magnirostris_, extending from the Andaman Islands to the Philippines, Australia, the Solomons, and New Caledonia, differs in its straight bill and blackish lores. The former breeds on sand-banks up rivers, the latter on sea-beaches, both feeding upon crustaceans and molluscs. Some of the Family occasionally frequent low hills, and _Oe. bistriatus_ is kept to destroy insects in Nicaragua.

Fam. VI. PARRIDAE.–Of the extraordinary long-toed Jaçanas, {298}_Parra jacana_, ranging from Ecuador and Guiana to Bolivia and Argentina, has a red frontal lappet, bilobed posteriorly, a red wattle at each side of the gape, an orange bill, olive feet, and a well-developed yellow carpal spur. The plumage is chestnut, with greenish-black head, neck, and under parts, maroon sides, and yellow remiges, the wing- and tail-quills being tipped with brownish-black. _P. melanopygia_ of Panama and Colombia is darker and more maroon above; _P. nigra_, of those countries and Venezuela, is entirely greenish-black, except for the wings; _P. gymnostoma_ (_variabilis_), found from South Texas to Costa Rica, with Cuba, Porto Rico, and Haiti, has the frontal lappet trilobed, lacks the rictal wattles, and in colour resembles _P. melanopygia_, though the maroon extends to the belly. The young in this genus are chiefly bronzy-brown above and buffish-white below; and the nestlings–at least in _P. gymnostoma_–are curiously marked with tawny, black, buff, and white. _Metopidius indicus_, occurring from India to Cochin China, and in Sumatra, Java, and Celebes, has a large blue frontal shield, small blunt spurs, and no rictal wattles; the bill is pink, blue, and green; the feet are slaty. The head, neck, remiges, and under parts are greenish-black, varying to purple, the chin and superciliary streak are white, the mantle is bronze, the lower back maroon, and the tail chestnut. The young are much greener above than in the last genus. _M. albinucha_ of Madagascar and _M. africanus_ of most of the Ethiopian Region have a smaller shield, loosely connected behind, which is grey in the former, leaden blue in the latter, as are the bill and feet. The cinnamon-brown plumage is varied in the first-named by a black occiput and throat and white nape, in its congener by a white neck, black nape, and golden upper breast. The tail is chestnut and the primaries black. The very small _Microparra capensis_, of South and South-East Africa, has no shield or wattles, and is greyish-brown, becoming orange on the crown, rump, and tail; the nape and upper mantle are purplish-black, the wings blackish with a white alar bar, the under parts white with golden sides to the neck. The bill and feet are brownish, the spur in this genus and the next being as in _Metopidius_. _Hydralector gallinaceus_, ranging from Borneo and Celebes to New Guinea and Australia–if _H. novae guineae_ be not separated–is chiefly black; the back being greyish-olive, the throat and abdomen white, the cheeks, with the sides and front of the neck, golden. A red lappet with an erect central protuberance covers the forehead; the bill is {299}red, yellow, and black; the legs are red and olive. Young birds are mainly reddish-brown, with white below. _Hydrophasianus chirurgus_, of most of the Indian Region, is bronzy-brown above and purplish-black below, with no fleshy outgrowths, but a large, sharp spur. The head is white with black occiput, the neck golden behind and white in front, with an intervening black lateral stripe; the wings are mainly white, with curious filamentous appendages to the attenuated blackish outer primaries; the four median feathers of the dark brown tail are enormously elongated and decurved. The winter and immature plumage is almost entirely bronzy-brown, with white under surface crossed by a black gorget; but the young have a rufous head.

All the members of this Family frequent lakes and swamps, whether inland or near the coast, _Hydrophasianus chirurgus_ occurring at considerable elevations; while at least that species, _Parra jacana_, and _Metopidius indicus_, are gregarious in winter. On their favourite lagoons, bordered by a dense fringe of aquatic plants, these active birds may be seen gracefully striding or running upon the floating leaves of water-lilies and like plants, as their long toes easily enable them to do. When danger threatens they crouch or submerge themselves partially, _Hydralector_ being perhaps the best diver, where all are good. Tame when unmolested, they rise reluctantly, scuttling over the water with {300}trailing legs after the fashion of a Moor-hen, or fluttering and gliding in turn to the nearest shelter at a good pace. On the ground the gait is easy. Small parties of _Parra jacana_ are said to gather together when feeding, and to utter quick, excited cries, while going through a singular performance or dance, with outstretched, agitated wings and alternate slow and fluttering movements.[195] Some species are especially quarrelsome; _Microparra_ has a habit of bobbing its head up and down like a Plover; the male of _Parra jacana_ is particularly sedulous in warning the female from the nest; and both parents commonly "sham wounded" to protect their young. The cry is loud and harsh, or mewing in _Hydrophasianus_; the food consists of insects, molluscs, seeds, and roots; the nest is a small cup, or not uncommonly a large mass, of aquatic herbage, placed in grass or rushes, or on floating vegetation. The four beautiful eggs are more or less pear-shaped, and are glossy buff, olive, green, or brown, thickly covered with fantastic scrawls, and occasionally with black or brown blotches. _Metopidius indicus_, however, is said to lay as many as ten, while those of _Hydrophasianus_ are plain brown or green.

A fossil Limicoline form, _Palaeotringa_, occurs in the Cretaceous rocks of New Jersey; France furnishes _Limosa_ and _Tringa_ from the Eocene, _Camascelus_ (allied to the Plovers) from the transition beds, _Milnea_ (near _Oedicnemus_), _Tringa_, _Himantopus_, and _Numenius_ from the Miocene. The same formation in both France and Germany provides _Helornis_ (akin to _Limicola_), and _Totanus_; the Pliocene of Italy the latter; _Gallinago_ is found in the Chatham Islands; _Charadrius_ in North America.

Fam. VII. LARIDAE.–This consists of four Sub-families (1) _Stercorariinae_ or Skuas, (2) _Larinae_ or Gulls, (3) _Rhynchopinae_ or Skimmers, and (4) _Sterninae_ or Terns. Mr. Saunders[196] is, however, probably right in distinguishing a second Family, _Stercorariidae_; and possibly a third, _Rhynchopidae_, might be admitted.

In the _Larinae_ the strong, horny bill is of moderate length, though exceptionally small in _Rhodostethia_, the maxilla being curved, but hardly hooked; in the _Stercorariinae_ there is a distinct hook, and the base is covered by a cere, said to be hard or soft according to the season, and possibly, shed after the manner of certain Auks.[197] In the _Sterninae_ the beak is nearly straight and {301}pointed, while comparatively slender; in the _Rhynchopinae_, the maxilla, which moves vertically with ease, is much shorter than the mandible, and both are compressed anteriorly until they resemble truncated knife blades. The tibia is generally partly bare; the metatarsus is fairly long in the first two Sub-families, and is scutellated in front, being usually smooth behind, though rougher in _Pagophila_; the anterior toes are fully webbed, with claws which vary from weak to moderate, or even to strong and hooked, as in the _Stercorariinae_. The elevated hallux is joined by a membrane to the inner toe in _Leucophaeus_, and is rudimentary or absent in _Rissa_. In the _Sterninae_ and _Rhynchopinae_ the metatarsus is short–especially in the latter, where the web between the inner and middle digits is deeply incised, as are both webs in _Hydrochelidon_ and _Gygis_; the claws are long, slender, and curved. The pointed wings, excessively lengthened in the two last-mentioned Sub-families, have eleven primaries, of which the outer is particularly small, and from fifteen to twenty-three secondaries. The tail may be nearly even as in _Larus_, deeply forked as in _Sterna_ generally, less excised as in _Xema_, _Hydrochelidon_, _Naenia_, and _Rhynchops_, graduated or cuneate as in _Rhodostethia_, _Anous_, and _Gygis_; all the twelve feathers being rounded or acute: in the _Stercorariinae_ the two central rectrices project beyond the others, being decidedly pointed in _Stercorarius crepidatus_ and _S. parasiticus_, but rounded and twisted in the shaft until the webs are vertical in _S. pomatorhinus_. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate, the nostrils are pervious; an after-shaft is present, while both adults and young have abundant down, that of the latter commonly shewing a mixture of white, with grey, yellowish, slaty, or brown. _Naenia_ has elongated plumes at the gape, and a few Terns have slight nuchal crests.

Gulls and Skuas are widely-ranging and essentially marine birds, even those species which nest inland being commonly observed near salt water, and seeking the coast when incubation is over. They are always inclined to be gregarious, and are more or less resident in Britain, but the undoubted influx of birds from abroad in autumn makes it difficult, or even impossible, to determine their exact status in every case. Their untiring and easy flight is only second to that of the larger Petrels; the majestic style of the Great Black-backed Gull, and other forms, being a great contrast to the wavering but graceful movements of the Kittiwake or {302}Bonaparte's Gull. All walk well, though sedately, swim to perfection, and rise easily both from land and water, usually breaking into a run before taking to the wing from the ground; while they almost invariably alight with uplifted pinions. The wild characteristic note varies less than in most large groups, that of the bigger species being harsh and querulous, that of the smaller laughing or screaming; the lesser Skuas give vent to a curious mewing cry, and the Great Skuas to a similar but deeper sound. At the breeding-quarters the utterances are naturally more agitated and shrill, and the parents hang excitedly above a visitor's head. The food consists mainly of fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and worms, but is varied in the stronger forms by small mammals, young birds, and eggs: the Great Black-backed Gull undoubtedly attacks lambs and weakly ewes; carrion is not uncommonly devoured; and _Larus maculipennis_ acts as a scavenger at Buenos Aires, besides clearing the country of grasshoppers, and robbing the Cayenne Lapwing of its insect booty. Skuas give chase to their smaller kin, and force them to disgorge the fishes they have just caught, while even Solan Geese are sometimes victimized; _Larus scopulinus_, moreover, which robs the Oyster-catcher of New Zealand, is a further instance of parasitic habits. Insects and their larvae, turnips, berries, and grain are also eaten by these omnivorous but useful creatures. Their main sustenance is naturally derived from the ocean, or its oozy shores; but flocks are commonly seen on pastures and arable lands near the beach, or following the plough further from the sea, though not being of the species which breed in the interior, nor driven inland by stress of weather. At times Gulls almost, if not quite, disappear below the water when swooping on their prey, and Kittiwakes have been said to pursue it beneath the surface. A common habit is that of preening and washing the plumage in company at favoured spots, while one that is less well-known is that of casting up the indigestible parts of the food in pellets, as do many other birds. The nesting sites are very frequently precipitous rocks and stony islands, but inland marshes and lakes accommodate many species, while in certain localities trees as high as thirty feet are selected. Skuas breed on moors or hills near the sea in Scotland, on the fells of Scandinavia, and on the tundras and barren grounds of the Arctic Regions, the nest being a mere depression in the herbage or moss; the {303}remainder of the tribe generally collect a mass of grass, moss, flags, sedges, heather, twigs, or sea-weed, though a mere hollow in the soil or sand often serves their purpose. The eggs vary in number from two in the case of the Ivory Gull and the Skuas to three or exceptionally four; they are brown, drab, or green, with blotches and spots of brown, black, grey, and lilac, and recall those of Plovers. Both sexes have been said to incubate in _Larus minutus_ and _Rissa brevirostris_; the young are comparatively helpless for a few hours or perhaps days, and are at first fed by the parents.

Terns resemble Gulls in many of their habits, but are more cosmopolitan, and decidedly migratory in Britain; they are essentially marine, yet some species breed on inland waters in summer. Particularly slender and graceful, these long-winged birds may usually be distinguished by their irregular or hovering flight, and are known as Sea-swallows; while their method of beating up and down maritime streams or shallows, singly or in pairs, in search of fish, is quite peculiar to themselves. At such times they make constant plunges into the water, often completely immersing their bodies, or occasionally discontinue their operations to engage in trivial and seemingly amicable quarrels. The note, though hoarse in some cases, is usually a squealing or grating sound, the latter especially when disturbed; the food consists of fish and crustaceans, insects–said to be sometimes taken on the wing–frogs, newts, locusts, grasshoppers, caterpillars, leeches, molluscs, and medusae. Terns are wary but bold, commonly circling around a wounded companion until several are shot; the Noddies (_Anous_), however, are much more sluggish and silent. On the ground all move with comparative ease. The nest of _Hydrochelidon_ is a mass of water-weeds placed on some tussock in a wet inland swamp; that of _Anous_, when situated on trees, bushes, or rocky ledges, is composed of twigs, sea-weed, and like materials; but most species merely make a hole in the sand or soil, with little or no lining. Depressions on level rocks, the surface of prostrate plants, and heathery, grassy, or muddy flats are often utilized as alternatives, while colonies are usually formed. Two or three olive, reddish-brown, green, or stone-coloured eggs, with blotches, spots, scrawls, or oblique streaks of black, brown, grey, or lilac, are deposited; the Noddy and Sooty Terns, however, have a single white egg with red markings, and _Gygis_ one, which is buff, marbled, spotted, or often scrolled with brown and grey, and is laid on any slight cavity of {304}a branch, a broad leaf-stalk, or a coral reef. The nesting habits of _Naenia_ are unknown, but it frequents rocky, cavernous shores.

_Rhynchops_ has a peculiarly low flight, rapid and gliding, with many a turn and twist, which has gained it the name of Skimmer. The food, often sought towards evening, appears to consist of small fish and crustaceans; it is procured by keeping the bill wide open, with the long mandible ploughing through the water or mud, and leaving a distinct furrow in its track. The cry is a low harsh scream or shrill twittering note. A hollow in some sandy river-bank or island serves to contain the three or four grey, green, buff, or white eggs, with blotches and streaks of purplish-grey and dark brown. The female is said to sit only at night or in stormy weather, and the young to be unable to fly for several weeks,[198] but the remaining habits resemble those of Terns.

The sexes in the Laridae are invariably similar, the plumage being grey and white, or more rarely blackish or brown, details of which will be found below. The young are duller, being mottled with brown or black in immature Gulls. The frequent black or brown heads, often lacking at certain ages or times of year, the seasonal changes generally, the neck-collar of _Xema sabinii_ and _Rhodostethia_, and the rosy tint on the breast in the latter species, _Larus franklini_, and _Sterna dougalli_ may be noticed in passing. The members of the Family range in size from the Glaucous to the Little Gull; the largest Tern being the Caspian, and the smallest, as its name indicates, the Least Tern.

Sub-fam. 1. _Stercorariinae._–Of this widely spread but curiously distributed group, _Megalestris catarrhactes_, the Great Skua or Bonxie, a fine rufous-brown species, with a white wing-patch which is very conspicuous in flight, breeds in Shetland, the Färoes, Iceland, and possibly north of Hudson Strait, occurring in South Greenland and Norway, and reaching New England and Gibraltar in winter. It nests in colonies, though each pair occupies a distinct area, which the parents defend with exceptional boldness, swooping down swiftly with a heavy rush, and dropping the feet when at close quarters, as if to strike an intruder. Unlike their smaller kin, which will attack a man from any side and hit him with their wings, these birds commonly aim directly at the face, and their onslaught, if not averted, is really dangerous, while they only just clear the head when threatened with a stick. The two eggs, deposited in a depression {305}in the herbage, are dull brown or greenish, with somewhat indistinct umber markings. The food consists chiefly of fish, which the smaller Gulls are forced to disgorge, while Kittiwakes and the like are themselves occasionally devoured in default of other prey. _M. chilensis_, spotted with chestnut above, and more rufous below, occupies America south of Rio de Janeiro and Callao; the sooty-brown _M. antarctica_–the stouter-billed Port Egmont or Sea Hen–replacing it from the Falklands to the Australian and New Zealand seas, and reaching northwards to the Comoros and Madagascar. In the Antarctic Victoria Land occurs a paler form, _M. maccormicki_.

_Stercorarius pomatorhinus_, the Pomatorhine Skua, breeds on the tundras of Siberia and possibly from Greenland to Bering Sea, migrating to Britain and as far as South Africa, North Australia, and Peru. The plumage is brown, with blacker head and gorget, white breast, and acuminate white neck-feathers tipped with yellow. The projecting median rectrices with their vertically twisted vanes are mentioned above (p. 301). Uniform brown specimens may be immature. _S. crepidatus_, the Arctic Skua, is smaller, and nests as far south as Northern and Western Scotland, but properly occupies Arctic and sub-Arctic Europe, Asia, and America; in winter, it reaches South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Brazil. The elongated rectrices are not twisted, but are pointed, while a uniform dark phase–the true _S. richardsoni_–is common to both sexes. _S. parasiticus_, Buffon's Skua, distinguished from the last-named by its extremely prolonged rectrices and greyer upper surface, breeds on the Scandinavian fells and throughout the Arctic tundras and barren grounds, migrating as far south as Gibraltar and lat. 40° N. in America. The habits of the members of this genus are similar to those of _Megalestris_, but their quicker flight enables them to rob even Terns, and the mewing cry is most peculiar, while the eggs are intermediate in style between those of Whimbrels and Gulls. These small Skuas often destroy Lemmings.

Sub-fam. 2. _Larinae._–_Rissa tridactyla_, the Kittiwake, breeds from the circumpolar regions southwards to the Kuril Islands, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and North-West France; in winter it reaches western North America, the Bermudas, the Canaries, the Mediterranean, and the Caspian. The feet are black, the hind-toe is absent or rudimentary. From _Larus canus_, which it closely resembles when flying, it can be distinguished by the absence of white spots at the ends of the primaries. The young bird, or {306}Tarrock, is much variegated with dark grey or black, and has a blackish tip to the tail, as is the case in most fresh-water Gulls. Many fine colonies inhabit the loftier cliffs of Great Britain, the nests of sea-weed and grass being closely crowded together, and the eggs exhibiting softer colours than is usual in the Sub-family. The darker _R. brevirostris_ of Bering Sea has red feet.

_Pagophila eburnea_, the Ivory Gull, seems truly circumpolar, while it accidentally visits Britain, Northern Europe, and New Brunswick. It is pure white, with black feet, the young shewing grey and black variations. It will eat whale- or seal-offal.

_Leucophaeus scoresbii_, of South Patagonia, the Falkland Islands, and the neighbouring Antarctic seas, has a crimson bill, coarse red feet, with somewhat excised webs, a dark hood in immature examples, and a white tail. _Gabianus pacificus_ of Australia and Tasmania is somewhat like _Larus marinus_, but has a very short stout bill and a black-banded tail.

In the genus _Larus_, as throughout this Family, the arrangement followed is that of Mr. Howard Saunders,[199] much of whose admirable work is here incorporated. His first section comprises species with a white tail but no hood, the young having the head striated. Of these, _L. glaucus_, the Burgomaster or Glaucous Gull, and _L. leucopterus_, the Iceland Gull, are the only members of the group with nearly white primaries, the former being larger, with proportionately shorter wings. In summer the former is circumpolar, and the latter occurs from Jan Mayen to Greenland and perhaps the west side of Baffin Bay; in winter both visit Britain, but the latter only reaches the Gulf of Gascony, and Boston in America, whereas its ally extends to the Mediterranean, the Caspian, Japan, California, and the Bermudas. At this season the head shows brown markings; while the young are entirely mottled, though they apparently become creamy white just before assuming the grey mantle. _L. glaucescens_ of the North Pacific, _L. nelsoni_ of North-West America, and _L. kumlieni_ of Cumberland Sound have the quills chequered with grey, and connect the above with the following or blacker-quilled group.

_L. argentatus_, our Herring Gull, has a blue-grey mantle; the black primaries shew white tips and "mirrors" or round white marks, as well as a grey wedge on the inner web; the feet are flesh-coloured, {307}the orbits yellowish. In winter the head is streaked, and in the young the plumage is mottled with brown. This species extends over Northern Europe and most of North America, ranging to the south of those countries in the cold season; its representative in the Mediterranean and Central Asia is _L. cachinnans_, with yellow feet and red orbits, and in Arctic Siberia _L. vegae_, chiefly differing from the last-named in its pinkish legs. _L. audouini_ of the Western Mediterranean has blackish feet, and a crimson bill with black band. _L. canus_, the Common Gull, found throughout Northern Europe and Asia, and migrating to the Mediterranean, the Nile, the Persian Gulf, and China, has white mirrors on the first three primaries, yellow bill, and greenish-yellow feet. It has occurred in Labrador, and breeds in North Britain on islands, lakes, and flat stacks, though rarely, if ever, on cliff-faces; the shrill note is more like that of the Herring Gull than the harsh cry of our Black-backs. The smaller and darker _L. brachyrhynchus_ occupies North-Western America, reaching California in winter; the paler _L. delawarensis_, with a subterminal black band on the yellowish bill, frequents lakes and marshes in North America, and breeds towards the north; _L. californicus_, with little black on the beak, inhabits western North America.

Of the Black-backed Gulls, _L. marinus_, the Great Black-back, largest of the Family except _L. glaucus_, is found from Arctic Europe to North-East America, migrating as far as the Mediterranean, the Canaries, and Florida; it has a grey wedge on the primaries like the Herring Gull, and pinkish feet. Somewhat scarce in Britain in summer and comparatively non-gregarious, it is noted for its fierceness, and will even attack sheep. The smaller _L. dominicanus_, with olive feet, ranges from lat. 10° S. in South America to South Africa and New Zealand, with the corresponding Antarctic Seas; _L. schistisagus_ of the North Pacific being intermediate between this and the next species. _L. fuscus_, the Lesser Black-back, found both on our shores and inland, has yellow feet; its main range covers North Europe, excluding Iceland; but it even breeds in Morocco and on the Red Sea, extending in winter still further southwards. The similar _L. affinis_ of North Russia and West Siberia, with coarser feet, migrates to Somaliland, India, and occasionally other districts; the very stout-billed _L. occidentalis_ represents our species on the Pacific coast of North America.

Mr. Saunders's next section contains five Gulls resembling {308}the last group in having no hood and a white tail; but here the young have the head and tail-coverts unspotted. To this belong _L. bulleri_ of New Zealand, the Chatham and Auckland Islands, with black bill and feet, which haunts inland rivers; and also four marine forms with crimson bill and feet. These are _L. scopulinus_ of New Zealand, the Chatham and Auckland Islands; the larger _L. novae hollandiae_ of Australia, Tasmania, and New Caledonia; the South African _L. hartlaubi_, found in Madagascar; and _L. gelastes_, ranging from North-West Africa and the Mediterranean to the Caspian and Sind, which lays its Tern-like eggs on sand-banks.

The third section differs in having a subterminal black band on the tail, and, in the young, an irregularly striated hood. _L. crassirostris_, of the Chinese and Japanese Seas, has the base of the tail and the under parts white, the bill yellow, banded with red and black, the feet yellowish; _L. belcheri_, of Peru and Chili, has a blackish mantle and stouter beak; _L. heermani_ of western North America has the tail black except for a white tip, a grey lower surface, red bill, and black feet; _L. modestus_, also of Peru and Chili, differing in its decidedly grey tail and black beak.

The last-named is a connecting link with the fourth section, containing the Hooded Gulls; that is, those with hoods in mature plumage, but no marked hood in the young. Of these, all except the first three have the mantle grey and the head more or less white in winter; they are rather small birds, which chiefly inhabit the north, commonly breed in marshes, and utter a shrill querulous cry.

_L. fuliginosus_ of the Galápagos, and _L. leucophthalmus_ of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, are deep lead-coloured above with black head; but the former is grey below with no admixture of white, while the latter has a white nuchal collar, as has the much browner _L. hemprichi_, extending from East Africa to Bombay. _L. cirrocephalus_ of Brazil, Argentina, and West and Central East Africa, which occurs in Peru and Natal, has a pale grey head; whereas a brown hood distinguishes _L. brunneicephalus_ of Central–and in winter Southern–Asia, _L. maculipennis_, ranging from Brazil to Patagonia and Chili, _L. glaucodes_ of Chili, Patagonia, and the Falklands, and _L. ridibundus_, the British Black-headed or Peewit Gull, which occupies Europe and temperate Asia, migrating to North Africa, India, and China. These four differ considerably in the pattern of the primaries,[200] {309}but all have red bill and feet. The colonies of our marsh-breeding species supply large quantities of eggs for eating.

Of the black-hooded, grey-mantled forms, which have as a rule red bill and feet, _L. atricilla_, the Laughing Gull, of the Atlantic coast of North America and Western Mexico, alone has black outer primaries; this species and _L. franklini_, of the interior of sub-Arctic America, having exceptionally dark mantles, and the latter pinkish under parts. Both migrate south in winter. _L. philadelphia_, Bonaparte's Gull, of all North America, which, like its two following congeners, strays to Britain, has the bill black; _L. melanocephalus_, of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, has a jet black head, a partly red bill, and nearly white quills; the very large _L. ichthyaëtus_ ranging from the Black Sea and the Levant to Tibet, and wintering in Southern Asia, has the bill almost orange. _L. saundersi_, a slender-legged stout-billed bird, inhabits the rivers and coasts of China and Mongolia; _L. serranus_ of the Andes from Ecuador to Chili being a near ally. _L. minutus_, the Little Gull, frequenting marshy districts in sub-Arctic and temperate {310}Europe and Asia in summer, and reaching the Mediterranean in winter, is quite the smallest of the genus.

The lovely _Rhodostethia rosea_, or Wedge-tailed Gull, of the North Polar seas, supposed to breed on islets north of Asia and America if not of Franz Josef Land, is easily distinguished by its small black bill, red feet, black collar, and rosy lower parts. One specimen is on record in Britain. _Xema sabinii_, or Sabine's Gull, which nests on maritime marshes from Greenland westward to the Taimyr Peninsula, wanders to Britain, France, the Bermudas, and Texas, and annually visits Peru; it may be recognised by its plumbeous head, black collar, and forked tail. Of the larger collarless _X. furcatum_, with a white basal band on the maxilla, the only five examples known are from the Galápagos and Peru.

Sub-fam. 3. _Rhynchopinae._–Of this group the curiously compressed beak and the habits have already been described (pp. 301, 304). The sole genus _Rhynchops_, or Scissor-bill, contains five species, of which _R. nigra_ is black, with white forehead, cheeks, and lower parts; the wing-quills being also broadly tipped, and the tail-feathers varied, with white. The bill and feet are red, with a black end to the former. In winter the nape is whiter, while the young are buff and blackish above. Breeding from New Jersey to Florida, this bird strays to New Brunswick and migrates to Trinidad, occurring also in South-West Mexico. _R. intercedens_ of South Brazil and Argentina, and the larger _R. melanura_, of the North and West of South America, have nearly uniform brown rectrices, but the latter has little white on the secondaries. _R. flavirostris_, extending from Senegal to Damara-Land, and from Egypt and the Red Sea to Nyassa-Land, has a red and orange beak; _R. albicollis_, of India and Lower Burma, differs from it in having the back of the neck white.

Sub-fam. 4. _Sterninae._–The Terns may be commenced with the snow-white _Gygis candida_, which ranges from the islands east of Brazil to Ascension, St. Helena, Madagascar and its vicinity, the Indian Ocean, the Malay countries, Australia, the Ladrones, the Sandwich Islands and Polynesia generally. The form and habits have been already noticed (pp. 301, 303). The smaller slender-billed _G. microrhyncha_ seems to be peculiar to the Marquesas.

_Anous stolidus_, termed with its congeners the "Noddies" from their stolid indifference at times to man, chiefly frequents tropical and sub-tropical regions, and has occurred once in Ireland. It is {311}sooty-brown, with whitish forehead, grey head, black bill and lores, and reddish-brown feet; _A. galapagensis_ of the Galápagos being entirely sooty-black above. _A. (Micranous) leucocapillus_, with a weaker bill and a white crown, has a somewhat more restricted range; _A. (M.) tenuirostris_, with grey lores, ranges from the neighbourhood of Madagascar to Australia; _A. (M.) hawaiiensis_, with lighter upper parts, occurs around the Sandwich Islands. These species make a large flat nest of twigs, leaves, grass, and sea-weed, on trees, bushes, or even on the ground, laying one buffish-white egg with scattered red-brown markings. Several pairs often use one tree. _A. (Procelsterna) cinereus_, extending from Australia to Chili, and _A. (P.) caeruleus_ of Central Polynesia, are nearly grey above, but the former is white beneath. The egg is ordinarily deposited with little or no nest on a bare rock or on sand.

In all the rest of the Sub-family the tail is forked instead of graduated, though less markedly in _Naenia inca_ of Peru and Chili, which is leaden-grey, with curling white plumes below the eye, red bill and feet.

The genus _Sterna_ contains the more typical Terns or Sea-Swallows, of which the coloration–unless subsequently mentioned–is grey above, and white or lighter grey beneath and on the tail. _S. trudeaui_ of Brazil, Argentina, and Chili, which strays to the United States, and _S. melanauchen_, ranging from the Amirante and Seychelles Islands to the Liu Kiu group and Polynesia, are the only two species with the crown white in place of black in the breeding season; the former bird has a black streak through the eye, the latter a band from the lores to the nape.

_S. minuta_, the Lesser Tern, breeds in many parts of Britain, and extends from about lat. 60° N. in Europe to the Mediterranean, the Caspian, and North India, migrating to South Africa, Burma, and Java. It has a white forehead and belly, black lores, orange feet, and yellow bill with black tip. The two or three whitish or drab eggs, marked with grey and black, differ strikingly from those of the Common Tern and its allies. The larger _S. sinensis_ occurs from Bengal and Ceylon to Japan, New Guinea, and Australia; the greyer-rumped _S. antillarum_, the Least Tern, from northern South America to California and New England, or exceptionally to Labrador and West Africa; _S. saundersi_, with nearly black outer primaries, from East Africa to Burma. _S. superciliaris_, with yellow beak, is peculiar to eastern South {312}America; _S. lorata_, with grey belly, to Peru and Chili; _S. nereis_, with white lores, to Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia; _S. balaenarum_, with black forehead and base of bill, to Southern Africa.

_S. fuliginosa_, _S. anaestheta_, and _S. lunata_ are the Sooty Terns, so-called from their dark upper surface; the second being browner and the third greyer than the typical species, wherein alone the young differ from the adults in having brown lower parts instead of white. The forehead is white, the bill and feet are black, while immature birds show whitish markings above. These Terns frequent the tropics, but _S. lunata_ only occurs from the Moluccas to Laysan, the Sandwich Islands, and elsewhere in Polynesia. _S. fuliginosa_ has been obtained three times in England, occasionally on the Continent of Europe, and in America northwards to Maine. The single egg, like that of the Noddy, but with finer red, grey, and lilac markings, is laid on sand or flat rocks; descriptions of the colony, or "Wideawake Fair," on Ascension having been given by several writers.[201] _S. aleutica_ of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Japan, with a slate-grey mantle, white forehead and rump, connects the above with the next section.

The remaining species, with white foreheads, are the large _S. bergii_, ranging from East and South-West Africa to Japan and Polynesia, excluding New Zealand, and _S. bernsteini_ of the Seychelles, Rodriguez, Diego Garcia, and Halmahera, both of which have elongated nape-feathers and a yellowish bill, but grey and white rumps respectively. _S. frontalis_, of the New Zealand and Australian Seas, has a black bill.

Of large forms, with black foreheads, black feet, and lengthened nuchal plumes, _S. cantiaca_, the Sandwich Tern, breeding from Britain and the Mediterranean to the Caspian, and from New England to Honduras and both coasts of Guatemala, possesses a black bill. It migrates to Cape Colony, Sind, and Brazil. The large _S. maxima_, and the similar but smaller _S. elegans_, have the beak red; the former extending from about lat. 40° N. in America to Peru and Brazil, and in winter to West Africa; the latter from California to Chili. _S. eurygnatha_, found from Venezuela to Patagonia, only differs in its yellow bill; but _S. media_, ranging from the Mediterranean and East Africa to Australia, has the tail grey instead of white. In this section the richly marked eggs have often a creamy ground.

{313}

One only of the smaller species allied to the last group has blackish bill and feet, namely _S. longipennis_,[202] occurring from Lake Baikal and Ceylon to Kamtschatka, Japan, and New Guinea. Of the remainder the Common, Arctic, and Roseate Terns breed in Britain, though the Roseate is decidedly scarce there. _S. fluviatilis_, the Common Tern, occupying the coasts and inland waters of Europe, temperate Asia, and temperate America–chiefly on the eastern side in the last case–and migrating to South Africa, India, Ceylon, and Brazil, has red feet, and red bill with horn-coloured tip, the lower parts being vinaceous grey. _S. macrura_, the Arctic Tern, frequenting the northern regions of Europe and America from lat. 82° to 50°, and 42° N. respectively, has the bill entirely red, the metatarsus comparatively short, and the breast French grey. The two or three brown-spotted eggs vary from olive to green, and are frequently ruddier than those of the Common Tern. _S. dougalli_, the Roseate Tern, differing in the nearly black bill, the white tips to the inner webs of the primaries, and the evanescent pink tinge on the under parts, is widely distributed from lat. 57° N. in the Atlantic to New Caledonia, but is apparently wanting in the Eastern Pacific. Its cry is peculiarly grating. _S. albigena_, ranging from the Red Sea to the Malabar coast, is much darker, and has orange feet; while _S. hirundinacea_, extending from Brazil and Peru to the regions south of Cape Horn, _S. vittata_ of St. Paul's, Amsterdam, Inaccessible, Tristan da Cunha, and Kerguelen Islands, and _S. virgata_ of Kerguelen Island and the Crozets are closely allied forms, of {314}which the last two are said to lay a single egg. _S. albistriata_, with but slightly elongated outer rectrices, yellow bill and feet, inhabits New Zealand and strays to Norfolk Island; _S. forsteri_, with white under parts, orange bill, and reddish feet, inhabits most of North America. _S. melanogaster_ of India, reaching northwards to Afghanistan and Bhutan, has a black belly.

Of forms with much stouter bills than _Sterna_, _Seena aurantia_, of India, the Burmese countries and Yunnan, has the bill and feet orange; _Hydroprocne caspia_, the Caspian Tern–largest of the Sub-family–has a very short tail, red bill, and black feet. The latter occupies most of the world, except tropical South America and the Pacific Islands, visiting Britain, and breeding as near to it as Sylt. _Gelochelidon anglica_, the Gull-billed Tern, with a long metatarsus, reddish-black beak and feet, occurs in Britain and is found through the temperate and tropical parts of the Old and New Worlds, but not in South Africa, and rarely in Western America. _Phaëthusa magnirostris_, of the warmer portions of North America, has a short tail, yellow bill, and olive-yellow feet.

The genus _Hydrochelidon_, or Marsh Tern, is distinguished by a short tail, a comparatively small bill, and feet with much indented webs. The note is shrill; the food consists of aquatic insects, varied by frogs, newts, and small fish: the nests, placed in close proximity on swamps or pools, are formed of water plants and are sometimes mere floating masses of them; the three eggs are often very dark olive or brown. _H. nigra_, the Black Tern or Blue Darr, ranges from Europe south of lat. 60° N. and the Mediterranean to Turkestan, wintering as far as Loango and Abyssinia. It bred in the east of England up to 1858, since which date a nest is quite exceptional, while its two congeners are only chance visitors. The colour is lead-grey, with blacker head, black bill and reddish-brown feet. The darker race _H. surinamensis_ inhabits temperate America from Alaska and Canada southwards, migrating to Chili and Brazil. _H. leucoptera_, the White-winged Black Tern, is found in Central and Southern Europe, temperate Asia and North Africa; reaching accidentally to America, and in winter from Cape Colony to Australia and New Zealand. It is chiefly black, with white carpal region, rump, tail, and vent, the bill and feet being red. _H. hybrida_, the Whiskered Tern, has a similar range, but breeds also from India to Australia. The main colour is slate-grey, the head and nape being black, the bill {315}and feet red, and a white streak marking each cheek. In the winter and immature plumage the under parts are entirely, and the head partially white, throughout the genus.

Of fossil Laridae _Halcyornis_ occurs in the Lower Eocene of England, _Aegialornis_[203] in the Upper Eocene of France; while the Lower Miocene of the latter country, the Middle Miocene of Germany, and the Pliocene of Oregon furnish _Larus_.

Fam. VIII. ALCIDAE.–The Sub-order ALCAE contains only this Family, or the Auks, wherein the body is heavy and compact, the head large, the plumage close and elastic. The stout bill varies extraordinarily, as will be seen under the various species. The abbreviated metatarsus is reticulated, usually with a row of scutellae in front; the long anterior toes are fully webbed, the hallux is absent or rudimentary, the claws are stout, acute, and slightly curved. The wings are very short, and the Great Auk was absolutely flightless; but most species fly strongly and rapidly to varying distances, the pinions not being flipper-like as in the Penguins, to which these birds have no affinity; like them, however, they commonly sit upright upon the metatarsus, and walk awkwardly from the feet being placed so far back, while they swim and dive to perfection. The primaries are eleven, the secondaries from fifteen to nineteen. The short tail may be rounded as in _Uria_, or graduated with pointed rectrices as in _Alca_; the quills numbering twelve, except in _A. impennis_, which has eighteen. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate; the nostrils–covered with feathers in _Alca_, _Uria_ and _Mergulus_, and with a horny membrane elsewhere–are pervious. An aftershaft is present, and down is plentiful on both adults and nestlings, being in the latter fluffy, and of a black, grey, or brown colour, sometimes relieved by white. Elongated feathers, crests, and horny outgrowths are common, as described below.

Auks are entirely pelagic birds, breeding from the Polar Seas southwards to Japan, Lower California, Maine, and the Berlengas off the Tagus, while wandering further in winter; but the North Pacific may certainly be considered their headquarters. In the case of the British species a small proportion remain near shore after the autumn, but it seems to be quite uncertain where the majority spend the colder months. The members of this Family can hardly be called gregarious, except in the breeding time, {316}when vast flocks arrive with great regularity, or even to an exact day. In England this occurs at the end of March or beginning of April, the latter part of August or the first week of September being as punctually observed for departure. Except for purposes of procreation, or during violent storms, individuals are rarely seen on land, as might be expected from the clumsy style of gait; yet Puffins and Black Guillemots are fairly good walkers, and the former fly particularly straight and swiftly. Auks either splash along the surface of the waves before diving, or plunge suddenly, and when immersed use their wings much as if flying. The usual voice is a harsh-toned croak or grunt, but in addition _Simorhynchus_ is said to chatter, _Cyclorhynchus_ to whistle; _Ptychorhamphus_ utters a musical ringing sound, the Little Auk a wild cry, and Black Guillemots a shrill, plaintive note. Fish, crustaceans, worms, and the like, with chance ship-refuse, compose the diet; the birds frequently disgorging it when scared, and sometimes in order to feed the young.

The great pear-shaped egg of the Guillemots proper, and the more oval one of the Razorbill, is deposited on some bare ledge of a cliff, on a stack, or on an island rock. In the case of the latter bird the egg is usually in a crevice, being white or buff with black or brown markings, and generally, if not invariably, green inside. Guillemots' eggs vary from white or buff to brilliant green or blue, and are spotted, streaked, or covered with intricate wavy patterns of black, brown, or rufous; the same bird probably always producing similar specimens. The Black Guillemots lay two greenish-white eggs with blotches of brown, rust-colour, and grey, under close-packed boulders or in holes low down in cliffs; that of the Little Auk is pale bluish-green, with or without faint rufous stains, and is found in similar, but commonly much higher, situations; _Synthliborhamphus_ and various other forms use burrows in the turf, like Petrels, as an alternative to chinks in rocks; but the first-named produces two buff eggs, spotted with brown and grey, while the remainder lay only one, which is either white, or very indistinctly marked. Of these, Puffins fashion a considerable nest of dry materials. In some instances at least, both sexes incubate, the period being nearly five weeks. When hatched in holes the young remain there for a considerable time, otherwise they are soon assisted by their parents to reach the sea. Where unmolested, Auks are sufficiently tame; Puffins, {317}Razorbills, and so forth, however, bite severely if handled, and the first-named will fight with each other to the death.

As will be seen, the colour of both sexes in summer is black or dusky, varied by white, and occasionally brown; the winter plumage being duller and less decorative, and resembling the garb of the young. The size varies from that of the Great Auk to that of the Least or Knob-billed Auklet, the Family being confined to the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions.

_Lunda cirrata_, the Tufted Puffin, ranging from South California to Japan, and straying to Eastern America, is sooty above and greyish below; the sides of the head being white anteriorly, a "rosette" of naked red skin adorning the gape, and a nuptial tuft of long straw-coloured feathers hanging from above each eye. The feet are red, and become flesh-coloured in winter. The highly compressed bill is red in front and yellowish behind; while its base consists of three portions, separated from each other and from the transversely grooved fore-part by furrows, which deepen until the pieces become detached and expose a soft brownish skin, that hardens again towards spring. _Fratercula arctica_, the Puffin, occupies in vast numbers many of the precipitous coasts and islands of Britain, laying its large, dull white, granulated egg–faintly marked with brown and speedily begrimed–in a rock-crevice, or a burrow, often made by the bird itself. The upper parts and gorget are black, the cheeks greyish, the lower surface white, the rosettes yellow, and the feet orange-red. The base of the huge compressed and grooved bill, blue, yellow, and red in colour, is shed in nine pieces towards winter, when the cheeks become white, the rosettes reddish, and a blunt, fleshy, horn-like appendage on the upper eyelid also disappears. This species breeds northwards in the Atlantic, from the Bay of Fundy and the Berlengas off the Tagus, and (as the larger form _F. glacialis_) eastwards to Novaya Zemlya, migrating a little further south: in the Pacific, _F. corniculata_, with longer horns and more developed deciduous bill-sheath, takes its place.