Chapter VI: Introduction (5)

Flamingos are shy birds, sometimes found singly, but usually in immense flocks, which fly gracefully in V-shaped formations with alternate flapping and gliding motion, or circle around with outstretched neck and legs after rising with some difficulty. They spend their time chiefly in wading, the gait being slow and stiff; yet they can swim on occasion, and give evidence of their Anserine affinity by loud harsh cries, much resembling the gaggling of Geese, and by their helpless state in late summer, due to the loss of the flight-feathers. Very curious is their method of feeding, the head being completely inverted and directed backwards, as they tramp about in the shallows and seek for the aquatic herbage, frogs, crustaceans, molluscs, and so forth, which constitute their food, the lamellae of the bill acting as a sifting apparatus. The breeding colonies are situated on some lake, salt lagoon, or "marisma" of little depth, with bare shores, the conical or cylindrical mud nests being slightly hollowed at the top and varying in height from two to fifteen inches according to the amount of water. Several hundred individuals commonly breed together, though they not infrequently change their quarters annually; they are said to fashion the nest with their feet, and lay one or two eggs with bluish shell and chalky incrustation, incubation lasting four weeks or more. Mr. Abel Chapman,[101] Sir Henry Blake,[102] and Mr. Maynard[103] have shewn that the bird sits with her legs doubled under her, and her head directed forwards, though reliable persons have asserted that the feet hung down, and Dampier (prior to 1683) alleged that the parent stood erect and covered the structure with her rump. Eggs are often dropped {108}promiscuously by the hen. The young run from the shell, and even when fully grown can be driven in flocks by intending captors.

Of extinct forms the allied _Agnopterus_ occurs in the Upper Eocene of France and possibly of England; _Helornis_, with somewhat shorter bones, in the Lower Miocene of France and the transition beds of the two formations, as well as the Middle Miocene of Germany; and several species of _Phoenicopterus_, in the French Lower Miocene, the Pliocene of Oregon, and the Mare aux Songes in Mauritius. Lastly, there are five species of _Palaelodus_, constituting the family _Palaelodidae_,[104] in which the bill was probably straight, and the tibia and metatarsus were much shorter than in _Phoenicopterus_, but the toes longer. They are found in lacustrine deposits of the French Lower Miocene and the German Middle Miocene, while remains resembling them, to which the name _Scaniornis_ has been given, are met with in the Chalk of South Sweden.[105]

ORDER VI. ANSERIFORMES.

The Order Anseriformes consists of the Sub-Orders PALAMEDEAE and ANSERES, each containing a single Family, _Palamedeidae_ and _Anatidae_ respectively. Lying between the Ciconiiformes and the Falconiformes, the connexion of this group with the former is much the most easily recognised, as it shows decided affinities to the PHOENICOPTERI, while between the ANSERES and the Birds of Prey there occurs one of those gaps common to every linear system of classification. All the members agree in having the furcula U-shaped and the nostrils pervious. The large spiral penis is unique among the Carinatae, though comparable with that of the Ratitae. The down is uniformly distributed in both adults and nestlings, the aftershaft is rudimentary or absent, the tongue is thick and fleshy, and has bristly sides in the _Anatidae_; while the possession of two pairs of sterno-tracheal muscles is a marked point of distinction from other Carinate Birds. All the species are aquatic, and live almost entirely on vegetable matter. The young leave the nest within a few days, or even hours.

Fam. I. PALAMEDEIDAE.–In this group the head is small and the neck long, while the ribs have no uncinate processes, an archaic feature only found elsewhere among Birds in _Archaeopteryx_. The {109}bill is short and Fowl-like, with a blunt decurved tip, a covering of soft skin, and more or less of a cere; the tibiae are partly naked, the entirely reticulated metatarsi moderately long and fairly stout; the toes are elongated and have strong claws, but only rudimentary anterior webs; the wings are ample and somewhat rounded, with eleven primaries and about sixteen large secondaries; the tail has fourteen broad feathers in _Palamedea_ and twelve in _Chauna_.[106] Very noticeable are the two sharp spurs on the carpal portion of each wing, of which the foremost is the biggest; while in the even distribution of the body-plumage this Family recalls the Ratitae and the Spheniscidae. The sexes are alike; the nestlings, where known, are clad in yellowish-brown and grey down, the wing-spurs being developed in the earliest stages.

The following account of the habits of _Chauna cristata_,[107] the Chajá or Chaka, must stand for those of the Family, in default of further details concerning the more northern forms. This striking species is a common resident in the swamps and brackish lagoons of Argentina, where the islands of the intricate morasses often hold flocks of more than a hundred individuals, the separate pairs being said to mate for life. The flight is slow, with powerful strokes of the wing, the birds being greatly addicted to soaring in spiral circles until they are hardly visible, and at times floating lazily upon the breeze. They rise noisily from the ground with laboured action, and are occasionally seen to perch in trees; but they are by nature waders which swim with considerable facility, and, when they do so, their bodies shew well above the water, owing no doubt to the same pneumaticity which causes a crackling noise to be heard when the skin is compressed. The food consists of succulent water-plants, seeds, clover, and so forth. The loud cry, uttered with the head thrown back when the performer is on the ground, may be heard at a distance of two miles, the male giving vent to a "cha-ha" and the female replying with a "cha-ha-li." The regular period for reproduction is the southern spring–September and October–but it is a remarkable fact that breeding takes place also in autumn and even winter; the nest being a massive structure of reeds and rushes slightly hollowed above, and standing some two feet high with its foundations in water, or, {110}in exceptional cases, floating. This nest is placed in some narrow channel or near the side of a lagoon, and contains from four to six oval buffish-white eggs. The female rises silently when disturbed, nor do the parents usually attack an intruder; but wounded birds are dangerous to approach, and make good use of their sharp spurs. The voice of the young is a feeble chirp; they are often trained, as they grow up, to act as guardians to the poultry of their owners. The flesh is coarse and dark, with a duck-like flavour.

_Palamedea cornuta_, the Horned Screamer, found from Guiana, Venezuela, and Amazonia to Ecuador and Eastern Peru, is glossy black with an admixture of white on the crown, lesser wing-coverts, and carpal edge; greyish foreneck, white abdomen, brownish-grey bill, and ashy feet. The lores are feathered, and a long, slender, yellowish-white horn adorns the forehead. The female is said to have buff on the wing-coverts. _Chauna chavaria_ (_derbiana_ auctt.) occurs in Venezuela and Colombia; it is glossy slate-black with greyer head and occipital crest, white cheeks and throat, and a little white on the wing. The naked lores are pink, the bill and feet apparently red. _C. cristata_ (_chavaria_ auctt.) differs in being dark grey, with a black ring round the neck and whitish-grey cheeks and throat. This is the largest form, and is bigger than a Turkey; it ranges from South Brazil to Argentina, and shares with _Cariama_ (p. 258) the name of Crested Screamer.

Fam. II. The Sub-Order ANSERES contains the single {111}cosmopolitan Family ANATIDAE, with the Swans, Geese, and Ducks; where, in spite of many attempts at subdivision, the lines of demarcation cannot yet be finally determined. Count Salvadori, however, having lately propounded a carefully-elaborated arrangement,[108] I have adopted his Sub-families in the present volume, viz. (1) _Merginae_, (2) _Merganettinae_, (3) _Erismaturinae_, (4) _Fuligulinae_, (5) _Anatinae_, (6) _Chenonettinae_, (7) _Anserinae_, (8) _Cereopsinae_, (9) _Plectropterinae_, (10) _Anseranatinae_, and (11) _Cygninae_.

The skull is short and robust; while the neck is abnormally developed, with extra vertebrae, in the Swans, and is usually long, though less so in the Sea-Ducks; in the _Merginae_ and some _Fuligulinae_ the customary posterior notches in the sternum are converted into two complete fenestrae or apertures. The bill is almost entirely covered with a soft sensitive membrane, ending in a horny process termed the nail, the skin being warty in _Anseranas_ and _Chen rossi_; _Cereopsis_ has a large tumid cere; both sexes of _Cygnus melanocoryphus_ and _C. olor_ have a knob at the base of the culmen, as have the males of _Plectropterus_, _Tadorna cornuta_, and the domesticated form of _Cycnopsis cycnoïdes_; the same sex of _Somateria spectabilis_ has the posterior portion of the maxilla spread into a disk; _Oedemia_ has it considerably swollen even in the female; _Cairina_ and _Plectropterus_ have caruncles on the forehead; _Sarcidiornis_ has a fleshy comb at the proximal extremity of the beak in the male; while _Biziura_ has a dependent flap on the chin, and a small subgular pouch. The bill is usually broad and depressed, and may be sub-conical, as in many Geese; spatulate, as in _Spatula_ and _Malacorhynchus_; or somewhat less dilated, as in _Chaulelasmus_, and so forth. There is a distinct hook at the tip in _Mergus_, _Dendrocycna_, and _Aex_; the culmen is concave in _Marmaronetta_ and _Stictonetta_; the nail is bent inwards in the latter and _Erismatura_, while the maxilla may overlap the mandible, or the covering membrane may even hang over the latter, as in _Malacorhynchus_, _Hymenolaemus_, and to a less extent in _Elasmonetta_ and _Nesonetta_. The length is very variable, but the thin elongated "sawbill" of _Mergus_, with its serrated edges, is especially remarkable. Most characteristic of the Family is the presence of highly-developed lamellae or transverse tooth-like processes on both maxilla and mandible, which are visible when {112}the jaws are closed in many cases, and are comparable to the similar formations in _Prion_ (Procellariidae) and the Phoenicopteridae. They act no doubt as a sifting apparatus, but may assist in nipping off herbage and gripping fish, the piscivorous Mergansers having them directed backwards. The metatarsus is normally short or moderate, though occasionally long, as in _Plectropterus_ and _Dendrocycna_; it may be stout and roundish, as in _Anser_, or laterally compressed, as in _Fuligula_; and is usually reticulated with transverse scutellae in front, though wholly reticulated in the Cygninae, Anserinae, and _Dendrocycna_. The anterior toes are fully webbed, _Anseranas_ and _Cereopsis_ alone having the foot semi-palmated; the hallux is short and elevated–except in the former species, where it is long and incumbent–and possesses a broad membranous lobe in the Merginae, Merganettinae, Erismaturinae, and Fuligulinae, while a very narrow membrane may be observed in the Anatinae and Chenonettinae. The claws are as a rule small and curved, but are long and sharp in _Anseranas_, _Dendrocycna_, _Nettopus_, and _Plectropterus_. The wings vary considerably, but are usually ample and rather long, though short in _Cosmonetta_, _Erismatura_, and _Tachyeres_; the number of primaries is eleven, and of secondaries from fifteen to twenty-eight, a horny spur being developed on the pollex, or even on the index, in _Plectropterus_, _Sarcidiornis_, _Chenalopex_, and _Merganetta_. The tail is, generally speaking, short, and may be narrow and pointed, as in _Anas_, _Dafila_, and _Harelda_; in _Aex_, _Querquedula_, _Tadorna_, and so forth, it is rounded; in _Chenalopex_ squarer; and in _Sarcidiornis_ and _Asarcornis_ more cuneate. In _Tachyeres_ the two median rectrices are long and recurved, and in the males of _Harelda_ and _Dafila_, they are inordinately produced; while all the feathers have spiny shafts and narrow webs in the Erismaturinae and Merganettinae. The number varies from twelve to twenty-four, with even more in Swans. In _Eunetta_ the upper and under tail-coverts exceed the tail itself.

The formation and disposition of the trachea[109] are of great importance. _Cygnus musicus_, _C. buccinator_, _C. bewicki_, and _C. columbianus_ have a peculiar cavity in the sternum, while the windpipe, entering in front of the clavicles, traverses and retraverses the swollen keel, which in old birds it penetrates to its furthest extremity, the direction being changed in the two last from vertical {113}to horizontal. _Anseranas_ shews a double loop in this organ,[110] and in the males of many Ducks an enlargement is found at its junction with the bronchial tubes, consisting of a round bony structure, termed the _bulla ossea_ or "labyrinth." Similar structures have been noticed in _Chenalopex_, _Dendrocycna_, _Chloëphaga_, _Plectropterus_, and _Sarcidiornis_; and in the Fuligulinae they shew apertures with membranous coverings; _Metopiana peposaca_, _Mergus merganser_, _M. serrator_, _Tadorna cornuta_, _Oedemia fusca_, and (doubtfully) _Oe. perspicillata_ are stated to have an additional bulb, but _Oe. nigra_ has none. _Clangula glaucion_ and the Merginae have a swelling in the middle of the trachea.

The headquarters of the Family are in the north, while Dr. Sclater's calculations,[111] though modified by subsequent discoveries, give a good idea of the distribution. He assigns as residents about seventy-seven species to the Northern Regions, forty-one to the Neotropical, twenty-nine to the Australian, twenty-two to the Ethiopian, and twelve to the Indian; twenty Geese out of thirty-three, seven Swans out of ten, and twenty-six Sea-Ducks out of thirty-one belonging to the first. Polynesia is especially poor.

The Anatidae are for the most part of similar habits, and frequent seas, lakes, rivers, and watery spots generally, being found to a great extent in winter on the shore, especially where mudflats are exposed by the ebbing tide, and beds of such food-plants as _Zostera_ (grass-wrack) are uncovered. Large flocks, which include many migrants, are formed at that season, and in spring the ganders and drakes commonly collect into parties while the female is incubating, which she does during twenty-one to forty-two days. Later in summer the majority of the Family shed their quills simultaneously, and conceal themselves until again capable of flight, the males then becoming dull in colour for several weeks, and resembling the other sex.[112] _Merganetta_ is found only on the torrents of the Andes; _Hymenolaemus_ and _Salvadorina_ being also residents on mountain streams. The noisy flight is extremely powerful, and much swifter than it appears, the wedge-shaped formation which Geese affect being especially noticeable; some forms, however, are practically flightless, such as _Nesonetta_ and the adult Steamer-Duck (_Tachyeres_). All the Anatidae swim exceptionally well, diving being carried to its perfection in the marine Fuligulinae; while the partially-submerged {114}position with erect tail when feeding is known to every one. The various Swans have a whooping, trumpet-like, or hissing note; that of Geese is a harsh cackle, a gaggling sound, a clang or a "honk." Ducks do not always quack, but have whistling or grating cries in addition. The usual food is vegetable, consisting of grass, _Chara_, _Zostera_, _Ulva_, and other plants; but Mergansers live chiefly on fish, and the bill of fare is varied by grain, pulse, berries, frogs, insect-larvae, worms, molluscs, and crustaceans. The nest is placed on the ground in thick herbage, or sometimes almost in the water; holes in banks, hollow trees, or even branches at a slight elevation being chosen in certain cases: it is composed of heather, grass, moss, leaves, or rarely seaweed and twigs, and is lined with down, added gradually from the parent's breast during incubation. The eggs, which vary in number from two (_Biziura_) to about a dozen, are smooth and hard-shelled, with a plain white, creamy, or green coloration, and are commonly covered when left. The young return for a time to the nest at night, and are carefully tended by the female, who is occasionally assisted by the male, especially in Swans. It is not certain how tree-building Ducks convey the nestlings to the water, though it has been stated that they are carried in the bill; but it is no uncommon sight to see ducklings and cygnets climb upon their mother's back and hide beneath her wings when danger threatens.

The sexes in Swans and Geese are usually alike, though exceptions occur, as in _Chloephaga_; in Ducks the male is generally much the finer bird, and has peculiar decorations, such as the elongated scapulars and rectrices of _Harelda_ and _Dafila_; the sickle-shaped secondaries of _Eunetta_, _Heniconetta_, _Arctonetta_, and _Somateria_; the stiff feathers on the face in the last three and Camptolaemus; the curly tail of _Anas boscas_; the crest, ruff, and sail of _Aex galericulata_; or the crests of many Fuligulinae and Merginae. Some females have similar but less striking adornments. Among the many instances of fine coloration may be mentioned the Red-breasted and Emperor Geese, the Harlequin, Mandarin, Pink-headed and Shoveller Ducks, the Sheld-Drake (Fig. 34), and the Goosander; while most Swans are pure white. The blue, green, or white speculum–or wing-bar–in various Ducks adds greatly to their appearance. The young are comparatively dull, the nestlings being thickly covered with yellowish down, furnished with barbs and barbules; the colour is, however, whitish or grey {115}in Swans, and occasionally brown, blackish, or greenish elsewhere.

Sub-fam. 1. _Merginae._–The commonest British species is _M. serrator_, the Red-breasted Merganser, which breeds plentifully in the Scotch Highlands and Ireland, and ranges over the northern parts of the globe, extending in winter from the Mediterranean to China, Japan, and the Bermudas. The head is glossy green-black with a long hairy crest, the neck is white with a black nuchal line, the upper parts are chiefly black, the large white wing-patch is crossed by two black bars, while white feathers edged with black adorn the sides of the breast, which is rufous with black streaks, and becomes reddish-white towards the abdomen. The female is brown, with reddish head and nearly white under surface. The bill and feet are red in this species and the next. _M. merganser_, the Goosander, nests sparingly in North Scotland, and has a similar range to the above abroad, though less abundant; it has a green-black head with little crest, a black back, almost white wings, and pinkish-white lower neck and under parts. The female has a blue-grey back, and lacks the wing-bars of the hen Merganser. The American species, with a black alar band, is separated as _M. americanus_, and the Central Asiatic form as _M. comatus_; _M. australis_, of the Auckland Islands, has a brown head and neck with long crest, a dark grey body with white bands below, a white speculum, and red-brown bill and feet; _M. brasilianus_, of Brazil, is black above with two bars on the white speculum, and white below barred with black, the bill and feet being greenish-black. The female has the crown and long occipital feathers brown. _M. albellus_, the Smew, ranging from Lapland eastward to Bering Island, but not to North America, and found in winter from Britain and the Mediterranean to North India, China, and Japan, is mainly white, with blackish cheeks, occiput, back, remiges, rectrices, and two crescentic bands on each side of the breast, the bill and feet being lead-coloured. The female has a red-brown head and nape, brownish-grey upper parts, and a smaller crest than the male. _Lophodytes cucullatus_, the Hooded Merganser of North America, which has strayed to Greenland and Britain, has black upper and white under parts; the dense compressed crest has the posterior part white in the middle, the white speculum shows a pair of black bars, two black crescents mark each side of the breast, the long inner secondaries {116}are black and white, the bill is black, the feet are brown. The female has a red-brown crest, brown chest, and upper surface.

The members of this Sub-family are shy and wary sea-birds, seldom found on fresh water except during the breeding season; they fly well, walk clumsily, and dive admirably, swimming low in the water. The cry is a plaintive whistle or loud harsh note; the food consists of little but fish. The Red-breasted Merganser breeds in holes in banks, or among grass and heather, laying up to ten brownish-green eggs; the Goosander deposits from eight to thirteen, of a fine creamy colour, in similar places, or in hollow trees; the Smew and the Hooded Merganser prefer the latter, and lay some eight creamy or ivory-white eggs respectively.

Sub-fam. 2. _Merganettinae._–_Salvadorina waigiuensis_ of Waigiou has the head and neck blackish-brown with paler edges to the feathers, a white chin, black upper parts barred with white, and buffish-white under parts with brown abdominal spots; the sides are barred with black, and the black and green speculum is bounded by two white bands. The bill and feet are yellowish-brown. _Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus_, the Blue Duck of New Zealand, is lead-blue, tinged with olive on the head and spotted with chestnut on the breast, the outer secondaries shewing a little white and the inner black. The whitish bill has the dependent membrane (p. 111) black, the feet are brown. This peculiar and tame torrent-duck is rarely seen on the sea, though it can fly from one gorge to another; it swims and climbs the boulders with ease, has a whirring note, and feeds chiefly on insect-larvae. It deposits five creamy eggs in holes or under tussocks of grass. _Merganetta armata_, of Chili, is black above with white edges to the feathers, and rufous with black streaks below; the head and neck are white, with black crown, vertical eye-stripe, throat, chest, and streaks down the back and sides of the neck; the bronzy-green speculum has a white band on each side, the bill is yellow, the feet are reddish. _M. frenata_, of Chili, is very similar; _M. turneri_, of South Peru, has a white throat and rufous edges to the feathers of the back; _M. leucogenys_, of Peru, has a whitish throat and breast; while _M. garleppi_, of Bolivia and Tucuman, and _M. columbiana_, of Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela, differ but little from the last-named. The females are grey and black above and uniform cinnamon below. These curious Ducks are restricted to the torrents of the Andes, where they {117}are found in pairs, plunging in the cascades, diving below the boulders, or stemming the impetuous current with equal facility.

Sub-fam. 3. _Erismaturinae._–_Biziura lobata_, of Tasmania and Australia–except the north–is brown with buff mottlings, the bill and its leathery appendage being greenish-black and the feet dusky. The smaller female has less chin-lobe. This species frequents the sea as well as lakes, roosts in trees, and when diving remains long submerged; the food consists of mussels, leeches, and aquatic worms; the note resembles the dropping of water. The nest, placed on a stump or in a bank, contains two olive eggs; the musky smell of the sitting female having suggested the name of Musk Duck.

_Erismatura_ contains seven "Lake Ducks," inhabitants of fresh-water lagoons, which dive like Grebes, and remain with only the bill exposed; they are often tame, and when disturbed splash along the surface like a Moor-hen, to settle again almost immediately; in swimming the spiny tail is carried erect, suggesting a comparison to a "two-peaked saddle." The note is said to be a curious inward sound; the food is of fish, {118}molluscs, and insects; while the nest, built in rushy places, contains up to ten coarse-grained white eggs.[113] _E. leucocephala_, ranging from the Mediterranean to Southern Siberia, and in winter to North-West India or, exceptionally, to Holland, is rufous-brown with black vermiculations and bars, black crown and neck-ring; the rest of the head and neck being white, the bill blue, the feet dusky. _E. jamaicensis_, of Central and temperate North America, _E. ferruginea_, of Bolivia and Peru, _E. aequatorialis_, of Ecuador, _E. maccoa_, of South and East Africa, _E. vittata_, of southern South America, and _E. australis_, of South and West Australia and Tasmania, are brown with greyer belly mottled with dusky; the head and neck being black, except for the white cheeks and chin in the first-named and the chin only in the second and third. _E. aequatorialis_ has white instead of rufous under tail-coverts; _E. maccoa_ has white axillaries as opposed to grey in _E. vittata_; _E. australis_ is much deeper chestnut. The females are decidedly duller. _E._ (_Nomonyx_) _dominicus_, of Central, Southern, and, accidentally, Eastern North America, has the feathers of the back black in the middle and a white speculum. _Thalassiornis leuconota_, of South and East Africa with Madagascar, is variegated with black and ochreous yellow, the rump being white, the wings, tail, and feet brownish, the bill blue-grey. It dives much, flies little, and lays about four greenish eggs.

Sub-fam. 4. _Fuligulinae._–_Somateria mollissima_, the Eider Duck, breeds commonly in Northern Britain, and thence to the Taimyr Peninsula eastwards and the Coppermine River westwards, birds from North-East America being separated as _S. dresseri_; while _S. v-nigrum_, differing in its black V-shaped throat mark, occupies North-East Asia and North-West America. In winter the first-named strays as far as South Europe and the United States; the second has occurred in Holland. The male Eider has white upper parts and buff chest, black lower back, abdomen, and crown, the last showing a white streak; the wing- and tail-quills are brown, the stiff nape-feathers green, while the plumage extends in a peak on the culmen. The female is brown, with blackish bands or stripes and two white alar bars. The bill and feet are olive-green. _S. spectabilis_, the King-Eider of the Northern Arctic Regions, rarely wandering in winter to Britain, France, New Jersey, and California, has the head blue-grey with green and white cheeks, and a black chevron on the throat; the remaining portions {119}being black except for the buff breast, white neck, upper back, lesser wing-coverts, and a patch on each side of the rump. The feet and the bill, with its vertical black-edged disc at the base, are orange. The female is redder than in the Eider, with a more feathered culmen. These species are essentially maritime, only coming to shore to breed; they are semi-gregarious, and form a nest of grass and rubbish, a quantity of down underlying the five to eight oily-green eggs. Eider-down is chiefly procured from Iceland, Greenland, and protected islands in Norway. The flight is low and heavy, the food consists of mussels, starfish, and other sea creatures. _Arctonetta fischeri_, the Spectacled Eider of Alaska, is chiefly white, with dark grey rump and under parts; the head being varied with green and decorated with pendent bristly plumes on the occiput, stiff frontal and loral feathers, and a satin-like quadrangular patch outlined with black on each side. The tail- and wing-quills are brown, except the falcate inner secondaries; the feet are brownish, the bill is orange in the male. The female is fulvous and black with bluish beak. _Heniconetta stelleri_ breeds on the Arctic shores mainly between the Taimyr Peninsula and Alaska, and has strayed to Britain and even France. The head, falcate scapulars, and inner secondaries are white with blue-black outer webs to the two latter, the rest of the wing-quills and tail brown; the back, throat, neck, and a spot on each side of the breast purplish-black; the lores and short occipital tuft green, the lower parts mostly tawny. The female is brown with darker markings, and duller wing-bar. _Camptolaemus labradorius_, the extinct "Pied Duck" of the North Atlantic coast of America, was black, with white head, neck, chest, scapulars, and most of the wings except the primaries; it had a black stripe down the crown and stiff cheek-feathers. The brownish female shewed a white speculum.

_Oedemia nigra_, the Scoter or Black Duck, which nests in North Scotland, ranges over Northern Europe and Asia to the Taimyr Peninsula, sometimes reaching the Azores and the Mediterranean in winter. It is black, with a yellow nasal patch and a swollen base to the culmen, the female being dark brown with greyish face and throat, and no protuberance or yellow mark. _Oe. americana_ of North-East Asia and North America, migrating to Japan, California, and New Jersey, has the knob yellow with red sides, while the female is grey-brown. _Oe. fusca_, the Velvet Scoter, extends from Scandinavia to West Siberia, and occurs {120}exceptionally in Greenland, visiting us in winter, though rarely reaching Spain and the Adriatic; it is black with a white speculum and mark under each eye, the bill being orange with black posterior swelling and lateral line, and the feet dull crimson-red. The brownish female has the white speculum, but a brown bill. The very similar _Oe. deglandi_, of North-East America, has the base of the maxilla entirely feathered, as has the still blacker _Oe. carbo_, of North-East Asia. _Oe. perspicillata_, the Surf-Scoter, accidental in Britain and North-West Europe, inhabits the far north of America and the Asiatic coasts of Bering Straits, wintering down to Jamaica and California. The black plumage is relieved by white patches on the crown and nape; there is a black mark on each side of the crimson, scarlet, and orange bill, the feet are crimson, orange, and black. The brown female has yellowish-orange feet. Scoters are gregarious birds, usually found some way from land except when breeding; the flight is strong; the note guttural, but softer in spring; the food consists of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. They nest near fresh-water lakes and pools, among heather or grass, and lay from five to eight yellowish-white eggs.

_Cosmonetta histrionica_, the Harlequin Duck of Iceland, North-East Asia, Arctic America, and possibly the Urals, which reaches Japan, the United States, and exceptionally Britain and elsewhere in winter, is grey-blue, curiously marked with black and white on the head, neck, wings, and chest; the superciliary streaks and flanks are chestnut, the speculum being purple, the bill plumbeous, the feet brown. The female is brown with whitish cheeks and mottlings below. The habits of tumbling and diving in rocky torrents have been well described by Mr. Belding;[114] the nest is in banks or under boulders, and contains seven or eight buff eggs. _Harelda glacialis_, the Long-tailed Duck of the Arctic Regions, which appears to breed in Shetland, and in winter even reaches the Mediterranean and China, but more commonly the Caspian, Lake Baikal, Japan, and the middle United States, is at that season white with brownish patches on the sides of the neck, brown-black back, wings, central rectrices, and chest. In summer the crown, neck, and scapulars become brown, with rufous edges to the dorsal plumage. The bill is pinkish and black, the feet are bluish. The female is brown, with white ocular region, neck-ring, and lower parts. This noisy species is called, from its musical chattering note, "Calloo" in Shetland {121}and "Old Squaw" in America; it flies very swiftly and nests near water, laying from six to twelve oblong grey-green eggs.

_Clangula glaucion_, the Golden-Eye, not yet proved to breed in Britain, though it does so in North Germany, the Caucasus, Siberia, and Maine, besides the Arctic Regions generally, is found in winter to the Mediterranean, and thence to North India, China, Japan, Mexico, and Cuba. The glossy head is green, with a slight crest and white cheek-patches; the upper parts are black with white on the wings and scapulars, the lower surface being white, the bill black, the iris golden, the feet orange. The female has the head and back brown, the chest grey. Similar to _Fuligula_ in general habits, the Rattlewing, as it is often termed from its noisy flight, is more partial to inland waters in winter, while for breeding it prefers hollow trees, or nest-boxes set up by Lapps and Finns, the ten or twelve eggs being bright green. _C. islandica_, the ordinary species in Iceland, differing from _C. glaucion_ in its purplish head, inhabits Arctic America also, and winters in the United States, rarely straying to Britain or the rest of Europe. _C. albeola_, the Buffel-head, of North America, which has visited the Commander Islands and Britain, has the head purplish-green with a large white occipital patch, the iris brown and the feet pinkish. It breeds to the northward, the eggs being whitish.

_Tachyeres cinereus_, the Logger-head or Steamer Duck, of Chili, the Falklands, and Straits of Magellan, is grey in both sexes, with lighter head, rufous throat, white secondaries and belly, orange-yellow bill and feet. The narrow median rectrices are curled up, the wings very short; while the adults apparently lose the power of flight. Darwin well describes the noisy splashing action, the rapid and flapping swimming movements, the weak diving powers, the strong beak adapted for extracting shell-fish, and the voice like that of a bull-frog.[115] From seven to nine eggs are laid among herbage or low bushes.

_Fuligula marila_, the Scaup, of Northern Europe, Asia, and America, which migrates to the Mediterranean and Black Seas, North India, China, and Guatemala, has the head, neck, and chest greenish-black, the back vermiculated with black and white,[116] the wings and tail dusky, the speculum and under parts white, the bill and feet plumbeous. The female is chiefly brown above, with {122}white round the base of the bill. _F. affinis_, of North America, has the head purplish; _F. cristata_, of the whole Palaearctic area, breeding freely in Britain and apparently in the Abyssinian highlands, while wintering in India, Japan, China, the Malay Archipelago and Polynesia, is distinguished by an occipital crest, and in the male by a black back. _F. novae zealandiae_, of New Zealand, the Auckland and Chatham Islands, has a purple and green gloss above, a few white dots on the back, and rufous-brown abdominal feathers, the latter being brown and white in the female. _F. collaris_, of North America generally, has a violet tinge on the black portions, a chestnut collar, a blue-grey speculum, and white under parts barred with dusky; the bill shows two whitish bands; the female has white lores and throat.

_Nyroca ferina_, the Pochard, which breeds not uncommonly in Britain, ranges from Iceland to Japan, and in winter to North Africa, India, and China; it has a chestnut head and neck, a black gorget, and upper parts finely freckled with black and white; the speculum is grey, the quill-feathers and rump are black, the lower parts greyish-white; the bill is black, banded with dull blue, and the feet are bluish. In the female, or Dunbird, the head, neck, and chest are dull reddish and the back browner. _N. americana_, of North America, has a purple shade on the head and neck, a white belly, and no black at the base of the bill. The female has a grey-brown head. The larger _N. vallisneria_, the Canvas-Back of the same country, which breeds in the north-west, has the crown and comparatively long bill black. The female has some white on the head and neck, and is vermiculated with white on the back. _N. baeri_, of Eastern Asia, has a green-black head and neck, but is chiefly brown, with a black-edged white speculum and whitish wing-quills, the female being duller with a chestnut cheek-patch. _N. africana_, the White-eyed Duck of British Lists, breeds from Central Europe to the Mediterranean basin, and from the Ob Valley to Cashmere, wintering southwards to the Canaries, Abyssinia, and Arrakan. It has a chestnut head, neck, and chest, a white spot on the chin, blackish-brown upper parts, a brown collar, a black-edged white speculum, a little white on the primaries, and white lower surface, the bill and feet being plumbeous and the irides white. The female is duller with browner head. _N. innotata_, of Madagascar, has a darker head and no chin-spot. _N. australis_, of most of the Australian Region, is not dissimilar, but has a brown tip {123}to the white speculum and some brown on the belly. _N. brunnea_, of South and East Africa, is brown, mottled with grey above, the head and upper neck being dark purplish-chestnut, the lower neck black, the speculum white with a black posterior band. Some white shows on the primaries, and the bill and feet are plumbeous. The female has white at the base of the bill, on the throat, and behind the eye. _N. nationi_, of Peru, is hardly distinct.

The majority of these two genera are wary sea-birds, though breeding inland; they feed at dawn or dusk on aquatic plants and seeds, molluscs, insects, and even small fish and frogs, chiefly obtained by diving, wherein they are great adepts. _Vallisneria spiralis_, a plant largely eaten by the Canvas-Back, accounts for its specific name and possibly for its flavour. The note is a grating or guttural sound, varied by a low whistle; the nest is generally close to water, and contains from six to thirteen green eggs. _N. africana_, _N. australis_, and _Fuligula novae zealandiae_ are rather more skulking species with weaker flight, rarely found at sea.

_Metopiana peposaca_, of South America, northward to Chili and South Brazil, is black with grey vermiculations above and on the belly, the cheeks and upper neck are purplish, the speculum and inner primaries chiefly white, the bill and its swollen base carmine, the feet yellow. The female is brown, with whitish under parts and grey on the wing. It frequents marshes on the Pampas, has a rapid heavy flight, utters a long hoarse note, and lays a dozen creamy eggs.

_Netta rufina_, the Red-crested Duck, found from the Mediterranean to the Caspian and Turkestan, or to India in winter, rarely occurs in Britain or North Europe, and is recorded once from America; it is chiefly greyish-brown above and blacker below, with a large crest on the chestnut head, white speculum and sides, red beak and feet. The crestless female is duller, with whitish cheeks and throat.

Sub-fam. 5. _Anatinae_ or typical Ducks.–_Heteronetta atricapilla_, of South Brazil, Uruguay, Chili, and Argentina, is dark brown above with black head and rufous vermiculations, and white below with dusky markings; the tips of most of the wing-feathers are white, the bill is blackish with basi-lateral flesh-coloured spots, the feet are brownish. The female's head is brown. _Stictonetta naevosa_, of West and South Australia and Tasmania, is brown with freckles and spots of white in either sex. _Marmaronetta angustirostris_, ranging from South Europe and North Africa to India, and {124}occurring in the Canaries, is greyish above, with brown and buff marblings, and whitish below with brown bars. It flies low, utters a croaking whistle, and lays ten or eleven buff eggs in isolated tussocks. Both sexes of _Malacorhynchus membranaceus_, the Pink-eyed Duck of Australia and Tasmania (p. 111), are grey-brown with lighter dots, and some white on the face, wing, and tail; the under parts are whiter with brown bands, while behind each blackish eye-patch is a pink mark, situated below a dark line running to the occiput and down the nape. The bill is greenish, and the feet are emerald-coloured or yellowish. This species is a fearless denizen of still waters, with a habit of laying its six rich buff eggs in old Herons' nests, in holes in trees, or on flat branches.

_Spatula clypeata_, the Shoveller, which now breeds in many parts of Britain, extends from about the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central Asia, and the United States, wintering southward to Casamance, Somaliland, Ceylon, Borneo, China, Japan, Colombia, and the West Indies, and visiting the Hawaiian islands, the Gilbert Group, and Australia. It is dark brown, relieved by a green head, white neck, chestnut breast and belly; the longer scapulars being black with white median stripes, the wing-coverts pale blue, the speculum green with white anterior border, the bill plumbeous, the feet orange. The female is red-brown with duller wings, while the bill of the young shows the spoon-shaped form in about three weeks. _S. rhynchotis_, of Southern Australia, Tasmania, and the New Zealand area, has a dark brown crown, and blue-grey neck, with a white lateral line, the chest being whitish and the lower parts chestnut, both with black bands; _S. platalea_, ranging from Peru and Paraguay to Patagonia and the Falklands, is reddish with round black spots, having a black crown and rump; whereas _S. capensis_, of South Africa, has a grey-brown head and neck, and brown mantle and under parts with darker mottlings. The wings and scapulars are similar in all the above, except in _S. capensis_, where the latter are dark blue-green. The females hardly differ from each other, but that of _S. rhynchotis_ is darker, that of _S. platalea_ has a shorter bill, while in both sexes of _S. capensis_ the speculum has a blue tinge. Shovellers are somewhat silent birds with a peculiar habit of swimming and feeding in circles over spots where Diving Ducks are submerged[117]; the diet includes herbage, worms, molluscs, crustaceans, and insects; the eggs are pale green.

{125}_Querquedula circia_, the Garganey, which breeds (p. 126) regularly in East Anglia, ranges through most Palaearctic countries, and extends in winter to North Africa, a great part of the Indian Region, and the Moluccas; it has a brown crown, back, and chest, the last-named with darker crescents, a chocolate neck with white flecks, a white streak above the eye, bluish-grey wing-coverts, green speculum with white margins, and long black and white scapulars. _Q. discors_, its North American representative, reaching Ecuador and Peru in the cold season, is redder, with lead-coloured head, a white crescent before the eye, and brighter wing-coverts. The brownish females have a dull speculum. _Q. versicolor_, of America south of Paraguay, and _Q. puna_, of Peru, Bolivia, and Chili, have plumbeous wing-coverts; _Q. cyanoptera_, of western and southern South America, has the head and lower surface chestnut.

The flightless _Nesonetta aucklandica_, of the Auckland group, hardly differs in colour from _Elasmonetta chlorotis_, of the New Zealand area, which is brown waved with black and rufous above, chestnut and reddish with black spots below, the speculum being green and black, the gorget whitish. The female is rufous brown.

_Dafila acuta_, the Pintail or Sea-Pheasant of the northern regions generally, reaching North Africa, Ceylon, the Sandwich Islands, Panama, and elsewhere in winter, has a brown head and nape, a white line down each side of the neck, grey upper parts vermiculated with dusky, long black scapulars and rectrices mostly edged with white, a purple-green speculum margined in turn with black and white, a cinnamon bar on the wing-coverts, and a white breast. The female is greyish with brown speculum and ochraceous barring above, the markings being oblique on the tail. It now breeds in Scotland. _D. eatoni_, of Kerguelen Island and the Crozets, has a grey breast; _D. spinicauda_, ranging from Peru and South Brazil to Patagonia and the Falklands, has a rufous head and blackish speculum, the sexes being nearly alike, as in the next genus. _Poecilonetta bahamensis_ of the Bahamas, Antilles, and South America, _P. galapagensis_ of the Galapagos, and _P. erythrorhyncha_ of South and East Africa with Madagascar, are somewhat similar birds, having reddish plumage spotted with black, whitish cheeks and throat. In the first two the tail is buff, in the third the bill is chiefly pink, the speculum in all being much as in _Dafila_.

_Nettion crecca_, the Teal, extending from Britain over most of Europe and temperate Asia, and nesting even in the Azores and {126}Kuril Islands, winters in North Africa, India, Ceylon, Siam, China, and Japan, and wanders to North America. The head is chestnut with a green eye-patch enclosed by a buffish line, the upper parts are vermiculated with black and white, the speculum is black, green, and purple with a whitish border, the chest is buff with black spots, the under parts are white. _N. carolinense_ of North America, which strays to Europe–including Britain, has a white crescent on each side of the breast. _N. formosum_ of East Siberia, met with in winter in China, and accidentally in India, Italy, and France, has the head varied with black, green, buff, and white, a bluish wash on the back and chest, a speculum of buff, green, and white. In these three species the female is mottled with brown and rufous, and has a duller speculum. _N. castaneum_ of Australia and New Zealand, recorded from Celebes and Java, the doubtful _N. gibberifrons_ of the Malay Archipelago, _N. albigulare_ of the Andamans, _N. bernieri_ of Madagascar, _N. capense_ of South and East Africa, _N. flavirostre_ of America south of Southern Brazil and Chili, _N. andium_ of Ecuador and Venezuela, _N. georgicum_ of South Georgia, _N. punctatum_ of South and East Africa with Madagascar, _N. brasiliense_ of South America generally, and _N. torquatum_ of Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina, complete the genus. Teal are fresh-water Ducks, feeding chiefly at night on water-plants, seeds, worms, and insects; they are rather silent, and have not the rattling spring-note of the Garganey. The nest is in both cases usually placed at some distance from water in grass, rushes, or heather, the eight to ten eggs being greenish in the Teal and cream-coloured in the Garganey.

_Mareca penelope_, the Wigeon, which breeds in Scotland, and ranges across North Europe and Asia to Alaska, occurring in winter as far south as Madeira, Abyssinia, Borneo, or even Polynesia, and occasionally on the American coasts, has a rufous head with buff crown, blackish throat and quill-feathers, white upper parts vermiculated with black, white wing-coverts and lower surface, and a green speculum with a black edge. The female is mottled with brown and rufous above, and has a grey-green speculum, and buffish lower parts. This species, which has a whistling cry, whence it is termed "Whew," feeds chiefly by day on grass-wrack and the like when frequenting the mud-flats in winter; the nest is among dry heather or rushes, and contains from seven to ten greenish-buff eggs. _M. americana_, of North {127}America generally, has a whitish head with black spots, which cover the crown in the female only. _M. sibilatrix_, reaching from Chili and Paraguay to Patagonia and the Falklands, is chiefly black and white with blue-green nape and black speculum.

_Chaulelasmus streperus_, the Gadwall, which breeds in East Anglia and South Spain, and is apparently spreading thence, occurs in the subarctic regions of both Worlds, and migrates to Shoa, India, China, Mexico, and Jamaica. _C. couesi_ of the Fanning group may be distinct. The head and upper neck are light brown with dusky spots; the back is blackish with grey markings, the rump black; the lower parts are white with black crescents on the breast; the wing-coverts grey, chestnut, and black. The female is dark brown varied with rufous. The speculum is white. The habits are as in most fresh-water Ducks, the eggs being buff.

_Eunetta falcata_ of East Asia and Japan is a fine bird with chestnut crown, bronzy-purple cheeks, green occipital crest, white neck ringed with green, grey and black upper parts, and lower surface waved with black and white. The white-margined speculum is green, the long thin sickle-shaped inner secondaries are black and white, and a patch on each side of the tail is buff. Both upper and under tail-coverts exceed the rectrices. The female resembles that of the Gadwall, but has a black speculum.

_Anas boscas_, the Mallard or Wild Duck, ranges from about the Arctic Circle to the Azores, North Africa, Cashmere, and the United States, being found southward in winter to India and Panama. The head is green with a white collar, the upper parts are grey and brown, the rump is black, the speculum purple with margins of black and white, the breast chestnut, the four curly central rectrices being black. The female is brown and buff with a green speculum. In the habits there is little that is peculiar, but the eggs are greenish. The coloration in the remaining species is usually dusky, nor do the sexes differ greatly. _A. wyvilliana_ inhabits the Hawaiian, and _A. laysanensis_ the Laysan Islands; _A. melleri_ Madagascar; _A. obscura_, with its two local forms _A. fulvigula_ and _A. maculosa_, Eastern North America; _A. diazi_ and _A. aberti_ Mexico; _A. luzonica_ the Philippines; _A. superciliosa_ the Malay Archipelago and Australian Region; _A. poccilorhyncha_, with red, yellow, and black bill, India, Ceylon, and Burma; _A. zonorhyncha_, where the bill is yellow and black and the feet reddish, Eastern Asia; _A. undulata_ and _A. sparsa_, also with yellow and black bill, but {128}black and orange feet respectively, South and East Africa; _A. specularis_, Chili and Patagonia; and _A. cristata_, with a pendent nuchal crest, America from Peru southwards.

_Tadorna cornuta_, the Sheld-Drake or Bargander, which ranges from Britain across Europe and temperate Asia to Japan, and migrates to the Mediterranean basin, North India, and South China, has the bill and the basal knob–wanting in the female–red, the feet pink, the head glossy green; it shews a white collar on the lower neck followed by a broad chestnut band; blackish outer scapulars, remiges, and tip of the tail; a patch of chestnut on the inner secondaries, a green speculum, and a brown line down the under parts, the remaining portions being white. This bird frequents sandy coasts and muddy flats throughout the year, nesting in burrows, or rarely among rocks, masonry, or bushes, and laying some ten shiny white eggs. The flight is powerful and heavy; the note is a shrill whistle or barking quack; the food consists of aquatic plants, molluscs, and insects. _T. radjah_, of Australia, Papuasia, and the Moluccas, is white in both sexes, with blackish scapulars, back, rump, primaries, and rectrices; the mantle is vermiculated with chestnut, the similarly-coloured pectoral band is barred with black, the speculum is green with black posterior margin, the bill and feet are whitish. It breeds commonly in {129}holes in trees, on which it is quite at ease. _Casarca rutila_, the Ruddy Sheld-Drake or Brahminy Duck of South Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia, which has strayed to Britain and winters in India, Burma, and Formosa, has a buff head, separated from the orange-brown body by a black collar in summer, white wing-coverts, black wing- and tail-quills, purple and green speculum, and black bill and feet. The female is lighter, with no collar. It frequents fresh water, grazes on corn and grass like a goose, and breeds in holes of any sort. _C. cana_ of South Africa differs in its grey head, rufous collar, and black vermiculations above, the female having the front of the head white. _C. variegata_ of New Zealand is black relieved by grey, the neck being brown, the anal region and inner secondaries chestnut, the wing-coverts white, the speculum green. The hen-bird has the head white, the lower neck, back, and under parts chestnut, varied with black and white. _C. tadornoïdes_, of South and West Australia and Tasmania, has a glossy green head, white collar, rufous lower neck and chest, black body with fulvous mottlings, white wing-coverts, chestnut inner secondaries, and green speculum, the head of the female being brown.

_Chenalopex aegyptiaca_, the "Egyptian Goose," found in Palestine and Africa, is rusty or buffish-grey, marked above with black, and with red, white, green, and black on the wing. The nape and collar are rufous; the breast shews a maroon patch, the bill is pink and black, the feet are pink. It has a loud, harsh cry, feeds on land, and lays rather small creamy eggs in cavities of rocks, on trees, or even among rushes. _C. jubata_, of Amazonia and Guiana, is grey, with greenish-black back, wings, and tail, ruddy mantle and belly, purplish-green wing-coverts, and white speculum. The sexes are alike in this genus and the next.

In _Dendrocycna_, containing the Tree-Ducks, which occur mostly in the tropics, the main colour is chestnut or dusky-brown, with dark nape and black rump or belly; but the head may be lighter, the throat or wing-coverts varied with white, or the flanks barred with black and white. _D. viduata_, of the Ethiopian and Neotropical Regions, has the front of the head white; _D. autumnalis_, of Central America, and _D. discolor_, its greyer representative in northern South America, have red bills and whitish feet; _D. arborea_, of the Bahamas and Antilles, has strongly spotted lower parts, as has the larger _D. guttata_, of Mindanao, Celebes, New Guinea, and the Moluccas; _D. fulva_, of the Ethiopian, Neotropical, {130}and Indian Regions, has white upper and under tail-coverts; _D. javanica_, of the latter area only, has them chestnut above and fulvous white below; _D. arcuata_, ranging from the Malay Archipelago to Fiji, has the breast chestnut barred with black; _D. eytoni_, of Australia, which has strayed to New Zealand, has it yellowish-brown. These birds fly slowly and heavily, and perch regularly on trees, where they sway awkwardly about upon the branches; the note is a clear whistle or a chattering sound; the food consists mainly of fish and water-plants, sought at all times of day. In winter the flocks cause great damage to corn or rice near the lagoons and other waters they frequent. The nest, placed in hollow trees, stumps, long grass, or deserted habitations of other birds, contains from six to twelve white eggs.