Chapter XV: Introduction (14)

_Cerorhyncha monocerata_, the Rhinoceros Auklet of the North Pacific and western North America, has a stout, curved orange and black bill, with a large compressed horn between the nostrils, and an accessory piece on the mandible; the upper parts are dusky, the lower whitish with plumbeous cheeks and throat, while a row of narrow white feathers decorates each side of the {318}head. In winter the horny processes disappear, but not the plumes. _Ptychorhamphus aleuticus_, Cassin's Auklet, of the Pacific coast of North America, is black above and white below, with a lead-coloured throat, a white iris, and a bill which is mainly black, and becomes wrinkled in summer. _Cyclorhynchus psittaculus_, the Parrot Auk of the North Pacific, has an extraordinary compressed orange-red beak, to which the blunt decurved maxilla and narrow up-curved mandible give a rounded appearance; the upper parts and the throat are dusky; the lower surface, the iris, and a row of filaments behind each eye are white, as is the throat in winter. Three species of _Simorhynchus_, from the North Pacific, have a stout orange-red or purplish bill, a white iris, and black upper parts. _S. cristatellus_, the Crested Auklet, has several deciduous plates at the base of the beak, including a round piece at each side of the gape; the lower parts are grey; a tuft of dusky plumes curls over the forehead, and a line of narrow white feathers stretches across the ear-coverts–both being permanent: in winter the bill is horn-coloured. _S. pygmaeus_, the Whiskered Auklet, is without conspicuously deciduous plates, but has an additional patch of white plumes, reaching from the beak above and below the eye at all seasons. _S. pusillus_, the Least Auklet, has on the short maxilla a small compressed basal tubercle, which is shed in winter, but exhibits no crest. The scapular region shews a good deal of white; filamentous white feathers grace the forehead, lores, and ear-coverts; and dusky spots mark the lower parts, in summer only. _Synthliborhamphus antiquus_, of the Pacific north of Vancouver Island and Japan, but accidental elsewhere, has a short, compressed, yellow and black beak, with plumbeous upper and white lower parts; the head and throat are black with a white line on each side of the occiput, the upper back is streaked with white. In winter all the stripes vanish, and the throat is white. _S. wumizusume_, of the Eastern Asiatic seas southward to Japan, has a nuptial crest of long narrow plumes, but no streaks on the back. In the cold season the whole malar region and throat are white. _Brachyrhamphus marmoratus_ of the North Pacific, reaching California in winter, has a small slender black bill, dusky upper parts barred with rufous, and white under parts varied with brown; _B. kittlitzi_, of the Aleutian Islands east to Unalashka, Kamtschatka, and North Japan, is thickly {319}spotted with buff above; _B. hypoleucus_ and _B. craveri_ of Lower California are plain slate-coloured with white lower surface, the former having white and the latter grey wing-lining. The first two species have a white nuchal collar and irregular white markings above in winter, with nearly white lower parts.

_Cepphus grylle_, the Black Guillemot of the Atlantic northwards from Britain and Maine, and of the Arctic coasts of Europe, is black with a white wing-patch, the feathers of which are black at the base; in winter the plumage is white, relieved above and sometimes below by black, and the red feet become pinkish. The compressed pointed bill is always black. _C. mandti_, occupying, as it seems, the North Polar seas generally, and breeding as far south as Labrador, has a more slender bill, and no black wing-patch. _C. columba_, ranging from Bering Strait and Japan to California, has a large wedge-shaped black mark on the white wing-patch; _C. carbo_, of North-East Asia, Japan, the Kuril and Bering Islands, shews no white except round the eye. All these forms wander southwards in winter. The Black Guillemot or Tystie still breeds in the Isle of Man, and sparsely on the East of Scotland and Ireland, in the north and west of which countries it is not uncommon. It is remarkably tame when it breeds in the wilder districts, uttering a plaintive cry, and making its way to land in the face of an intruder. The two whitish or greenish eggs, beautifully spotted with black, brown, and grey, are deposited among large boulders, or in holes at the bases of cliffs, without any nest.

Of the last group of Auks, with feathered nostrils, _Uria troile_, the well-known Common Guillemot, Willock, or Murre, breeds numerously in Britain, where the cliffs are suitable; it extends from Bear Island near Spitsbergen to the Magdalen Islands in America and the Tagus in Europe, occurring on migration southwards to the New England States and the Canaries. The plumage is dusky above and white below, with a brownish head and white alar bar. The throat, cheeks, and a few feathers on the head are white in winter; the long pointed bill and feet are blackish. The Ringed Guillemot is a mere variety with a white ring round the eye and a streak behind it; but _U. californica_, with stouter bill, from the Pacific coast of North America, may be considered a sub-species. _U. brünnichi_, distinguishable by its blacker crown, and deeper beak with a white edge to the maxilla, {320}ranges from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Iceland to the Arctic Seas of both worlds in summer, moving further south in winter; the North Pacific race being denominated _U. arra_. Descriptions of the colonies of Guillemots in the icy seas, and of the smaller but equally crowded stations in Britain, have been too frequently given to need repetition here; but it may be mentioned that during incubation, which lasts about a month, the parent holds the egg between its thighs, and not unfrequently carries it off a ledge, when suddenly scared. On flat-topped stacks these eggs (p. 316) often lie in the closest juxtaposition.

In _Alca_ the black bill is deep and highly compressed, with a curved culmen; and shews oblique or transverse grooves, which are wanting in the young. _A. torda_, the Razorbill, less common in Britain than the Guillemot, ranges from Jan Mayen and Greenland to Maine and Brittany, visiting North Carolina and the Canaries in some winters. It is greenish-black with brown throat-region and white lower parts, a white line stretching from the top of the {321}beak to the eye, and another crossing both mandibles in the adult only. The tips of the secondaries are white, forming an alar bar, the feet are black. The throat and cheeks are white in the winter and immature plumage. _A. impennis_, the extinct Great Auk or Garefowl, inhabited the North Atlantic, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Iceland and Newfoundland, but apparently never reached north of the Arctic Circle. Remains have been found in the kitchen-middens of Denmark, North and West Scotland, and North and South Ireland; in a cave on the coast of Durham; and abundantly on Funk Island in the Newfoundland Seas, where the bird was called "Penguin"; that name being subsequently transferred to the Spheniscidae. The last two living examples were obtained at the isle of Eldey, off Iceland, in 1844, while 1812, 1821, and 1834 are the last dates of capture in Orkney, St. Kilda, and Ireland respectively, allowing for a possible instance in St. Kilda (Borrera) in 1840. This species, extirpated chiefly by the persecution of fishermen, but subsequently by collectors, resembled a flightless Razorbill, though double the size; it had no white stripes on the head or bill, but shewed a large white patch before each eye. The huge egg was white or buff, with scattered round spots or plentiful fine scrawls of black or brown; about seventy of these eggs, and a somewhat greater number of birds, existing at present in collections.[204]

_Mergulus alle_, the Little Auk or Rotche, occurring on migration in Britain, and occasionally in the Canaries, Azores, and New Jersey, breeds from Greenland and the Kara Sea to North Iceland. It is black above and white below, with a spot over the eye, streaks on the scapulars, and an alar bar also of white; the throat is black in summer only. The short, broad, arched bill is black, the feet are brownish. The single greenish- or bluish-white egg, often shewing faint rufous markings, is deposited in a deep crevice of a cliff, or among boulders on beaches.

As regards fossil forms, _Uria_ has been found in the Miocene of Maine and North Carolina, and in the Pliocene of Tuscany.

* * * * *

Of the second or Pteroclo-Columbine group of Charadriiform Birds (p. 268) the Old World Sub-Order PTEROCLES contains only–

Fam. IX. PTEROCLIDAE, or the Sand-Grouse, equally interesting as regards their structure and their habits. Originally considered {322}akin to Grouse, they have since given rise to much discussion; Dr. Gadow's view–here adopted–being that they are highly specialized forms, analogous to the Galli in their digestive organs, but homologically constituting a link between the Limicolae and the Columbae.[205] From the Pigeons they certainly differ remarkably in the condition of the chicks, which are covered with brown, creamy, and black down, and run almost immediately from the shell; yet they agree with them in most points of osteology, myology, and pterylosis, while the eggs recall those of Rails, and the flight resembles that of a Plover.

The body is compact; the bill short, arched, and fairly stout; the metatarsus abbreviated and feathered anteriorly, or entirely in _Syrrhaptes_. In this genus, moreover, the hallux, much reduced elsewhere, is totally absent; and the short front toes are enclosed in a sort of casing, which is covered as far as the thick claws with hairy plumage, the whole forming a padded foot unique among Birds. The long pointed wings have sixteen or seventeen secondaries, and eleven primaries, of which the outer has its shaft produced into a thin filament in _Syrrhaptes paradoxus_; the wedge-shaped tail has sixteen rectrices, the median pair being elongated and pointed in that genus and _Pteroclurus_ (Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse), if the latter be allowed to stand. The furcula is U-shaped, the syrinx tracheo-bronchial, the tongue lanceolate; there is a small aftershaft, and a large crop; while the down of the adults is sparingly distributed.

Sand-Grouse are true desert-birds, affording excellent instances of protective coloration in their buff or brownish tints, slightly varied with grey, black, orange, and white; _Pterocles fasciatus_ and _P. lichtensteini_, however, prefer bushy and rocky ground to bare, sandy, or stony plains. Gregarious yet monogamous, they are shy and wary, but very pugnacious among themselves; their flight is swift, strong, and noisy; their powers of walking and running good, though rather clumsy, owing to the extremely short legs. All the species lie closely until flushed, and are fond of basking in the sun on their sides, in holes scraped out for the purpose. Migration probably prevails to some extent throughout the Family, while the irruptions of _Syrrhaptes paradoxus_ into Europe (p. 324) are quite unparalleled. The cry, often uttered upon the wing, is a piercing whistle, or a twittering {323}or clucking sound; though that of _Syrrhaptes_ appears to be hoarser, and has been syllabled as "truck-turuck" and "caga-caga" in _S. paradoxus_ and _S. tibetanus_ respectively. The alarm-note is of a croaking nature. The food consists of seeds, tender shoots, bulbous grass-roots, and insects, or even of berries, peas, and beans; while the birds flock to drink at certain favourite spots, and are variously stated to take continuous or interrupted draughts. The nest is a mere hollow in the soil, frequently lined with a little grass; the three oval, but peculiarly cylindrical, eggs vary from whitish to buff, or greenish in _Syrrhaptes_, and are marked with brown, reddish, and violet. Both sexes assist in incubation, which lasts from twenty-five to twenty-eight days. Opinions vary as to the edible quality of the flesh.

_Pterocles arenarius_, ranging from the Canary Islands, North Africa, and Madagascar to South Europe and Central Asia, has dark grey upper parts, with orange-yellow markings, except on the white-tipped primaries and tail; the chestnut throat surmounts a black patch, which is succeeded by a breast of the same dove-colour as the head, crossed by a black band; the belly being black also. The bill is horn-coloured, the feet are greyish. The female is buff, barred above and spotted below with black; her throat is yellowish-white, and the black areas on her lower surface are as in the male. _P. decoratus_ of East Africa, _P. bicinctus_ and _P. variegatus_ of South Africa, _P. coronatus_ and _P. lichtensteini_, extending from the Sahara and Kordofan respectively to North-West India, _P. gutturalis_ of East Africa, _P. personatus_ of Madagascar, _P. fasciatus_ of India–the only species peculiar to Asia–and _P. quadricinctus_, found from Senegambia to Abyssinia, are fairly similar to the above, though chiefly sandy in some cases.

_Pteroclurus alchata_, absurdly termed "Perdrix d'Angleterre" {324}in France, and Rock-Pigeon in India, is grey above, with yellow tips to the dorsal feathers; it has black, brown, and greyish-white wings, shewing chestnut and yellow on the coverts; yellowish rump and long median rectrices barred with black. The cheeks are orange, the throat is black with a little yellow beneath, the upper breast is chestnut-red, bordered by a black line above and below, the remaining under parts are white, the bill and feet brownish. The female differs in her white throat, and in her upper surface irregularly marked with buff, grey, and black. This species occurs in South Europe, North Africa, and South-West Asia; _P. namaqua_ inhabits South Africa; _P. exustus_ ranges from Senegal to the Pangani River in East Africa, and through Palestine to Central Asia and India; while _P. senegallus_ extends from the Sahara to Palestine, Arabia, and North-West India.

_Syrrhaptes paradoxus_, Pallas's Sand-Grouse, has buff upper parts barred with black; mainly blue-grey wings and tail, with black and chestnut markings on the former, and white tips to the lateral rectrices; dull yellow crown and cheeks; orange nape and throat; greyish-buff neck and breast, white abdomen and metatarsal plumage, an interrupted black gorget, and a broader black band towards the belly. The female has less elongated median tail-feathers, black streaks on the buff head, a black bar across the throat, and is duller generally. _S. tibetanus_, with entirely white belly, the largest of the Family, extends from the Sutlej and South Kashmir to Koko-Nor; but its congener reaches from the Lower Volga or the Kirghiz Steppes to the north of Lake Baikal and North China, while some erratic impulse of uncertain origin causes it to invade the plains of China and the whole of Europe at irregular intervals. One specimen was obtained at Sarepta on the Volga in 1848, and again in 1860, when flocks visited Pekin; in 1859 a few examples occurred on the Continent, and between July and November three wandered to Britain; while in 1863 some 700 individuals reached our shores by May 21, straying as far as Ireland, but vanishing towards autumn. Several pairs bred on the sand-hills of Holland and Jutland. In 1872 and 1876 small parties visited us; and in 1888 another and incalculably larger invasion took place, which extended farther southward than that of 1863, and after entering Europe before the beginning of April, occupied Britain between May 6 and May 15, to remain there throughout {325}that year and the succeeding. Besides breeding in Denmark, Holstein, and no doubt elsewhere on the Continent, two pairs nested in 1888 in the east of Yorkshire, and one or more on the Culbin Sands in Moray, whence in 1889 Professor Newton received on August 8 a chick of two or three days old. This was exhibited at the Newcastle Meeting of the British Association, and subsequently figured in _The Ibis_.[206] Doubtless the above were not the only cases of reproduction in England, and it was hoped that a protective Act, which came into force in February 1889, would lead to permanent colonization; but by 1890, or, according to some, 1892, all the birds had disappeared.

As a fossil, _Pterocles_ occurs in the Eocene and Miocene of France.

* * * * *

The Sub-Order COLUMBAE must certainly be divided into the Families _Dididae_ for the Dodo and Solitaire, and _Columbidae_ for the Pigeons, while a third, _Didunculidae_, may be added to contain the Tooth-billed Pigeon of Samoa, to which _Otidiphaps_ of Papuasia is possibly allied. For convenience sake we may accept four Sub-families of the _Columbidae_, namely (1) _Gourinae_, (2) _Peristerinae_, (3) _Columbinae_, and (4) _Treroninae_, though the arrangement is somewhat arbitrary. Dr. Gadow[207] segregates _Caloenatinae_, but not _Peristerinae_, while he and Count Salvadori[208] agree in considering _Didunculus_ merely on a level with these subdivisions.

Throughout the group the body is compact, while the bill varies from stout to slender, being swollen and hardened at the decurved tip, which forms a hook in the Dididae and Didunculidae. The base of this feature is covered with a soft skin or cere, containing the nostrils; _Globicera_, _Vinago calva_, and _Ptilopus insolitus_ have a fleshy or bony knob at the posterior part of the culmen, said to be most prominent in the breeding season; and _Didunculus_ has the mandible toothed and truncated. The metatarsi, reticulated in the Gourinae, but scutellated elsewhere, are usually partly feathered, especially in Fruit-Pigeons; some species of _Columbigallina_, however, have them naked; _Drepanoptila_ has them entirely covered; and in many domestic breeds the plumage extends over the toes, which are all on the same level, and possess moderate claws. The skin is more or less expanded {326}on each side of the digits. The rounded wings are commonly long, but are short in Ground-Pigeons, and aborted in the flightless Dididae, the primaries numbering eleven and the secondaries from ten to seventeen; the former are bifurcated at the tip in _Drepanoptila_, attenuated in some members of _Ptilopus_, _Oxypelia_, _Peristera_, and _Leptoptila_, while one or more of the three outer feathers is not uncommonly scalloped. The tail varies considerably in form and dimensions, being wedge-shaped in _Sphenocercus_, rounded in _Zenaida_, _Phabotreron_, and _Megaloprepia_, acuminate in _Ectopistes_, long and graduated in _Oena_, _Macropygia_, and _Reinwardtoenas_, and so forth. The rectrices range from twelve to twenty, sixteen being the normal number in the Gourinae, twelve in the Columbinae, and fourteen in the Treroninae. The neck-feathers may be bifurcated, as in _Alectoroenas_, _Columba guinea_, and occasionally in _Turtur_, or those of the breast, as in some species of _Macropygia_, _Ptilopus_, and _Phaenorrhina_; the neck, moreover, is hackled in _Caloenas_ and _Lopholaemus_, and the body-plumage is generally narrow with widely-separated barbs in _Chrysoenas_. Five members of _Phlogoenas_ have a patch of stiff feathers over the crop; while the splendid decomposed crest of _Goura_ is exceptionally striking, and more ordinary tufts grace the head in _Lopholaemus_, _Coryphoenas_, _Lophophaps_, _Ocyphaps_, and elsewhere. The forehead is sometimes nearly bare, as are the lores and eyelids in _Gymnophaps_; naked red or yellow orbits are found in _Gymnopelia_, _Reinwardtoenas_, _Macropygia_, _Turacoena_, _Didunculus_, and _Columba gymnophthalma_, not to mention other instances; while the tendency reaches its height in the huge circumocular wattles of several fanciers' races. In _Serresius_ a feathered "saddle" extends over half the culmen.

The furcula is U-shaped, being much reduced in the Dididae; the syrinx is remarkable for the asymmetrical union of the sterno-tracheal muscles; the tongue is lanceolate; the impervious nostrils are linear in the Columbidae and Didunculidae, oblique in the Dididae. The crop is more highly developed than in other Families. The gizzard of _Caloenas_ is remarkable for an indurated horn-like patch on each side of the epithelial lining, that of _Carpophaga latrans_ has the interior beset with similar conical prominences, correlated with a diet of hard fruit. _Phaenorrhina_ has these cones still more developed, and _Ptilopus_ agrees with _Drepanoptila_ in possessing four pads in the above organ instead {327}of two, the regular number in Birds. The after-shaft is rudimentary or absent, the adults have no down, the young are hatched blind and naked, and remain for a long time in the nest. The plumage is commonly dull blue or brown, with an iridescent sheen; but remarkably brilliant purple, red, yellow, and green hues manifest themselves in forms such as _Ptilopus_, _Chrysoenas_, and _Caloenas_ from the islands of the Eastern Seas, the headquarters of the Family. Though smaller, the female usually resembles the male; but _Turturoena_, _Oena_, and _Peristera_ are examples of diversity, while immature examples are duller than adults. _Goura_ approaches the size of a goose, whereas _Columbigallina_ is little larger than a sparrow. Of domestic Pigeons the Rock-Dove is undoubtedly the origin, but the breeds are now infinite in their variety.[209]

Omitting the abnormal Didine Birds, the habits of the members of this group are fairly uniform, the majority of them inhabiting wooded country; while even those like _Phaps_, _Lophophaps_, and _Geophaps_, which occupy the arid plains of Australia, are to be found at times where vegetation is plentiful; and in all cases the proximity of water seems indispensable. Fruit-Pigeons frequent trees, and the most typical Columbine forms are found in woods or among rocks, though the smaller Doves naturally prefer the lower bushes. Wood-Pigeons towards winter, and Passenger-Pigeons when nesting–not to mention other instances–gather in large flocks; in some cases, however, the parties only number about half a dozen, and more solitary habits are by no means uncommon. The flight is strong, rapid, and direct, though the Ground-Pigeons remain a comparatively short time upon the wing, and some species prefer to run unless forced to rise, _Oena_ being an especially good walker. The well-known "homing" powers of trained birds, the curious backward somersaults of the Tumbler, and the sudden rise and clap of the wings so noticeable in the Wood-Pigeon when courting, merit a passing mention. Every member of the Family perches, and many delight to bask in the sun. The note is always of the nature of a coo, but is especially loud and deep in _Myristicivora_, _Megaloprepia_, and some members of _Carpophaga_, guttural in _Haplopelia_, mournful in _Peristera_ and _Zenaidura_, harsh and trumpet-like in _Goura_; the voice of the Turtle-Dove suggests a purr, while _Tympanistria_ and _Starnoenas_ possess powers of ventriloquism. {328}The food of the Wood-Pigeon is grain, beech-mast, acorns, turnips, and tender shoots of plants; that of Fruit-Pigeons consists of figs, palm-nuts, grapes, and so forth, plucked from the tree, and in the case of _Myristicivora bicolor_ and _Globicera myristicivora_, largely of the mace which encases the nutmeg; Ground-Doves and other small forms subsist mainly on seeds of grasses; and it may be safely inferred that in most cases the diet varies considerably. _Turturoena_ is stated to eat Cicada larvae; _Leucosarcia_ those of Diptera; _Goura_ and _Otidiphaps_ worms, snails, and insects. Pigeons, unlike birds generally, take continuous draughts of water, immersing the bill to the base. The nest is usually a slight platform of sticks, placed aloft on a branch or in a bush; but our Rock-Dove and _Columba phaeonota_ of South Africa breed in caves or holes in rocks; the Stock-Dove prefers hollow trees, rabbit-burrows, and the like; _Geophaps_ the bare soil; and so forth. _Phaps_, _Peristera_, and _Zenaida_ nest either on the ground or in bushes, but the latter appear to be almost invariably chosen by Ground-Doves like _Columbigallina_ and _Geopelia_. The white eggs are two, or exceptionally three, in number; the Dodo, however, laid only one, and so do _Caloenas_, _Ectopistes_, _Didunculus_, and some species of _Carpophaga_ and _Columba_, as well as _Goura_, where it is larger than that of a tame Duck. Societies, such as those of _Ectopistes_ and _Caloenas_, are most unusual. Some Pigeons breed three times a year, the male commonly assisting in incubation, which lasts from fourteen to twenty-eight days. The members of this Family are shy, but readily tamed; yet the Collared Turtle-Dove is perhaps the only really good cage-bird. Most of them are excellent for the table, _Leucosarcia_, _Geophaps_, _Goura_, and the Treroninae being accounted particularly delicate, while the Wood-Pigeon and the domestic breeds speak for themselves. The great damage, however, done to crops, such as turnips, peas, or barley, by the flocks counterbalances their economic value to a considerable extent, the most typical forms being undoubtedly the worst offenders.

Fam. X. DIDIDAE.–This consists of three extinct species–_Didus ineptus_, the Dodo of Mauritius, _D. borbonicus_ of Réunion (Bourbon), and _Pezophaps solitarius_, the Solitaire of Rodriguez.

The Dodo, familiar to all by name, if not by pictures, was an immense Pigeon-like bird bigger than a Turkey, with an aborted keel to the sternum and the wings also aborted. The coracoid and scapula met at an obtuse angle, as in many other flightless species. {329}The huge blackish bill terminated in a large horny hook, the cheeks were partly bare, the short yellow legs were stout, scaly, and feathered on the upper portion; the plumage was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish-white wings, and black tips to their coverts. The short rectrices formed a curled tuft, and the first four primaries were directed backwards.

This uncouth and unwieldy species, of which a full account will be found in the works mentioned below,[210] which have been largely utilized here, was noticed as early as 1598 by the Dutch, who called it Walghvogel, or Nauseous Bird, from their dislike of its flesh, and the island, where it was then found abundantly, Mauritius. The earliest representation was given in 1601 by De Bry, who stated that an example was brought alive to Holland. Other Dutch fleets subsequently visited the island, and several sketches of the Dodo were made, while one of the captains records that it was indifferently called Dodaars or Dronte. Roelandt Savery of Courtrai (1576-1639) painted the Dodo–probably from life–more than once, pictures by him still existing in {330}Berlin (1626), Vienna (1628), the Hague, Pommersfelden, Stuttgart, and London, the last-named belonging to the Zoological Society. The British Museum also possesses an undated picture, another is at Haarlem, a third at Oxford; while one by Goiemare at Sion House (dated 1627), and one said to be by Hoefnagel in the library of the late Emperor of Austria (_circa_ 1620) were possibly taken from living birds. In 1628 Englishmen appeared on the scene, Emanuel Altham having sent a specimen home alive to his brother, while Herbert, accompanying the same fleet, mentioned the Dodo and figured it. About 1634 an example was given to the Anatomy School at Oxford by a Mr. Gosling, and some four years later Sir Hamon Lestrange saw a captive bird in London. Finally, we may note that individuals existed in Mauritius until 1681, as proved by the journal of Benjamin Harry.

In 1865 the discovery of a large quantity of remains in the Mare aux Songes, by Mr. G. Clark, enabled Owen and others to confirm the suggestion of the Danish naturalist, Reinhardt, of the Dodo's affinity to the Pigeons; while in 1889 M. Sauzier, acting for the Government of Mauritius, sent to the late Sir Edward Newton a series of bones from the same spot, enabling the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton to be returned for the museum of that island, and the important paper, noticed above, to be published by the last-named and Dr. Gadow. Nearly perfect specimens exist at Cambridge, in the British Museum, and at Paris.

The Dodo is said to have inhabited forests, to have swallowed pebbles, to have uttered a cry like that of a gosling, and to have laid one large white egg on a mass of grass. Hogs and other imported animals seem to have conduced to its extermination, as well as the hand of man.

_Didus borbonicus_ had white plumage, varied with yellow, the first four primaries being directed forwards and downwards. It is mentioned by Tatton (1625), Du Bois (1669), and Carré (1699); while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure apparently intended to represent it, and another by Pierre Witthoos (_ob._ 1693) was in existence a few years ago. It was originally called the Solitaire, but this name was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of Rodriguez by the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured the latter about 1691. _Pezophaps_ was subsequently briefly noticed by D'Heguerty (1751) and again by Pingré (1761), who heard {331}that it still existed in inaccessible districts; while it is also mentioned in an anonymous manuscript discovered at Paris, written perhaps about 1729. Remains came into the hands of Desjardins in 1789 (not fully recognised until 1832), and others were forwarded to England; but much the most important finds were those of the late Sir Edward Newton in 1864, followed up by Mr. Jenner in the succeeding years, and of Mr. H. H. Slater in 1874.[211] In 1875 two complete skeletons were obtained, and fairly perfect specimens of those of each sex are at Cambridge, with others elsewhere.

This Solitaire was larger than a Swan, the male standing about 2 feet 9 inches, and the female 2 feet 3 inches high; the colour of the former was brownish-grey, but the latter varied from the hue of "fair hair" to brown, and had a whitish breast. The slightly-hooked, elongated beak had a feathered ridge or peak at the base of the culmen, the neck was elongated and straight, the legs were longer and weaker than in the Dodo, the wings were rudimentary, the hind part (pelvis) was rounded, the tail was hardly noticeable, and the thigh-feathers were thick, and curved like shells at the end. A spherical mass of bone, "as big as a musket-ball," was developed on the wings of the males; and they used it, in addition to the beak, as a weapon of offence, while they whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fine and the walk stately, the birds being seen singly or in pairs; the nest was a heap of palm-leaves a foot or more high, the single large egg was incubated by both parents. The food is said to have consisted of seeds and leaves, and a stone as big as a hen's egg was often found in the stomach.

Fam. XI. DIDUNCULIDAE.–_Didunculus strigirostris_, the Manu-meà or Red Bird of the islands of Upolu, Savai, and Tutuila in the Samoan group, is glossy greenish-black, with chestnut back, rump, wing-coverts, tail and under tail-coverts, but browner wing-quills and abdomen. The hooked and toothed bill is orange, the feet are reddish, and the naked orbits red. The sexes are similar, the young entirely brown. First made known by Strickland on the strength of its discovery in the autumn of 1839 by Peale {332}during the United States Exploring Expedition under Commander Wilkes, it has since been met with by several travellers and missionaries, three living specimens having been exhibited in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London. By 1863 it was regarded as nearly extinct on Upolu, where it was formerly abundant, though it still held its own on Savai; but in 1874 an increase was reported from the latter island, which was attributed to a change of habits, the birds having become arboreal instead of terrestrial.

The oldest accounts, derived from native sources, stated that _Didunculus_ was essentially a ground species, living on thickly-wooded mountain-sides in flocks of about a dozen, and feeding on berries, plantains (bananas), and yam fruit, while it roosted on low stumps, and bred on the ground, being rather shy, and taking to flight noisily with much flapping of the wings. Mr. Whitmee[212] and others, however, tell us that it now feeds almost exclusively on high trees, roosting aloft, and building in the forks. But as early as 1852 Lieutenant Walpole[213] asserted that the bird bred among rocks, perched and fed on trees, and flew from wood to wood, or even from island to island, so that it is not impossible that its supposed affinity to the Dodo led writers astray, and that its fondness for the ground was greatly exaggerated. No doubt danger from introduced cats and rats would force the nest to be placed higher.

{333}The Tooth-billed Pigeon was usually found in pairs or small parties, and was in great request for food among the natives, who, moreover, kept individuals tethered to sticks as pets, while the chiefs erected small huts in which to feed the flocks. They were often attracted by decoys, and caught with bird-lime. The habits are diurnal, or somewhat crepuscular; the note apparently varies from deep and guttural to low and plaintive; and breeding takes place from May to September, the single egg being white. The birds are decidedly pugnacious in captivity, and occasionally nibble their food in Parrot fashion.

Fam. XII. COLUMBIDAE.–If we omit the Arctic and Antarctic countries, this group forms a remarkably cosmopolitan Family, though with an irregular distribution. Roughly speaking, there are recognised some dozen Palaearctic, and still fewer Nearctic species, with about seventy Neotropical and forty Ethiopian; India possesses about thirty, the Malay Archipelago perhaps a hundred and twenty, New Guinea and the Moluccas a hundred. Many island forms occur in Polynesia, but Australia can barely claim twenty, the New Zealand seas only furnish two, and the Sandwich Islands none.

{334}Sub-fam. 1. _Gourinae._–This contains seven species of _Goura_–_G. coronata_ of Western New Guinea, Waigiou, Batanta, Salawatti, and Mysol, _G. cinerea_ of the Arfak Mountains, _G. sclateri_ of Central and Southern New Guinea, _G. albertisi_ of South-East New Guinea, _G. scheepmakeri_, probably from South-West New Guinea–all of which have the erect crest-feathers with entirely decomposed webs–_G. victoria_ of Jobi and Mysori, and _G. beccarii_ of Central and North New Guinea–which have them with spatulate tips. The first of these, discovered by Dampier in 1699, is bluish-slate-coloured, with darker wings, and some black on the chin and sides of the head; a broad chestnut band crossing the back, one of white shewing conspicuously on the wing, and one of grey terminating the tail. The other species differ in the amount of chestnut above, the wing-bar being grey and the breast chestnut in some cases. These birds are found near open or cultivated lands, ranging from the coast regions to an altitude of a thousand feet; they feed in small flocks, and eat seeds, berries, and other fruits, buds of plants, worms, and insects. The usual note is long, harsh, and trumpet-like, the love-call a short mournful coo. When disturbed they take to cover, and pitch upon low branches, where they also roost; in the heat of the day they lie in the shade with outspread wings and tail; and in the courting-season the cocks fight savagely for the hens. The nest, a careless platform of sticks, contains one large white egg.

Sub-fam. 2. _Peristerinae._–This ranges over both the Old and the New World, _Zenaida_, _Peristera_, and their closest allies being confined to the latter, while _Turtur_, _Phaps_, and so forth belong to the former.

Group (_a_).–_Caloenas nicobarica_, which extends from the Nicobar Islands through the Malay Archipelago to the Solomons, is a metallic-green bird, with bronzy reflexions and blackish head, neck, and upper breast, most of the remiges being black, and the tail with its coverts white. The long narrow neck-hackles, the roughly-scaled legs, and the black knob at the base of the bill are also remarkable features. Partly but not entirely terrestrial, it walks at a great rate, feeds mainly upon the ground on seeds, utters a croaking note, often builds in societies on trees, and lays one white egg. _C. pelewensis_, of the Pelew Islands, is smaller and bluer.

Group (_b_).–This section of the Sub-family contains several robust forms, with fairly long, stout legs, and short, rounded wings. {335}_Otidiphaps nobilis_ of Western New Guinea and Batanta, _O. cervicalis_ of South-East New Guinea, and _O. insularis_ of Fergusson Island, are greenish-black, chestnut, and purple, with the bill red, the feet reddish with rough yellow scales, and the nape green, grey, and black respectively. They have no less than twenty rectrices, while the first two have an occipital crest. These Pigeons, said to resemble Megapodes in habits, frequent hills or dense thickets, often near the sea-coast, but are difficult of observation, owing to their shyness; they run swiftly with erect outspread tail, perch on low boughs, and have a harsh cry, varied by a plaintive note; the food consists of fruits, roots, and snails. The nest, containing one egg, is said to be placed at the foot of a tree. _Starnoenas cyanocephala_, of Cuba and the Florida Keys, is brown above and purplish-rufous below, with a blue crown surrounded by black, a black throat with a white basal line, a white stripe across each cheek, and red bill and feet varied with bluish. This bird, the "Perdiz" of the Cubans, frequents wooded hills and has somewhat gallinaceous habits; the food consists of seeds, berries, and snails, the hollow note having the effect of ventriloquism. Another long-legged, terrestrial genus from New Guinea is _Eutrygon_; _E. terrestris_ being olivaceous lead-coloured, with rufous outer margins to the brown remiges, while _E. leucopareia_ has a reddish hue on the wing-coverts. _Leucosarcia picata_, the white-fleshed Wonga-wonga of Eastern Australia, is blue-black with white forehead, pectoral band, and central abdomen. It inhabits the brushes, and feeds chiefly upon the ground on seeds, fruits, and insect-larvae; the flight is of short duration and the habits somewhat Pheasant-like; the nest is in a tree. _Phlogoenas_ contains a score of members ranging from the Philippines and Timor to the Society Islands. _P. luzonica_ of Luzon has purplish upper parts, a greyish-blue head, and yellowish-white lower parts, with a patch of stiff red decomposed feathers over the crop; the inner webs of the remiges are more or less rufous, a characteristic found also in _Chalcopelia_, _Columbigallina_, _Scardafella_, and _Leptoptila_, from very different parts of the world. _P. rufigula_, of New Guinea and the islands to the north-west, has the crop-patch yellowish-ochre; _P. tristigma_ of North Celebes is perhaps most striking of all, with its yellow breast and forehead, green head, purple nape, and green and purple tints on the brown upper back; _P. stairi_ of the Fiji and Tonga {336}Islands has a greenish-grey head and brownish upper surface, with brilliant violet-purple on the wings and a vinous breast, while the female differs in being olive-brown, with the head and breast dull cinnamon. _P. kubaryi_ of the Caroline group is almost entirely violet-purple above, the head being grey, the forehead, sides of the neck, throat, and breast white. _Geotrygon_ with some dozen and a half species extends from South Mexico to Paraguay, several of them being peculiar to the West Indies. _G. montana_, the "Mountain-Partridge," ranges from Key West and Cuba to Paraguay. It has a purplish-rufous upper surface, while the lower parts are whitish-fawn colour, with a purplish breast. The female is olive with a tinge of gold above, and chiefly buff below, with browner breast. _G. chrysia_ of Haiti, Cuba, the Bahamas, and the Florida Keys has reddish-brown upper parts, with reflexions of brilliant purple, green, and gold, and vinaceous-white lower parts. _G. violacea_ of Central America and Brazil, _G. cristata_, the Mountain-Witch, of Jamaica, _G. linearis_ of Colombia, and other species, bear a general resemblance to the above. These birds frequent thickly-wooded districts or mountainous tracts, where they feed upon the ground on seeds, fallen berries, snails, and slugs. They often have recourse to running, yet the flight is rapid and whirring; the note is a moaning coo, the nest a slight structure on bushes, trees, or even the ground. _Osculatia purpurea_ and _O. sapphirina_ are two beautiful Ecuadorian Pigeons, of which the former has a rich purple crown and occiput, a purplish-violet mantle with duller wings, a violet rump, a bronzy-green hind-neck, a white forehead, throat, and abdomen, a greyish breast, and white cheeks with a black transverse stripe below. The latter has the crown grey, the occiput golden-green. _Leptoptila_ (_Engyptila_ of some authors), distributed from Texas to Argentina, contains about seventeen somewhat similar forms, which have olive-brown upper parts, with red, green, and dove-coloured reflexions, and usually pinkish-white or greyish under parts. The wing-quills almost invariably shew some cinnamon on their inner webs, while in _L. rufinucha_, the region of the nape is rufous. The White-bellied Pigeon of Jamaica (_L. jamaicensis_) is an unsuspicious bird which habitually lives on the ground in woods, eats seeds and fruits, runs, walks, or flies for short distances, and sometimes uses straw instead of sticks for its nest. The genus _Haplopelia_ is restricted to the Ethiopian {337}Region, _H. larvata_ of South Africa, _H. bronzina_ of Abyssinia and Shoa, _H. principalis_ of Prince's Island, _H. simplex_ of St. Thomas, _H. johnstoni_ of Nyassa-Land, and _H. inornata_ of the Cameroons, being all much alike. The first-mentioned–common in woods near Cape Town–is plain brown, with green and purple gloss on the crown and nape, a white forehead and throat, and vinaceous breast with coppery reflexions. It is the Cinnamon or Lemon Dove of the colonists, and feeds chiefly on berries, obtained upon the ground.

Group (_c_).–The third section of the Peristerinae is confined to the Old World, and shews metallic blue or green wing-spots or patches. _Ocyphaps lophotes_, the swift Crested Bronze-wing of the interior of Australia, is found in flocks, especially near water, and has a remarkable habit, when alighting, of erecting its long, black crest and elevating its tail until they almost meet. It is a grey bird, possessing bronzy-green wing-coverts tipped with white, a metallic purple gloss on the secondaries, and peacock-blue outer rectrices. _Lophophaps plumifera_ of North-West Australia, which has a western race, _L. ferruginea_, and a southern, _L. leucogaster_, is a terrestrial species, frequenting creeks in the desert, and running on the ground like a Quail. The nest is a mere hole in the ground lined with a little grass; the eggs are said to be creamy-white. The Plumed Bronze-wing, as it is called, has the general plumage and full crest pale cinnamon, the throat white, with a black median stripe, a black gorget, a crescentic band of grey on the chest with a black line below, and a few purple spots on the secondaries. _Geophaps scripta_, the Partridge Bronze-wing or Squatter of North-West and East Australia, has a peculiar habit of squatting on the ground or on the branches of any tree in which it takes refuge. It is light brown above and grey below, with curious black and white markings on the sides of the head and throat; the wing-coverts have pale tips, and the innermost of the greater series greenish-purple outer webs. _G. smithi_ of North-West Australia is browner. From the same parts comes _Petrophassa albipennis_, which frequents rocks, though its nest has not yet been recorded; it is a reddish-brown bird with greyer head, grey centres to the feathers, and concealed purplish spots on the wing-coverts; the throat is black and white, the primaries brown with white bases. _Histrioniphaps histrionica_, of the interior and North-West of Australia, has brown upper {338}and grey under parts; the head is finely varied with jet-black and pure white, the secondaries shew patches of metallic-purple, and the primaries have white tips and partly rufous inner webs. The female is much duller. It is essentially a Ground-Pigeon, and breeds on the bare soil of the plains; but the flight is much stronger than might be expected, as is also the case with _Geophaps_. _Phaps chalcoptera_ and _P. elegans_, of Australia and Tasmania, in their mode of life resemble the preceding, though the latter species is the more terrestrial, while both usually build in low trees or bushes. _P. chalcoptera_, the Common Bronze-wing, is extremely handsome, the greyish-brown upper surface being relieved by a purple band on the crown and most brilliant bronze and green spots upon the wing; the breast is pinkish, the throat white, and the forehead white with a wash of yellow. The inner webs of the remiges are partly rufous. _P. elegans_, the Brush Bronze-wing, is a shorter-winged bird, with chestnut throat and grey breast. _Henicophaps albifrons_ of New Guinea and the adjacent western islands has the forehead whitish, the neck and under parts rich reddish-purple, the back blue-black, the wings glossed with golden-green and bronze, and their coverts margined with chestnut. The beak is longer and stouter than in the allied forms, and the bird is partly arboreal. _Calopelia puella_ of West Africa is a fine cinnamon-coloured bird, with blue head and iridescent green spots on the wings. Of _Chalcophaps_, ranging from India, Burma, and South China, through the islands to Australia and the New Hebrides, Count Salvadori makes two divisions, though the species are little more than local races. Of the first of these, with golden-green mid-back and scapulars, _C. indica_, the Emerald Dove or Beetle-wing, may be taken as typical; the head is blue with white forehead and sides, the upper back is purplish, the wing-coverts golden-green, the lower back bronzy with two grey bars, the rump nearly black, and the under parts purplish-pink. The female is brown and somewhat redder below, with grey forehead. This species covers nearly the whole range of the genus, but only stretches eastward to Geelvink Bay in New Guinea. _C. chrysochlora_ reaches from Timor to the New Hebrides; _C. sanghirensis_ occurs in Great Sanghir Island; _C. natalis_ in Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. _C. stephani_, of Celebes and Papuasia, and _C. mortoni_, of the Solomon Islands, constitute the second division, where the mid-back and {339}scapulars are reddish-cinnamon. These Pigeons frequent bushy districts, feed on the ground on seeds and fruits, run fast, and fly swiftly for short distances. They have a mournful note, breed on low trees, and make a fairly compact nest of roots, grass, or twigs. _Chalcopelia afra_ inhabits Africa south of Abyssinia and Senegambia. It has olive-brown upper parts, with two black stripes across the lower back, and a few large spots of brilliant purple and green on the wing; the under parts are pinkish, and the inner webs of the primaries and their coverts bright rufous. _C. chalcospilus_, with the spots golden-green, is probably a variety. They inhabit bushy country in pairs, the flight, food, note, and nest being similar to those of _Chalcophaps_. _Tympanistria bicolor_ is a similar but greyer bird, with the purple spots almost black and the lower parts white; it inhabits Southern Africa, Madagascar, the Comoros, and Fernando Po. The very long-tailed _Oena capensis_ is pale brown above and white below, with black face and throat, grey crown, two black bands across the lower back, and steel-blue patches on the wings. The inner webs of the primaries and their coverts are cinnamon. The female has a white face and throat. It is a bird of rough bushy country, which is seldom found in flocks, utters a deep plaintive note, and breeds in low trees. This species walks with the utmost rapidity, and feeds upon the ground on seeds of grasses and grain. It is found in tropical and Southern Africa, in Madagascar, and at Aden and Jeddah.

Group (_d_).–The most typical Peristerinae constitute a fourth section, usually with metallic wing-spots, restricted to America. _Metriopelia melanoptera_ and _M. aymara_ range from Ecuador and Peru respectively to Chili and the borders of Argentina. The former is greyish-brown above and vinaceous below, with black wings and tail, the latter has golden spots on the wing-coverts. They are found in small flocks in the valleys of the Andes, and in winter on the coast, being called by the natives "Tortola cordillerana," or "Cordillera Dove." _Peristera cinerea_ is bluish-grey in the male, with lighter under parts, black remiges and outer rectrices, some velvety black spots being very conspicuous on the wings and scapulars. The female is brown, with cinnamon wing-spots. This species ranges from South Mexico to Paraguay; while _P. geoffroyi_, with white-tipped lateral tail-feathers and a grey breast, inhabits South-East Brazil; _P. mondetoura_, with {340}chestnut breast, occurs from South Mexico to Peru. They frequent wooded and hilly districts, forming small flocks and uttering a cry resembling "huup-huup." _Oxypelia cyanopis_, of the interior of Brazil, and _Uropelia campestris_, of that country and Bolivia, link the above genus to _Columbigallina_, which contains six species. _C. passerina_ extends from the southern United States and the West Indies to Peru and Paraguay; _C. minuta_ occupies a similar range, except for the United States; and _C. cruziana_ reaches from Ecuador to North Chili–all with naked feet; _C. buckleyi_ inhabits Ecuador and Peru; _C. talpacoti_, most of South America north of Paraguay; _C. rufipennis_ ranges from Mexico to the north of South America, these three having the metatarsi feathered laterally. _C. passerina_ is olive-grey, with violet spots on the wing and purplish coverts; the feathers of the forehead and under parts being vinous, with dull brown centres to the latter, and those of the hinder portion of the head bluish, with dusky margins, which cause a scaly appearance. The female lacks the purple and red tints. _C. minuta_, the most diminutive Pigeon known,–though _Oena_ would be smaller but for its tail,–is uniform below. The other species differ but little, though only _C. rufipennis_ has, like the above, the under surface of the wing cinnamon. Flocks of the Ground-Dove or Tortolita, as _C. passerina_ is called, are found amongst open woods and pastures, running about with elevated tails, and feeding chiefly upon the ground on seeds, berries, peas, and grain; if disturbed, they betake themselves with low and noisy flight to a tree; but they are usually very tame, and may often be heard uttering their mournful notes on the roofs of outbuildings. The nest, placed in low bushes or on the ground, is carefully constructed and lined with grass, two or three broods being reared in the season. The hen is said to feign disablement at its nest like a Plover, while the birds apparently dust themselves in gallinaceous fashion. _Columbula picui_, distinguished by a blue band on the wing-coverts, occurs in South America from Bolivia and Chili eastward.

Group (_e_).–The fifth section of the Peristerinae exhibit no metallic spots or lustre, while the wings are rounded and the tail is rather long. _Gymnopelia erythrothorax_, of the mountains of Peru, Bolivia, and North Chili, is brown, with vinaceous head and breast, and remarkably large naked orbits of orange margined with black. _Scardafella_ has crescentic black edges to the feathers, the upper parts being brown and the lower pinky white, while the {341}primaries have cinnamon inner webs. _S. squamosa_, of Brazil, Venezuela, and Colombia, has a white wing-patch, absent in _S. inca_, extending from Texas to Nicaragua. These "Scaly Doves," as they are called, seem to be essentially terrestrial. _Geopelia humeralis_, of Australia and Southern New Guinea, is brown above, with black scale-like markings, a rufous nape, a bluish forehead and chest, a pinkish breast, and a white mid-belly. The remiges are rufous on the inner web. _G. cuneata_, of Australia only, has small white wing-spots, and no black marginal markings on the feathers. _G. tranquilla_, of the same country, _G. striata_, ranging from South Tenasserim to the Philippines and the Moluccas–introduced into Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands, and St. Helena–and _G. maugei_, found from the Timor group to the Ké Islands, are distinctly banded with black and white, the first round the neck only, the other two on the breast also. These long-tailed species, resembling miniature Turtle-Doves, frequent grassy plains, thickets, or swampy river-sides in small flocks, and flit tamely from tree to tree, alighting with upturned tail; the coo is rarely loud; the food consists of seeds and berries, usually obtained upon the ground; the nest, placed rather low, is of twigs or grass.

Group (_f_).–_Turtur_ contains twenty-eight Old World forms, reaching eastward to Japan, the Ladrones, and the Moluccas. In habits resembling the members of the genus _Columba_, they are browner in coloration, and about three quarters of the size; while some exhibit lateral patches of dark feathers tipped with blue, grey, or white on the neck, the plumage whereof in other species is bifurcated and spotted with rufous or white. Many have a black nuchal collar, and a few somewhat fawn-coloured upper parts; the lower surface is more or less vinaceous, and the rectrices, except the two median, are tipped with white or grey. The following may exemplify the range of this sixth section of the Peristerinae:–_Turtur communis_, the Turtle-Dove of Europe, winters in Northern Africa and Western Asia; _T. douraca_ or _risorius_ (our common cage-bird), extends from Turkey to India and Japan; _T. orientalis_, accidental in Europe, only from India to Japan; _T. tigrinus_ from the Malay countries to the Moluccas; _T. dussumieri_ from Borneo to the Ladrones; _T. semitorquatus_, _T. isabellinus_, and so forth, inhabit Africa; _T. picturatus_ Madagascar, _T. aldabranus_, _T. comorensis_, _T. coppingeri_, _T. abbotti_, and _T. rostratus_ the neighbouring {342}Islands. The African _T. senegalensis_ is found in the Canaries, and several introduced species occur in Madagascar or Mauritius.