Chapter III: Part 3

Right: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed than to
explain and argue. And of course we all admit that the birch
must be used sometimes. _But_ if it is used only for serious
transgressions, the child will have a sense of proportion
regarding what offenses are grave. For ordinary small
misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and
spare the child.

Exercise:

1. He did not agree at first, but hesitated for a time, but
finally said that he would go along.

2. Push down on the foot lever, which closes a switch which
starts an electric motor which turns the flywheel so that the
gasoline engine starts.

3. Apple dumplings are good, but they must be properly baked,
but fortunately this is not difficult to do.

4. The work of the course consists partly of the study of the
principles of grammar and of rhetoric, partly of the writing of
themes, partly of oral composition, and partly of the reading
and study of models of English prose.

5. The landscape which lay before me was one which was
different from any which I had ever seen before. There was one
thing which impressed me, and that was the miles and miles of
grass which stretched and undulated away from the hill on which
I stood.

=39.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT

=A. Parallel Structure=

Give parallel structure to elements which are parallel in thought.

1. Baskets are of practical value as well as being used for
ornaments.

2. The Book of Job ought to be interesting to a student, or for
anybody.

3. The important considerations are whether the soil is sandy,
and if it is well drained, and that it shall be easily
cultivated.

4. A flower garden is a source of profit--profit not measured
in money but in pleasure.

5. He was successful in business, and also attained success in
the political world.

6. Whether his object was writing for pastime, or to please a
friend, or money, we do not know.

7. Always praise your enemy, because if you whip him your glory
is increased, and if he whips you it lets you down easy.

8. Either the ship will sink in the rough sea or go to pieces
on the shore.

9. An athlete must possess strength, nerve, and be able to
think quickly.

10. We were interested in buying some dry-goods, and at the
same time see the sights of the great city.

11. Some people talk foolishness, and others on serious
subjects, and some keep still.

12. Not only she noticed my condition, but commented on it.

13. He abides by neither the laws of God nor man. He spoke both
to Harry and Tom.

14. It is good for the health of one's mind to get new ideas
every day, and expressing them clearly in writing.

15. Everyone who is capable of understanding the tax laws
should know them and how they are abused.

16. I began by making applications at federal, state, and city
employment bureaus for a position as cost accountant, salesman,
or clerical work.

17. The damage to the trunk was caused by rough handling and
not from faults in construction.

18. Pope, Swift, Addison, and Defoe were four satirists, but
differing greatly in their work.

19. The occupants of these buildings are engaged in various
kinds of business, namely: shoe-shining, shoe repair shops,
cleaning and pressing clothes, confectionery stores, and
restaurants.

20. I sing of geese: of the Biblical goose, that blew his bugle
from the roof of Noah's Ark; the classical goose that picked
his livelihood along the shores of the Ægean; of the
historical goose, that squawked to save old Rome; the mercenary
goose, laying the golden egg; and, finally, of the roast goose.

=B. Shift in Subject or Voice=

Rewrite the following sentences, avoiding all unnecessary shift in construction.

1. After you decide on the plan of the house, your attention is
turned to the materials of construction.

2. Editors are careful to use words that are exact, yet simple,
and the use of technical terms is not generally considered to
be good.

3. Bank accounts should be balanced once a month in order that
you may know your exact standing.

4. We should have our athletic contest between the weakest
students, and in that way they will become physically strong.

5. When one is making a long-distance run, several cautions
should be borne in mind by him.

6. In melody the poem is good, but the author's ideas are
eccentric.

7. Lincoln's sentences are plain, blunt, and to the point. He
lacks the ornate eloquence of Jefferson.

8. The operator places a large shovelful of concrete in the
mold, and the mixture is made solid by tamping.

9. He might become angry, but it was over in a few minutes.

10. The pauper chanced to gain entrance to the royal palace,
and while there the young prince is met by him.

11. When the weather is hot, plowing is accomplished very
slowly with horses, while on the tractor the heat has no
effect.

12. First, one should mix one-half cup of corn syrup and one
cup of brown sugar; then one cup of cream and the flavoring are
added.

13. In the college situated in a small town there are
dormitories for the student, but in the cities they usually
room where they please.

14. An education should enable us to tell the valuable from
the cheap book, and by it we should be able to tell the true
from the counterfeit man.

15. Moisten the sand thoroughly and set the box in a warm
place, and in about a week's time it can readily be seen by the
way the grains have sprouted which ears of seed corn have
greatest vitality.

=C. Shift in Number, Person, or Tense=

Rewrite the following sentences, removing all inconsistency in grammatical form.

1. Every one has a right to their own opinion.

2. Bryant rushed to the window and shouts at the postman.

3. The life of the honey bee has been studied, and their
activities found to be remarkable.

4. He says to me, "Are you ready?" And I answered, "No."

5. When a person keeps a store, you should remember the names
and faces of your customers.

6. An automobile is expensive, and they are liable to become an
elephant on your hands.

7. If one studies the market, he would find that prices rise
every year.

8. If one went to Europe, he will find everything different.

9. Since these tires were different in construction, the method
of repairing will vary.

10. Contentment is a state of mind in which one is satisfied
with themselves and their surroundings.

11. It is easy to catch 'possums if you can find the rascal.

12. The writer of a theme should not waste time on a long
introduction, and get to the facts of your subject as quickly
as possible.

13. Shakespeare's comedies are great fun. I prefer it to
tragedy.

14. Often a man will knock at the door, and finds no one at
home.

15. Too much attention will spoil a child. They should not be
entertained every minute.

=D. The Exact Connective=

Each of the following sentences contains an idea which is, or may be, subordinate to another idea. (1) Decide what kind of subordinate relation should exist between the ideas. (2) Determine what connective best expresses this relation. (Consult 36 for a list of connectives.) (3) Write the sentence as it should be.

1. Wealth is a good thing, while honest wealth is better.

2. Spend an hour in the open air every day when you want to
keep your health.

3. The rattlesnake gives warning and it is only afterward that
he strikes.

4. South Americans are our national neighbors, and we as a
nation should understand them.

5. The city man knows nothing about a cow, only that it has
horns.

6. He got up early in order that he might be able to see the
sunrise.

7. The tenderfoot saw the funnel-shaped cloud when he made for
a cyclone cellar.

8. Men fear what they do not understand, and a coward is one
who is ignorant.

9. Hinting did not influence her; then he tried scolding.

10. The valet spilled the wine, and the duke started up with an
oath.

11. While he writhed on the ground, he was not really hurt.

12. He will not cash the check without you indorse it.

13. We want this work done by the first of April, so please
send an estimate soon.

14. He had traveled everywhere, and he had a vivid recollection
of only three scenes: Niagara Falls, the Jungfrau, and Lake
Como.

15. I never hear him talk but he makes me angry.

16. Animals have some of the same feelings as human beings
have.

17. It was four o'clock and we decided to return and be home
for supper.

=E. Repetition of Connectives=

In the following sentences determine whether repetition is desirable or undesirable, and change the sentences accordingly.

1. With the coming of meal time, the potatoes are removed from
the fire with a fork with a long handle.

2. His clothes were brushed and neat, but patched and
repatched. But still he could be bright and cheery.

3. To no other magazine do I look forward to the arrival of its
new issue, more than I do to the _World's Work_.

4. At the time the book was written, I believe Forster was
considered to be almost the best biographer living at that
time.

5. The freshman has no spirit until the sophomores have
provoked him until he resists until he finds that he has
spirit.

6. Some socialists are against the present system of
initiative, referendum, and recall, but advocate a system much
like it but applied in a different way.

7. The gun with which the Germans bombarded Paris with had a
range of seventy-five miles.

8. Basketball is a game that I have played for years, and I am
greatly interested in.

9. This is the lever which throws the switch which directs the
train that takes the track that goes to Boston.

10. Short talks were made by the captain, the coach, and by the
faculty.

11. At this school one can study to be a doctor, dentist,
farmer, a lawyer, or an engineer.

12. I like to cross the harbor on the ferry, to dodge in and
out among the ships, see the gulls dart among the waves, smell
the sharp tang of salty air, and to feel the rocking motion of
the boat.

13. In the sultry autumn, and when the winter's storms came,
and when in spring the winds whistled, and in the summer's
heat, he always wore the same old coat.

14. He knew that if he did not ignite the piece of wet bark
this time, that he could not dry his clothing or broil the
bacon.

15. The next speaker said that the need was critical, the
schools must be enlarged, and that the paving now begun must be
completed, and a new board of health should be created, that
the interest on past debts had to be paid, and the city
treasury was at this moment out of funds.

EMPHASIS

=Emphasis by Position=

=40. Reserve the emphatic positions in a sentence for important words or ideas. (The emphatic positions are the beginning and the end--especially the end.)=

Weak ending: Then like a flash a vivid memory of my uncle's
death came to me.

Weak: I demand the release of the prisoners, in the first
place.

Weak: This principle is one we cannot afford to accept, if my
understanding of the question is correct.

Place the important idea at the end. Secure, if possible, an emphatic beginning. "Tuck in" unimportant modifiers.

Emphatic: Like a flash came to me a vivid memory of my uncle's
death.

Emphatic: I demand, in the first place, the release of the
prisoners.

Emphatic: This principle, if my understanding of the question
is correct, is one we cannot afford to accept.

Exercise:

1. "War is inevitable," he said.

2. The cat had been poisoned to all appearances.

3. There are several methods of learning to swim, as everyone
knows.

4. A liar is as bad as a thief, in my estimation.

5. He saw a fight below him in the street, happening to look
out of the window.

=Emphasis by Separation=

=41. An idea which needs much emphasis may be detached, and allowed to stand in a sentence by itself.=

Faulty: The flames were by this time beyond control, and the
walls collapsed, and several firemen were hurt. [The ideas here
are too important to be run together in one sentence.]

Right: By this time the flames were beyond control, and the
walls collapsed. Several firemen were hurt.

A quotation gains emphasis when it is separated from what follows.

Faulty: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley,"

are some lines from Burns which McDonald was always quoting.

Right: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men
Gang aft a-gley."

McDonald was always quoting these lines from Burns.

Direct discourse is more emphatic when it is separated from explanatory phrases, particularly from those which follow.

Faulty: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted defiantly, "I
will never consent to that!" and he looked as if he meant what
he said.

Right: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted his defiance: "I
will never agree to that!" And he looked as if he meant what he
said.

Exercise:

1. After the tents are pitched, the beds made, and the fires
started, the first meal is cooked and served, and this meal is
the beginning of camp-life joy.

2. He tried to make his wife vote for his own, the Citizen's
Party, but she firmly refused.

3. At the word of command the dog rushed forward; the covey
rose with a mighty whir, and the hunter fired both barrels, and
the dog looked in vain for a dead bird, and then returned
disconsolate.

4. I sat and gazed at the motto, "Aim high, and believe
yourself capable of great things," which my mother had placed
there for me.

5. "A Book of Verses underneath the Bough,
A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread, and Thou
Beside me singing in the Wilderness."

were the four things Omar Khayyam wanted to make him happy.

=Emphasis by Subordination=

=42. Do not place the important idea of a sentence in a subordinate clause or phrase. Make the important idea grammatically independent. If possible, subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.=

Faulty: He had a manner which made me angry.

Faulty: The fire spread to the third story, when the house was
doomed.

Faulty: For years the Indians molested the white people,
thereby causing the settlers to want revenge.

The important idea should not be placed in a _which_ clause, or a _when_ clause, or a participial phrase.

Right: His manner made me angry.

Right: When the fire spread to the third story, the house was
doomed.

Right: Years of molestation by the Indians made the white men
want revenge.

Exercise:

1. I was riding on the train, when suddenly there was an
accident.

2. There are two windows in each bedroom, thus insuring good
ventilation.

3. Yonder is the house which is my home.

4. He saw that argument was useless, so he let her talk.

5. His clothes were very old, making him look like a tramp.

=The Periodic Sentence=

A sentence is periodic when the completion of the main thought is delayed until the end. This delay creates a feeling of suspense. A periodic sentence is doubly emphatic: it has emphasis by position because the important idea comes at the end; it has emphasis by subordination because all ideas except the last one are grammatically dependent.

=43. To give emphasis to a loosely constructed sentence, turn it into periodic form.=

Loose: I saw two men fight a duel, many years ago, on a moonlit
summer night, in a little village in northern France. [What is
most important, the time? the place? or the actual duel? Place
the important idea last.]

Periodic: Many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a
little village in northern France, I saw two men fight a duel.

Loose: We left Yellowstone Gateway for the ride of our lives in
a six-horse tally-ho. [Place the important idea last, _and make
all other ideas grammatically subordinate_.]

Periodic: Leaving Yellowstone Gateway in a six-horse tally-ho,
we had the ride of our lives.

Loose: The river was swollen with incessant rain, and it swept
away the dam. [Which is the important idea? Why not make it
appear more important by subordinating everything to it?]

Periodic: The river, swollen with incessant rain, swept away
the dam.

Loose: War means to have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness
rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement,
to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national
hatred.

Periodic: To have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely
broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to
saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national
hatred--this is war.

Exercise:

1. I am happy when the spring comes, when the sun is warm, when
the fields revive.

2. He cares nothing for culture, for justice, for progress.

3. As the boat gathered speed, the golden sun was setting far
across the harbor.

4. He amassed a great fortune, standing there behind his dingy
counter, discounting bills, pinching coins, buying cheap and
selling dear.

5. The shattered aqueducts, pier beyond pier, melt into the
darkness, from the plains to the mountains.

=Order of Climax=

=44. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses of noticeable difference in strength, use the order of climax.=

Wrong order: He was insolent and lazy.

Weak ending: Literature has expanded into a sea, where before
it was only a small stream.

Weak ending: As we listened to his story we felt the sordid
misery and the peril and fear of war.

Emphatic: He was lazy and insolent.

Emphatic: The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent,
expanded into a sea.

Emphatic: As we listened to his story we felt the fear, the
peril, the sordid misery of war.

Exercise:

1. We boarded the train, after having bought our tickets and
checked our baggage.

2. War brings famine, death, disease after it.

3. They have broken up our homes, enslaved our children, and
stolen our property.

4. In the old story, the drunken man, carried into the duke's
palace, sees himself surrounded with luxury, and imagines
himself a true prince, after waking up.

5. The becalmed mariners were famished, hungry.

=The Balanced Sentence=

=45. Two ideas similar or opposite in thought gain in emphasis when set off, one against the other, in similar constructions.=

Weak and straggling: This paper, like many others, has many bad
features, but in some ways it is very good. The news articles
are far better than the editorials, which are feeble.

Balanced structure: This paper is in some respects good; in
other respects very poor. The news articles are impressive, the
editorials are feeble.

Weak and complicated: From the East a man who lives in the West
can learn a great deal, and an Easterner ought to be able to
understand the West.

Balanced: A Westerner can learn much from the East, and an
Easterner needs to understand the West.

Weak: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers.
Mill taught some of them to reason, but many more of them
learned from Macaulay only a superficial eloquence.

Balanced: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger
writers. If Mill taught some of them to reason, Macaulay
tempted many more of them to declaim.

Note.--Although excessive use of balance is artificial, occasional use of it is powerful. It can give to writing either dignity (as in an oration) or point (as in an epigram). Observe how many proverbs are in balanced structure. "Seeing is believing.--Nothing venture, nothing have.--For every grain of wit there is a grain of folly.--You cannot do wrong without suffering wrong.--An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." Note the effective use of balance in Emerson's _Essays_, particularly in _Compensation_; and in the Old Testament, particularly in _Psalms_ and _Proverbs_.

Exercise:

1. Machinery is of course labor-saving, but countless men are
thrown out of work.

2. There is a difference between success in business and in
acquiring culture.

3. I attend concerts for the pleasure of it, and to get an
understanding of music.

4. The stag in the fable admired his horns and blamed his feet;
but when the hunter came, his feet saved him, and afterward,
caught in the thicket, he was destroyed by his horns.

5. We do not see the stars at evening, sometimes because there
are clouds intervening, but oftener because there are
glimmerings of light; thus many truths escape us from the
obscurity we stand in, and many more from the state of mind
which induces us to sit down satisfied with our imaginations
and of our knowledge unsuspicious. [This sentence is correctly
balanced, except at the end.]

=The Weak Effect of the Passive Voice=

=46. Use the active voice unless there is a reason for doing otherwise. The passive voice is, as the name implies, not emphatic.=

Weak: Your gift is appreciated by me.

Better: I appreciate your gift.

Weak and vague: His step on the porch was heard.

Better: His step sounded on the porch. [Or] I heard his step on
the porch.

The passive voice is especially objectionable when by failing to indicate the agent of the verb it unnecessarily mystifies the reader.

Vague: The train was seen speeding toward us.

Better: We saw the train speeding toward us.

Exercise:

1. Their minds were changed frequently as to what profession
should be taken up by them.

2. A gun should be examined and oiled well before a hunter
starts.

3. Finally the serenaders were recognized.

4. In athletics a man is developed physically.

5. If a man uses slang constantly, a good impression is not
made.

=Effective Repetition=

=47a. The simplest and most natural way to emphasize a word or an idea is to repeat it.= The Bible is the best standard of simplicity and dignity in our language, and the Bible uses repetition constantly. A word or idea that is repeated must, of course, be important enough to deserve emphasis.

Fairly emphatic: He works and toils and labors, but he seems
never to get anywhere.

Very emphatic: Work, work, work, all he does is work, and still
he seems never to get anywhere.

Fairly emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He
withdrew before it!

Very emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He
withdrew! He retreated! He ran away!

Homely but emphatic: "I went under," said the old salt; "bows,
gunnels, and starn--all under."

Deliberately too emphatic: Everywhere we hear of
efficiency--efficiency experts, efficiency bureaus, efficiency
methods, in the office, in the school, in the home--until one
longs to fly to some savage island beyond the reach of inhuman
modern science.

=b. Not only words, but an entire grammatical structure may be repeated on a large scale for emphasis.=

Weak: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good
condition, and that you will favor us with other orders in the
future, which will be given prompt and courteous attention.
[This sentence is flimsy and spineless because the writer had a
timid reluctance to repeat.]

Strong: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good
condition. We believe that the quality of our goods will induce
you to send us a second order. We assure you that such an order
will receive prompt and courteous attention. [Note the emphasis
derived from the resolute march of the expressions _We hope_,
_We believe_, _We assure_.]

Emphatic: Through the patience, the courage, the high character
of Alfred the country was saved--saved from the rapacities of
fortune, saved from the malignancy of its enemies, saved from
the sluggish despair of the people of England themselves.

Emphatic and natural: This corner of the garden was my first
playground. Here I made my first toddling effort to walk. Here
on the soft grass I learned the delight of out-of-doors. Here I
became acquainted with the bull-frog, and the bumble-bee, and
the neighbor's dog.

Emphatic and delightful: He maketh me to lie down in green
pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth
my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his
name's sake.

Exercise:

1. He kept digging away for gold through long years.

2. Breaking against the shore, came innumerable waves.

3. Sand, sagebrush, shimmering flat horizon. I could not endure
the barren monotony of the desert.

4. We want you to come and visit us, and bring along a good
appetite and your customary high spirits. Plan to stay a long
time.

5. 'Twas bitter cold outside. The cat meowed until I had to let
her in.

=Offensive Repetition=

Careless repetition attracts attention to words that do not need emphasis. It is extremely annoying to the reader.

=48a. Unless a word or phrase is repeated deliberately to gain force or clearness, its repetition is a blunder. Get rid of recurring expressions in one of three ways: (1) by substituting equivalent expressions, (2) by using pronouns more liberally, (3) by rearranging the sentence so as to say once what has awkwardly been said twice.= Each of these schemes is illustrated below.

=1.= Repetition cured by the use of equivalent expressions (synonyms).

Bad: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _just_ off
Milwaukee, we _began_ to feel a slight motion of the ship and
the _wind began_ to freshen. The _wind began_ to blow more
fiercely from the south and the waves _began_ to leap high. The
boat _began_ to pitch and roll.

Right: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _opposite_
Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship, for
the wind _had_ freshened. Before long _a gale_, _blowing_ from
the south, _kicked up a heavy sea and caused_ the boat to pitch
and roll. [Notice how combining the last two sentences helps to
solve the problem of the last _began_, besides giving firmer
texture to the construction.]

=2.= Repetition cured by the use of pronouns. (In using this method, one should take care that the reference of the pronouns is clear.)

Bad: The _Law Building_, the _Commerce Building_, and the
_Science Building_ are close together. The _Commerce Building_
is south of the _Law Building_, and the _Science Building_ is
south of the _Commerce Building_. The _Law Building_ is old and
dilapidated. The _Commerce Building_ is a red brick _building_,
trimmed in terra-cotta. The _Science Building_ resembles the
_Commerce Building_.

Right: The Law, Commerce, and Science Buildings are close
together in a row. _The first of these_ is old and dilapidated.
South of it stands the Commerce Building, _which_, because of
_its_ red brick and terra-cotta trimmings, somewhat resembles
the Science Building.

=3.= Repetition cured by rearranging and condensing.

Bad: The _autumn_ is my favorite of all the _seasons_. While
_autumn_ in the _city_ is not such a pleasant _season_ as
_autumn_ in the country, yet even in the _city_ my preference
will always be for the _autumn_.

Right: My favorite season is autumn. I like it best in the
country, but even in the city it is the best time of the year.

=b. Avoid a monotonous repetition of sentence structure. To give variety to successive sentences: (1) vary the length, (2) vary the beginnings, (3) avoid a series of similar compound sentences, (4) interchange loose with periodic structure, (5) use rhetorical question, exclamation, direct discourse, (6) avoid an excessive use of participles or adjectives.=

=1.= Vary the length of sentences.

Bad: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms. She
was wet from head to toe. Damp curls clung to her pale face.
Water dripped from her clothes. One hand hung loosely over
Walter's arm. The other held a live duckling. She had saved
the little duck from drowning. This was Betty's first day in
the country.

Right: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his
arms--little Betty who was spending her first day in the
country. She was wet from head to toe; damp curls clung to her
pale face, and water dripped from her clothes. In one hand she
held a live duckling. Her face lighted with courage as she told
how she jumped into the pond and saved the little duck from
drowning.

=2.= Vary the beginnings of sentences. Do not allow too many sentences to begin with the subject, or with a time clause, or with a participle, or with _so_. When you have finished a composition, rapidly read over the opening words of each sentence, to see if there is sufficient variety.

Bad [too many sentences begin directly with the subject]: Our
way is circuitous. A sharp turn brings us round a rocky point.
The road drops suddenly into a little valley. The roof of a
house appears in a grove of trees below. A cottage is there and
a flower garden. An old-fashioned well is near the door.

Right: Presently, on our circuitous way, we make a sharp turn
round a rocky point. Before us the road drops suddenly into a
little valley. In a grove of trees below appears the roof of a
house, and as we draw nearer we see a cottage surrounded by
flowers. Nothing could be more attractive to a weary traveler
than the old-fashioned well near the door.

=3.= Avoid a series of similar compound sentences, especially those of two parts of equal length, joined by _and_ or _but_.

Bad: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his
master. One day there came a deep snow, and the flock did not
return. They found the herder frozen stiff, and the dog
shivering beside him.

Right: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his
master. One day there came a deep snow. When the flock failed
to return, the men became uneasy, and began to search. They
found the herder frozen stiff, with the dog shivering beside
him.

=4.= Change occasionally from loose to periodic or balanced structure (See 43 and 45).

Monotonous: I stood at the foot of Tunbridge hill. I saw on the
horizon a dense wood, which, in the evening sunlight, was
veiled in purple haze [Loose]. On the left was the village, the
houses appearing like specks in the distance [Loose]. Nearer on
the right was the creek, winding through the willows [Loose].
The creek approached nearer until it reached the dam, over
which it rushed tumultuously [Loose]. Near by was a thicket of
tall trees, through which I could see the white tents of my
fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Loose].

Right: Far south from Tunbridge hill, on the dim horizon, I
saw, veiled in the evening haze, a dense wood [Periodic, long,
conveying the idea of distance better than a loose sentence].
On my left stood the village, the houses like specks; on my
right wound the creek, nearer and nearer through the willows
[Balanced]. The creek advanced by slow sinuous turns, until,
reaching the dam, it plunged over tumultuously [Loose]. Through
a thicket of tall trees, near at hand, I could see the white
tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires
[Periodic through the middle of the sentence; then loose].

=5.= Use question, exclamation, direct quotation.

Somewhat flat: He asked me the road to Camden. I did not know.
I told him to ask Thurber, who knew the country well.

Better: He asked me the road to Camden. The road to Camden? How
should I know? "Ask Thurber," I said impatiently; "he knows
this country. I'm a stranger."

=6.= Avoid an excessive use of participles. Do not pile adjectives around every noun. Above all, do not form a habit of using adjectives in pairs or triplets.

Bad: Sitting by the window, I saw a sharp, dazzling flash of
lightning, and heard a loud rumbling crash of heavy thunder,
warning me of the coming of the storm. Darting across the gray,
leaden sky, the quick, jagged lightning flashed incessantly.
The tall stately poplar trees thrashed around in the boisterous
wind. Then across the window, like a great white curtain, swept
the streaming, blinding rain.

Right: I sat by the window. Suddenly a sharp flash of lightning
and a roll of thunder gave warning of the approach of a storm.
Soon lightning zig-zagged across the sky incessantly. The wind
huddled the poplar trees. Then like a white curtain across the
window streamed the rain.

Exercise:

1. The parts of the tables are not put together at the factory,
but the different parts are shipped in different shipments.

2. In order to convince the reader that the present management
of farms is inefficient, I shall give some examples of
efficiency in the farm management on some farms with which I am
acquainted.

3. When one wishes to learn how to swim one must first become
accustomed to the water. The best way to become accustomed to
the water is to go into it frequently. After one has become
accustomed to the water he may begin to learn the strokes.

4. _The Life of Sir Walter Scott_, written by J. G. Lockhart,
is an interesting biography of this great writer. It consists
of a short biography by Scott himself, and also consists of a
continuation of this biography by his son-in-law, J. G.
Lockhart.

5. If a piece of steel is kept hot for several seconds, it will
lose some of its hardness. If kept hot longer, it will lose
more of its hardness. Along with losing its hardness it will
lose its brittleness. If the piece of steel is heated
continually it will lose nearly all its hardness and
brittleness. In other words, it will lose its "temper."

=49.= EXERCISE IN EMPHASIS

=A. Lack of Emphasis in General=

Make the following sentences emphatic.

1. The man is a thief who fails in business but continues to
live in luxury.

2. The plant was withered and dry, not having been watered for
over a week.

3. Much time is saved in Chicago by taking the elevated cars,
if you have a great distance to travel.

4. The clock struck eleven, when he immediately seized his hat
and left.

5. These liberal terms should be taken advantage of by us.

6. The study of biology has proved very interesting, as far as
I have gone.

7. Who is this that comes to the foot of the guillotine,
crouching, trembling?

8. They must pay the penalty. Their death is necessary. They
have caused harm enough.

9. I intend to get up fifteen minutes earlier, thereby giving
myself time to eat a good breakfast.

10. The book was reread several times, for I never grew tired
of it.

11. "What is the aim of a university education?" the speaker
asked.

12. A bicycle is sometimes ridden when a tire contains no air,
total ruin resulting from the weight of the rim upon the flat
tire.

13. He sprang forward the instant the pistol cracked, since the
start of a sprint is very important, and one cannot overdo the
practicing of it.

14. Sometimes the fuses fail to burn, or burn too fast, causing
an explosion before the workmen are prepared for it.

15. How father made soap was always a mystery to me. Cracklings
saved from butchering time, lye, and water went into the kettle
on a warm spring day and came out in the form of soap a few
hours later, to my great astonishment.

=B. Loose or Unemphatic Structure=

Make the following sentences more emphatic by throwing them into periodic form.

1. It was Tom, as I had expected.

2. I will not tell, no matter how you beg.

3. The supremacy of the old river steamboat is gone forever,
unless conditions should be utterly changed.

4. Across the desert he traveled alone, and over strange seas,
and through quaint foreign villages.

5. The hot water dissolves the glue in the muresco, making the
mixture more easily applied.

6. Visions of rich meadows and harvest-laden fields now pass
before my eyes, as I sit by the fire.

7. Some of the women were weeping bitterly, thinking they would
never see their homes again.

8. I splashed along on foot for three miles after night in a
driving rain.

9. Very high rent is demanded, thus keeping the peasants
constantly in debt.

10. Roderigo was in despair because he had been rejected by
Desdemona, and was ready to end his life, by the time Iago
entered.

11. Through storm and cold the open boat was brought to the
shore at last, after toil and suffering, with great difficulty.

12. The car came to a violent stop against a rock pile, after
it demolished two fences, upset a hen-house, and scared a pig
out of his wits.

13. The Panama Canal is the fulfilment of the dreams of old
Spanish adventurers, the desires of later merchant princes,
and the demand of modern nations for free traffic on the seas.

14. The fiddle yelled, and the feet of the dancers beat the
floor, and the spectators applauded, and the room fairly rang.

15. The man with the best character, not the man with most
money, will come out on top in the end.

=C. Faulty Repetition=

Repetition in the following sentences is objectionable, because it attracts attention to words or constructions that do not need to be emphasized. Improve the sentences, avoiding unnecessary repetition.

1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the
boys' point of view.

2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the
real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor.

3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject,
choose one that you know something about.

4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a
scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark
for himself everywhere.

5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical
world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality
that will surpass that of the practical man when the college
man learns the skill of the practical man.

6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves
the ground smooth and ready for planting.

7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every
issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is
treated in a short, but thorough manner.

8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at
me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any
changes in me. But they said it had not.

9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and
uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not
uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the
hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most
interesting.

10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are
frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the
backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in
small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks.
Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body
of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend
the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening
they go out to the fields to feed.

GRAMMAR

=Case=

=50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb is remote, or understood (not expressed).=

Wrong: They are as old as us.

Right: They are as old as we [are].

Wrong: He is taller than her.

Right: He is taller than she [is].

Note.--_Than_ and _as_ are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like his brother better than [I like] him." _Than whom_, though ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage.

=b. Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ into the objective case by intervening expressions like _he says_.=

Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble
left the country. [_They believed_ is parenthetical, and the
subject of _was_ is _who_.]

Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble
left the country.

Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit?

Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit?

=Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ or _whoever_ into the objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.=

Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject
of _is_. The object of _punish_ is the entire clause _whoever
is guilty_.]

Right: Punish whoever is guilty.

Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service
remained. [The pronoun is the subject of _had rendered_. The
object of the preposition is the entire clause _who had
rendered him this service_.]

Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service
remained.

=c. The predicate complement of the verb _to be_ (in any of its forms, _is_, _was_, _were_, _be_, etc.) is in the nominative case.= _To be_ never takes an object, because it does not express action.

Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me.

Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I.

Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother.

Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother.

=d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.=

Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing.

Right: Some of us fellows went fishing.

Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I.

Right: That seems incredible to you and me.

Wrong: Who did they detect?

Right: Whom did they detect?

=e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.=

Right: I wanted him to go. [_Him to go_ is the group object of
the verb _wanted_. _To go_, being an infinitive, cannot assert
an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But _to go_
implies that something is at least capable of action. _Him_ is
the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in _to
go_.]

Right: _Whom_ do you wish _to be_ your leader? [_Whom_ is the
assumed subject of the infinitive _to be_.]

=f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive case.= Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the pronouns _one's_ and _other's_. Most of the other possessive pronouns do not require an apostrophe.

Right: The man's hair is gray.

Right: The machine does its work well. [_It's_ would mean _it
is_.]

Right: One should do one's duty.

=g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.=

Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going?

Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going?

Right: I had not heard of his being sick.

Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him
being sick.

Note.--In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these instances most writers prefer the possessive case.

=h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession to inanimate objects.=

Awkward: The farm's management.

Better: The management of the farm.

Awkward: The stomach's lining.

Better: The lining of the stomach.

Note.--Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions that involve time or measure, _a day's work_, _a hair's breadth_, _a year's salary_, _a week's vacation_, _a cable's length_; and (2) expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, _Reason's voice_, _the law's delay_, _for mercy's sake_, _the heart's desire_, _the tempest's breath_.

=i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, but not in case.=

Right: _I, who am_ older, know better.

Right: Tell _me, who am_ older, your trouble.

Right: Many a man has saved _himself_ by counsel.

Exercise:

1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we,
us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her).

2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls
(who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to
select the class pin.

3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a
good investment for her cousin and (she, her).

4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of
the car were his chum and (he, him).

5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not
approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who
labor now the Master will reward.

=Number=

=51a. _Each_, _every_, _every one_, _everybody_, _anybody_, _either_, _neither_, _no one_, _nobody_, and similar words are singular.=

Wrong: Everybody did their best.

Right: Everybody did his best.

Wrong: Each of my three friends were there.

Right: Each of my three friends was there.

Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good
officer.

Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good
officer.

=b. Do not let _this_ or _that_ when modifying _kind_ or _sort_ be attracted into the plural by a following noun.=

Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities.

Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities.

Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards.

Right: I never did like this sort of post cards.

=c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to the meaning intended.=

Right: The crowd is waiting.

Right: The crowd are not agreed.

Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an
inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable
union.

English usage: The government were considering a new bill
regarding labor.

American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at
the disposal of General Foch.

=d. Do not use _don't_ in the third person singular. Use _doesn't_. _Don't_ is contraction of _do not_.=

Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning.

Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning.

Exercise:

1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind
of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of
travelers.

2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one
assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening.

3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come
today.

4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the
agent for telling us the train was not late.

5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter.

=Agreement=

=52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which intervenes between it and the subject.=

Wrong: The size of the plantations vary.

Right: The size of the plantations varies.

Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the
country.

Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the
country.

Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the
demand.

Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand.
[Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand.

=b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject of words introduced by _with_, _together with_, _no less than_, _as well as_, and the like.=

Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have
investigated the charges.

Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has
investigated the charges.

=c. Singular subjects joined by _or_ or _nor_ take a singular verb.=

Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised are acceptable.

Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have
devised is acceptable.

=d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by _and_ takes a plural verb.=

Right: The hunting and fishing are good.

=e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate noun.=

Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders.

Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders.

Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure.

Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure.

=f. In _There is_ and _There are_ sentences the verb should agree in number with the noun that follows it.=

Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision.

Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision.

Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child.

Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child.

Exercise:

1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of
an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are)
injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses
(is, are) often more harmful still.

2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a
voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are)
always out of tune.

3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to
sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the
engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured.

4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against
children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is,
are) the factory whistles.

5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing
freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give)
me confidence in my judgment.

=_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=

Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between _shall_ and _will_ in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the more important distinctions in written discourse.

=53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use _shall_ with the first person (both singular and plural) and _will_ with the second and third.=

I shall go. We shall walk.
You will play. You will hear.
He will sing. They will reply.

=To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is, use _will_ with the first person (both singular and plural), and _shall_ with the second and third.=

I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded.
You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us.
He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute.

In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer.

"Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?"
"You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?"

_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules given for _shall_ and _will_.

Mere statement of a fact:
I [or We] should like to go.
You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer.

Resolution or emphatic assurance:
I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading.
You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it.

_Should_ has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to express a condition; and _would_ has a special use (in all persons) to express a wish, or customary action.

If it should rain, I shall not go.

If I should remain, it would probably clear off.

Would that I could swim!

He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour.

Exercise:

1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I
(shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall,
will) bring forth.

2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose.
When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch
the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow.

3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He
(shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he
(shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old
horse.

4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the
organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window?
(Should, would) I ask his permission?

5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should,
would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You
(shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I
ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell.

=Principal Parts=

=54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle.= Avoid _come_, _done_, _bursted_, _knowed_, _says_ for the past tense; and [_had_] _eat_, [_had_] _froze_, [_have_] _ran_, [_has_] _went_, [_has_] _wrote_, [_are_] _suppose_ for the past participle. Memorize the principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall these is to repeat the formula: Today I _sing_; yesterday I _sang_; often in the past I have _sung_. The principal parts of _sing_ are _sing_, _sang_, _sung_. A list of difficult verbs is given below.