Chapter IV: Part 4

bear bore borne
born
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bid bid bid
bade bidden
bite bit bit
bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
burn burnt burnt
burned burned
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
deal dealt dealt
dive dived dived
do did done
drag dragged dragged
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt dreamt
dreamed dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
drown drowned drowned
dwell dwelt dwelt
dwelled dwelled
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fight fought fought
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
flow flowed flowed
freeze froze frozen
get got got
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hang hanged hanged
hold held held
kneel knelt knelt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lie lied lied
loose loosed loosed
lose lost lost
mean meant meant
pay paid paid
prove proved proved
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine shone shone
show showed shown
shrink shrank shrunk
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
slink slunk slunk
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spit spit spit
spat spat
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trod
trodden
wake woke waked
waked
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
weep wept wept
write wrote written

Exercise:

1. Adams ---- (past tense of _draw_) another glass of cider and
---- (past tense of _drink_) it. When those squashes once ----
(past tense of _begin_), they ---- (past tense of _grow_) like
mad.

2. The thermometer had ---- (past participle of _fall_) twenty
degrees, and three water pipes had ---- (past participle of
_freeze_). Afterward one ---- (past tense of _burst_).

3. Annie had ---- (past participle of _speak_) a piece, and
Nancy had ---- (past participle of _write_) a poem, and Isabel
had nearly ---- (past participle of _burst_) with envy.

4. He ---- (past tense of _do_) a brave deed; he ---- (past
tense of _swim_) straight for the whirlpool. I had ---- (past
participle of _know_) him before, and had ---- (past participle
of _shake_) hands with him.

5. He ---- (past tense of _come_) home late, and has ---- (past
participle of _eat_) his dinner. Now he has ---- (past
participle of _go_) down town. He has ---- (past participle of
_ride_) before. I ---- (past tense of _see_) him. He ---- (past
tense of _run_) swiftly.

=Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries=

=55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.=

Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb _intended_
indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do
something. What? Did I intend _to go_, or _to have gone_?]

Right: I intended to go.

Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The
principal verb _hoped_ indicates a past time. In that past time
our hope was that you _would_ come, not that you _would have
come_.]

Right: We hoped that you would come.

=b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.=

Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he shot.

Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals
which he had shot.

=c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are usually expressed in the present tense.=

Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet.

Right: He said that Venus is a planet.

=d. The subjunctive mode of the verb _to be_ is used to express a condition contrary to fact, or a wish.=

Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy.

Right: If he were here, I should be happy.

Faulty: I wish that I was a man.

Right: I wish that I were a man.

=e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect of successive verbs is not altered without reason.=

Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier
_learns_ discipline, and consequently _would have_ steady
nerves in time of war. [_Learns_ should be followed by _will
have_.]

Wrong: An automobile _should be_ kept in good working order so
that its life _is_ lengthened. [_Should be_ is properly
followed by _may be_.]

Exercise:

1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken.

2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so
long.

3. If I was sick, I should go home.

4. They expected to have won the game.

5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a
person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably
be able to secure membership for him.

=Adjective and Adverb=

=56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.=

Crude: He spoke slow and careful.

Right: He spoke slowly and carefully.

Crude: He sure did good in his classes.

Right: He surely did well in his classes.

=b. In such sentences as _He stood firm_ and _The cry rang clear_ the modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb if it refers to the verb.=

Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the
thought is that the sun which shines is bright.]

Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the
manner of working rather than to the person who works. It
should therefore be an adverb.]

Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes
angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems
intelligent.

=c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, _look_, _sound_, _taste_, _smell_, _feel_, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to the subject.= (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to the verb.)

She looks _beautiful_. [Not _beautifully_.]

The dinner bell sounds _good_. [Not _well_.]

My food tastes _bad_. [Not _badly_.]

That flower smells _bad_. [Not _badly_.]

I feel good [_in good spirits_.]

I feel well [_in good health_. An adjectival use of _well_.]

I feel bad [_in bad health or spirits_. "I feel badly" would
mean "My sense of touch is impaired."]

Exercise:

1. They fought ---- (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled
----(awkward, awkwardly).

2. Margaret ---- (sure, surely) worked ---- (faithful,
faithfully) in economics.

3. At this reply the teacher grew ---- (wrathful, wrathfully).
I hear you ---- (plain, plainly).

4. I feel ---- (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks ---- (sweet,
sweetly). No perfume smells so ---- (dainty, daintily).

5. That salad tastes ---- (good, well). I feel ---- (bad,
badly) today. Your voice sounds ---- (good, well) and
----(familiar, familiarly).

=A Word in a Double Capacity=

=57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.=

Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and
two churches in another.

Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two
churches were built in another.

Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it.

Right: He always has done it, and always will do it.

Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any
other man in the community.

Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not
older.

Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work.

Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it.

Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most
skilful, tennis players in the state.

Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the
state, if not the most skilful.

Exercise:

1. He is as old, if not older, than she is.

2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore.

3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many
hobbies.

4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good,
as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things
than in any show.

5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping
our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous
physician said that one of the next, if not the very next,
marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries
in the realm of dentistry.

Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation

The Parts of Speech and Their Uses

=Noun.= A noun is a name. It may be =proper= (_Philip Watkins_), or
=common=. Common nouns may be =concrete= (_man_, _windmill_), or
=abstract= (_gratitude_, _nearness_). =A= noun applied to a group
is said to be =collective= (_family_, _race_). The uses of a noun
=are=: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object
of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another
noun (Jenkins, our _coach_), to indicate possession (_Joseph's_
coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an
adjective (the _brick_ sidewalk) or adverb (John went _home_),
and to indicate direct address (_Jehovah_, help us!).

=Pronoun.= A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun.
It may be =personal= (_I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_,
_we_, _they_), =relative= (_who_, _which_, _what_, _that_, _as_,
and compounds _whoever_, _whichsoever_, etc.), =interrogative=
(_who_, _which_, _what_), =demonstrative= (_this_, _that_,
_these_, _those_), or =indefinite= (_some_, _any_, _one_, _each_,
_either_, _neither_, _none_, _few_, _all_, _both_, etc.).
Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and
indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns
are also used as adjectives, notably the =possessives= (_my_,
_his_, _their_, etc.) and the relative or interrogative _which_
and _what_. The addition of _-self_ to a personal pronoun forms
a =reflexive pronoun= or =intensive= (I blamed _myself_. You
_yourself_ are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands
is called the =antecedent=. The uses of pronouns are in general
the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as
connectives (the man _who_ spoke), interrogatives ask questions
(_what_ man?), and demonstratives point out (_that_ man).

=Verb.= A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion
about the subject. It may express either action or mere
existence. It may be =transitive= (_trans_ meaning "across";
hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act;
Brutus _stabbed_ Cæsar; Cæsar is _stabbed_) or =intransitive=
(not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery _fell_). Its
meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice
shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion
made by the verb. The =active voice= shows the subject as actor
(They _elected_ Washington); the =passive voice=, as acted upon
(Washington _was elected_). (A transitive verb may be active or
passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates
the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion,
condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The
=indicative mode= affirms or denies (He _went_. She _did not
dance_.) The =subjunctive= expresses condition or wish (If he
_were_ older, he would be wiser. Would that I _were_ there!).
The =imperative= expresses command or exhortation (_Remain_
there. _Go!_ _Let_ us pray). =Modal auxiliaries= with these three
modes form =modal aspects= of the verb. There are as many
different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are
sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively
the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or
existence. The tenses are the =present=, the =past=, the =future=
(employing the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_), the =perfect=
(employing _have_), the =past perfect= (employing _had_), and the
=future perfect= (employing _shall have_ and _will have_).
=Verbals= are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of
speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms,
infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings.

=Adjective.= An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or
pronoun. An adjective may be =attributive= (_bright_ sun,
_cool-headed_ adventurers) or =predicate= (The field is _broad_.
The meat tastes _bad_. I want this _ready_ by Christmas).
Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison.
The =positive degree= indicates the simple quality of the object
without reference to any other. The =comparative degree=
indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the _older_
brother). The =superlative degree= indicates that three or more
objects are compared (Stanley is the _oldest_ child in the
family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A
_most excellent_ record). Ordinarily _er_ or _r_ is added to
the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ or _st_ to the
positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But
some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of
more than two, syllables) prefix _more_ (or _less_) to the
positive to form the comparative, and _most_ (or _least_) to
the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more
beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities
that do not permit comparison (_dead_, _four-sided_, _unique_).

=Adverb.= An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an
adjective, another adverb (She played _well_; _unusually_
handsome; _very_ sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun
(Walking _fast_ is good for the health), a preposition (The
ship drifted _almost_ upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It
came _just_ when we wished). Certain adverbs (_fatally_,
_entirely_) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do
are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables
(_slowly_, _more_ or _less slowly_, _most_ or _least slowly_).

=Preposition.= A preposition is a connective _placed before_ a
substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the
substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast _of_
heraldry, the pomp _of_ power. He ran _toward_ the enemy
_without_ fear).

=Conjunction.= A conjunction is a word used to _join together_
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A =coördinate conjunction=
connects elements of equal rank (See 36). =Correlative
conjunctions= are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A
=subordinate conjunction= is one that connects elements unequal
in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its
function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place,
or cause, it is often called a =conjunctive adverb= or =relative
adverb=.

=Interjection.= An interjection is a word _thrown into_ speech to
express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other
words. (_Oh_, is that it? _Well_, I'll do it. _Hark!_)

=Other Grammatical Terms=

=Absolute expression.= An expression (usually composed of a
substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which,
though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought
related to the remainder of the sentence. (_The relief party
having arrived_, we went home. _This disposed of_, the council
proceeded to other matters. _Defeated_, he was not dismayed.)

=Antecedent.= A substantive to which a pronoun or participle
refers. Literally, _antecedent_ means _that which goes
before_; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent
word. (The _man_ who hesitates is lost. Entering the store,
_we_ saw a barrel of apples.) _Man_ is the antecedent of the
pronoun _who_, and _we_ is the antecedent of the participle
_entering_.

=Auxiliary.= _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _ought_, _may_,
_can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc., when
used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are
called auxiliary verbs.

=Case.= The relation of a substantive to other words in the
sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject
of a verb, or the predicate of the verb _to be_, is in the
nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the
"assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A
noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive
case.

=Clause.= A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a
verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains
one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal)
clause: _When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin_.

=Conjugation.= The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate
person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect.

=Declension.= The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to
indicate person, number, or case.

=Ellipsis, elliptical expression.= An expression partially
incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the
meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words
is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker.
Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the
reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples
of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your
sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go
if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice.

=Gerund.= A verbal in _-ing_ used as a noun. (I do not object to
your _telling_. His _having deserted_ us makes little
difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of
the infinitive.

=Infinitive.= A verbal ordinarily introduced by _to_ and used as
a noun (_To err_ is human). In such sentences as "The road to
follow is the river road," _follow_ may be regarded as the noun
of a phrase (compare _the road to Mandalay_), or the entire
phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He
hastened to comply," _comply_ may be regarded as a noun or _to
comply_ as an adverb. After certain verbs (_bid_, _dare_,
_help_, _make_, _need_, etc.) the _to_ is omitted from the
infinitive group. (He bids me _go_. I need not _hesitate_.)

=Inflection.= Change in the form of a word to show a modification
or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language
there was a separate form for practically every modification.
Although separate forms are now less numerous, _inflection_ is
still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it
includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives
and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs.

=Modify.= To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or
alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man,"
_the_ and _old_ modify _man_, and _very_ modifies _old_.

=Participle.= A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective
with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest,
is also the best liked," _being oldest_ refers exclusively, or
almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival.
In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running
down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the
participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore
adverbial as well as adjectival.

=Phrase.= A group of words forming a subordinate part of a
sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples:
_With a whistle and a roar_ the train arrived [prepositional
phrase]. _Bowing his head_, the prisoner listened to the
verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose,
untechnical sense _phrase_ may refer to any short group of
words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb.

=Predicate.= The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an
assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with
or without objects or modifiers.

=Predicate adjective.= An adjective in the predicate, usually
linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_ (_is_,
_was_, _were_, etc.). (John is _lazy_. The soldiers were very
_eager_.)

=Predicate noun.= A noun linked with the subject by some form of
the verb _to be_. (John is _halfback._ They were our
_neighbors._)

=Sentence.= A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a
subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or
without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words
outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related
in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex;
sentences of type 2 are compound. A =simple sentence= contains
one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A =complex
sentence= contains one independent clause and one or more
subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A
=compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses (The
dog barks, and the thief runs).

=Substantive.= A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The
_king_ summoned _parliament_. The _bravest_ are the
_tenderest_. _She_ was inconsolable.) A =substantive phrase= is a
phrase used as a noun. (_From Dan to Beersheba_ is a term for
the whole of Israel.) A =substantive clause= is a clause used as
a noun. (_That he owed the money_ is certain.)

=Syntax.= Construction; the grammatical relation between the
words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.

=Verbal.= Any form of the verb used as another part of speech.
Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are
used to express action without asserting it, and cannot,
therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs.

=Abridged Conjugation of the verb _to take_=

=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=

=Indicative Mode=

=Present= I take I am taken
=Past= I took I was taken
=Future= I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken
=Perfect= I have taken I have been taken
=Past Perfect= I had taken I had been taken
=Future Perfect= I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken

=Subjunctive Mode=

=Present= If I take If I be taken
=Past= If I took If I were taken
=Perfect= If I have taken If I have been taken
=Past Perfect= If I had taken If I had been taken

=Imperative Mode=

=Present= Take

=Modal Aspects=

(Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give special meanings--emphatic, progressive, etc.--to the primary modes. Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a few can be enumerated here.)

=Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice=

{ =Emphatic:= I do take
{ =Progressive:= I am taking I am being taken
=Present= { =Contingent:= I may take I may be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I can take I can be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=

{ =Emphatic:= I did take
{ =Progressive:= I was taking I was being taken
=Past= { =Contingent:= I might take I might be taken
=Indicative= { =Potential:= I could take I could be taken
{ =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken
{ =Etc.=

{ =Emphatic:= If I do take
{ =Progressive:= If I be taking
=Present= { =Contingent:= If I might take
=Subjunctive= { =Potential:= If I could take
{ =Obligative:= If I must take
{ =Etc.=

=Present= { =Emphatic:= Do take
=Imperative= { =Progressive:= Be taking

=Verbals=

=Infinitive=

=Active Voice= =Passive Voice=
=Present:= To take To be taken
=Perfect:= To have taken To have been taken

=Gerund=

=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken

=Participle=

=Present:= Taking Being taken
=Past:= Taken
=Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken

Exercise:

Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces
between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word.
This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For
example:

"Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet
_noun_ _part._ _prep._ _art._ _adv._ _adj._

slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man
_noun_ _verb_ _conj._ _pers pro._ _verb_ _art._ _adj._ _noun_

who stood beside a window."
_rel. pro._ _verb_ _prep._ _art._ _noun_

=59.= EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR

=A. Case of Pronouns=

Determine the correct form of the pronoun.

1. It is (I, me).

2. No one knows better than (she, her).

3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me).

4. It was (they, them).

5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him).

6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car.

7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me).

8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the
questionable honor.

9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the
theater.

10. Others are older than (we, us).

11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president?

12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass.

13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it.

14. That seems strange to you and (I, me).

15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her).

16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often
the wisest.

17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry.

18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never
entered my mind.

19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was.

20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever,
whomever) recovers it.

=B. Agreement=

Determine the correct form of the verb.

1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music.

2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good.

3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of
gold.

4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are)
hauled to the smelter.

5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two
cards (is, are) used.

6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the
great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of
economy.

7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three
hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were)
completed.

8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always
noises.

9. The exact meaning of such words as _inspiration_,
_prophecy_, and _orthodox_ (puzzles, puzzle) laymen.

10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country
people.

11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic
exploration.

12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by
careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity.

13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights
or oratory.

14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired.

15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing
as the circus was unloaded.

16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of
students who are socially submerged.

17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives.

18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this
magazine.

19. No people (lives, live) in that house.

20. The corporal, together with two other members of the
patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy.

=C. _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_=

Determine the correct form of the verb.

1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go.

2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car.

3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of
excitement.

4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they
never (shall, will).

5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further
begging was useless.

6. As we (shall, will) find by investigation, our coast
fortifications are few.

7. I (shouldn't, wouldn't) do that for anything.

8. I (should, would) think you (should, would) enjoy your
bicycle.

9. (Shall, will) you go driving with us?

10. Do you think it (shall, will) rain?

11. Where (shall, will) I hang my hat?

12. (Should, would) you go if I (should, would) ask you?

13. Rover (should, would) stay in the house all the time, if we
(should, would) let him.

14. I promised that I (should, would) be at the station early,
lest we (should, would) miss the train.

15. You (shall, will) have much trouble with that cold, I'm
afraid.

=D. _Lie_, _lay_; _sit_, _set_; _rise_, _raise_=

Fix in mind the following principal parts:

I lie I lay I have lain
I lay I laid I have laid
I sit I sat I have sat
I set I set I have set
I rise I rose I have risen
I raise I raised I have raised

_Lie_, _sit_, _rise_ are used intransitively; _lay_, _set_,
_raise_ are used transitively. _Lay_, _set_, _raise_ are
causatives; that is, _to lay_ means _to cause to lie_, etc.

Insert a correct form of the verb _lie_ or _lay_:

1. I ---- here and watch the clouds. My dog is ----ing at my
feet.

2. In the evening I ---- aside all cares. I ---- down on the
couch and read. Yesterday I ---- there an hour.

3. The children have ---- in bed until seven o'clock. John has
---- his coat on a chair. He ---- there asleep now.

4. ---- the shovel down. The garden is now ---- out in rows.
---- down and take a little rest.

5. Smoke ---- along the horizon. Snow was ----ing here
yesterday. He is ----ing plans for the future.

Insert a correct form of the verb _sit_ or _set_:

6. Jerome ---- the box on the floor. Then he ---- on the box.

7. Four people are ----ing at the table. Who ---- the lamp
there?

8. I had ---- there an hour. They had ---- the pitcher outside
the door.

9. I often ---- up late. Last night I ---- up late. I must
----the alarm clock.

10. ---- the package down. ---- down and rest. While we are
----ing there the gardener is ----ing out the plants.

Insert a correct form of the verb _rise_ or _raise_:

11. ---- up and speak! ---- the window.

12. He quickly ---- his head. The cork had gone under, but now
it ---- again to the surface.

13. During the night the bread ---- to the top of the pan.

14. The invalid slowly ---- himself in his bed.

15. The river has already ---- and overflowed its banks.

=E. Principal Parts of Verbs=

In the following sentences supply the correct form of the verb.

1. He ---- (past tense of _come_) to this country in 1887.

2. He has ---- (past participle of _eat_) breakfast and ----
(past participle of _go_) to the office.

3. Have you ---- (past participle of _ride_) far? I have
----(past participle of _drive_) ten miles.

4. I am sure it was Henry who ---- (past tense of _do_) it, for
I ---- (past tense of _see_) him running away as fast as he
could go.

5. The wind has ---- (past participle of _tear_) down the
chimney and ---- (past participle of _blow_) down the tree.

6. After he ---- (past tense of _lie_) down, he remembered he
had left his books ---- (present participle of _lie_) in the
orchard.

7. He ---- (past tense of _throw_) the ball so hard that the
window was ---- (past participle of _break_) into a hundred
pieces.

8. The man ---- (past tense of _give_) warning before we had
---- (past participle of _go_) too far.

9. After we had ---- (past participle of _ride_) about ten
miles we ---- (past tense of _come_) upon a stretch of hard
road.

10. Where ---- (past tense of _be_) you? You ----n't (past
tense of _be_) at home when I ---- (past tense of _ring_) the
bell.

11. The harness was ---- (past participle of _break_ or
_burst_) beyond repair. Who ---- (past tense of _break_) it?

12. I ---- (past tense of _take_) four shots at the rabbit, but
every shot ---- (past tense of _go_) wild.

13. He has ---- (past participle of _swim_) across the harbor,
and has ---- (past participle of _break_) the record.

14. I had ---- (past participle of _drink_) buttermilk for
several weeks. I ---- (past tense of _begin_) to gain weight.

15. When we had ---- (past participle of _sit_) there an hour
and ---- (past participle of _eat_) all we wanted, Jim ----
(past tense of _draw_) out his purse and ---- (past tense of
_give_) the waiter a dollar.

=F. General=

Improve the grammar of the following sentences.

1. Those kind of lamps are ugly.

2. It don't interest me any more.

3. Nobody may enter the hall tonight without their admittance
cards.

4. One does not need to strain their ears while at the movies.

5. Nearly all people eat too much, too fast, and too irregular.

6. Don't take this letter too serious.

7. He done the best he could with these kind of tools.

8. Every person with a cold was blowing their nose.

9. It would help considerable if you would speak to the manager
about existing conditions.

10. If I were the mayor, I could not do as good as he does.

11. Talk polite to your customers.

12. It is important that a salesman has a good memory.

13. Each tube must be capable of withstanding a pressure of
five hundred pounds per square inch before they are lowered
into place.

14. She is as tall, if not taller, than he is.

15. He always has and always will say that.

16. He is one of the worst, if not the very worst, player on
the team.

17. Final examinations require time and study that would not
otherwise be done.

18. I feel badly. He talks rude. It smells fragrantly.

DICTION

=Wordiness=

=60. Avoid wordiness. Strike out words not essential to the thought.=

Roundabout impersonal construction: There are many interesting
things which may be seen in New York. [12 words.]

Better: Many interesting things may be seen in New York. [9
words.]

Clause to be reduced to a phrase: The skeleton which stood in
the office of Dr. Willard was terrifying to little Cecil. [15
words.]

Right: The skeleton in Dr. Willard's office was terrifying to
little Cecil. [11 words.]

Clause and phrase each to be reduced to a word: Men who cared
only for their individual interests were now in a state of
discouragement. [15 words.]

Right: Selfish men were now discouraged. [5 words.]

Separate predication in excess: That day I was shocking wheat
behind the binder. Shocking wheat behind the binder was my
usual job in harvest. That day while I was working at this job,
I found a nest full of partridge eggs. [37 words.]

Right: That day, while shocking wheat behind the binder, my
usual job in harvest, I found a nest full of partridge eggs.
[21 words.]

Ponderous scientific terms for simple ideas: Since, according
to the physicists, the per cent of efficiency of a machine is
equal to the amount of energy put in, divided by the amount of
useful work performed, it naturally follows that in all human
activities, unnecessary friction, since it lowers the amount of
nervous energy, is going to lower the per cent of efficiency.
While we may never reach an astonishing degree of efficiency by
economizing nervous energy, nevertheless, if we consistently
and perseveringly try to spare ourselves all unnecessary labor
and exertion, we shall have an abundant supply of energy to
direct into channels of usefulness. [100 words.]

Right: If we economize our strength, we can make our actions
more efficient and useful. [14 words.]

Inflated writing: She was supreme in beauty among the daughters
of Eve whom his ravished eyes had hitherto beheld. [17 words.]

Right: She was the most beautiful woman he had ever seen. [10
words.]

Note.--A special form of wordiness is tautology--the useless repetition of an idea in different words.

Gross tautology: He had an entire monopoly of the whole fruit
trade. [This is like saying "black blackbird."]

Right: He had a monopoly of the fruit trade.

Tautological expressions:

this here
where at
return back
ascend up
repeat again
biography of his life
good benefits
fellow playmates
Hallowe'en evening
important essentials
indorse on the back
connect up
meet up with
combined together
perfectly all right
utter absence of
quite round
absolutely annihilated
still continue to
absolutely new creation
necessary requisite
total effect of all this

Exercise:

1. The people who act the parts in a play want the people who
witness the performance to applaud them.

2. There is an oily grass which is found on the prairie, and
which is called mesquite grass, and it covers the prairie.

3. You wish to call the operator. You take the receiver from
the hook. By taking the receiver from the hook you call the
operator.

4. At last the employer of the men, and those who were employed
by him, having compromised their difficulties, effected a
settlement, and reached an amicable understanding agreeable to
both parties.

5. The two merchants joined up their forces together in order
to secure a monopoly of the entire trade of the village. There
was one absolutely essential preliminary which they thought
must necessarily precede everything else. It was that they
should take all the old shop-worn articles and dispose of them
by selling them as bargains at a reduced rate.

=Triteness=

=61. Avoid trite or hackneyed expressions.= Such expressions may be tags from everyday speech (_the worse for wear_, _had the time of my life_); or stale phrases from newspapers (_taken into custody_, _the officiating clergyman_); or humorous substitutions (_ferocious canine_, _paternal ancestor_); or forced synonyms (_gridiron heroes_, _the Hoosier metropolis_); or conventional fine writing (_reigns supreme_, _wind kissed the tree-tops_); or oft-repeated euphemisms (_limb_ for _leg_, _pass away_ for _die_); or overworked quotations from literature (_monarch of all I survey_, _footprints on the sands of time_).

List of trite expressions:

along these lines
meets the eye
feathered songsters
a long-felt want
the last sad rites
launched into eternity
last but not least
doomed to disappointment
at one fell swoop
sadder but wiser
did justice to a dinner
a goodly number
budding genius
beggars description
a dull thud
silence broken only by
wended their way
abreast of the times
trees stood like sentinels
method in his madness
sun-kissed meadows
tired but happy
hoping you are the same
nipped in the bud
the happy pair
seething mass of humanity
specimen of humanity
with bated breath
green with envy
the proud possessor
too full for utterance
a pugilistic encounter
conspicuous by its absence
with whom they come in contact
exception proves the rule
favor with a selection
as luck would have it
more easily imagined than described
where ignorance is bliss

Exercise:

1. Halleck returned from his trip considerably the worse for
wear.

2. The baby whom she had promised to keep quiet proved to be a
foeman worthy of her steel.

3. I first saw the light of day in New Orleans. It was in the
Crescent City also that my dear mother passed away.

4. Americans come off second best in a vocalizing encounter
with umlauted _u_, while Germans and Frenchmen wage sanguinary
battles with our _th_.

5. The daily scramble for dear life to get aboard a trolley was
like taking arms against a sea of troubles. Even standing room
was conspicuous by its absence. Sheridan began to think along
the line of getting to the office in some other way.

=The Exact Word=

=62. Find the exact word. Do not be content with a loose meaning. Seek the verb, the noun, the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which expresses your thought with precision.= Such words as _said_, _proposition_, and _nice_ are often used too loosely. Observe the possible gain in definiteness by substitution.

For _said_ (verb): _declared_, _related_, _insisted_,
_exclaimed_, _added_, _repeated_, _replied_, _admitted_,
_commented_, _corrected_, _protested_, _explained_,
_besought_, _interrupted_, _inquired_, _stammered_, _sighed_,
_murmured_, or _thundered_.

For _proposition_ (noun): _transaction_, _undertaking_,
_venture_, _recourse_, _suggestion_, _overture_, _proposal_,
_proffer_, _convenience_, _difficulty_, _thesis_, or
_doctrine_.

For _nice_ (adjective): _discriminating_, _precise_,
_fastidious_, _dainty_, _neat_, _pretty_, _pleasant_,
_fragrant_, _delicious_, _well-behaved_, _good_, or _moral_.

Inexact verb: He had not sufficiently _regarded_ the
difficulties of the task [Use _considered_].

Inexact noun: Promptness is an _item_ which a manager should
possess [Use _quality_].

Inexact adjective: He looked _awfully funny_ when I told him he
had made a mistake [Use _surprised_].

Inexact phrasing throughout: Health is first in every line of
activity. A man who has it does not hold it with enough
respect, and make efforts enough to keep it.

Right: Health is indispensable to success in any work. Even
those who have it do not realize its value.

Exercise:

1. He was proud of the honorable record he had gained.

2. He resolved that some day he would be a banker, and I shall
tell you how he tried to do so.

3. Isn't the sunset grand? Isn't it nice to be out of doors?

4. The mystery as to which ones of the piano keys to play was
hard for him to acquire.

5. If the package comes by freight, you must negotiate the
proposition of getting it home; but if it comes by express, the
delivery is done free.

=Concreteness=

=63. Concrete words are often more effective than vague, general, or abstract words.=

Not specific: She held herself aloof from her brothers' games
and amusements.

Concrete: She never played soldier or sailed paper boats with
her brothers.

No appeal to the senses: I liked to watch the servant girl as
she moved about the kitchen, preparing our morning repast.

Concrete: I liked to watch Norah as she fried our crisp
breakfast bacon and browned our buckwheat cakes.

Flat, not readily visualized: The first inhabitants overcame
the barriers to settlement about a century ago.

Concrete: Rough backwoodsmen broke through the underbrush and
swamp-land a century ago.

Exercise:

1. The scientist discovered a bird in a tree.

2. Our hostess set before us many good things to eat.

3. The sailor was carving queer figures on a piece of soft
wood.

4. The night watchman heard something that made him suspicious.

5. I stood at the door of the shop to watch the astonishing
things the blacksmith was doing.

=Sound=

=64. Avoid the frequent repetition of a sound, especially if it be harsh or unpleasant.=

Bad: He is an exceedingly orderly secretary.

Better: As a secretary he is very systematic. [Or] The
secretary is very systematic.

Bad: Immediately the squirrel hid himself behind the hickory
tree.

Better: Immediately the squirrel dodged behind the hickory
tree.

Unfortunate rime: Bert did not dare to go home with wet hair.

Better: Bert did not dare to go home with his hair wet. [Or]
Bert was afraid to go home with wet hair.

Exercise:

1. That Christmas happened to be unusually happy.

2. I fear we must sit near the rear of the room.

3. The Jackies went clambering and scurrying up the rigging.

4. The ship slips anchor while the idlers sip tea on the deck.

5. The third treasure-seeker heard a thud. His pick had struck
an obstruction.

=Subtle Violations of Good Use: Faulty Idioms, Colloquialisms=

=65. Avoid subtle violations of good use, particularly (a) faulty idioms and (b) colloquialisms.=

=a. Make your expression conform to English idiom.= A faulty idiom is an expression which, though correct in grammar and general meaning, combines words in a manner contrary to usage. Idioms are established by custom, and cannot be explained by logical rules. "I enjoy to read" is wrong, not because the words offend logic or grammar, but merely because people do not instinctively make that combination of words. "I like to read" and "I enjoy reading" are good idioms.

=Faulty Idioms= =Correct Idioms=

in the city Toledo in the city of Toledo
in the year of 1920 in the year 1920
I hope you a good time I wish you a good time
the Rev. Hopkins the Reverend Mr. Hopkins
possessed with ability possessed of ability
stay to home stay at home
different than different from
independent from independent of
in search for in search of

Observe that many idioms are concerned with prepositions. Make sure that a verb or adjective is accompanied by the right preposition. Study the following list of correct idioms:

accused of (a theft)
accused by (a person)
accord with (a person)
agree with (a person)
agree to (a proposal)
agreeable to
angry at (things or persons)
angry with (a person)
careful about (an affair)
careful of (one's money)
comply with
convenient to (a person)
convenient for (a purpose)
correspond to (things)
correspond with (persons)
dissent from
enamored of
entrust to
free from
listen to
part from (a person)
part with (a thing)
pleased with
resolve on
sympathize with
take exception to

=b. Do not carry the standards of conversation into formal writing.= Colloquial usage is more free than literary usage. The colloquial sentence _That's the man I talked with_ becomes in writing _That is the man with whom I talked._ The colloquial sentence _It was a cold day but there wasn't any wind blowing_ is a loose string of words. Written discourse requires greater tension and more care in subordinating minor ideas: _The day, though cold, was still._ Contractions are proper in conversation, and in personal or informal writing. In formal writing they are not appropriate. And do not let such expressions as _He doesn't_, _We aren't_, _It's proved_, used in talk by careful speakers, mislead you into expressions like _He don't_, _We ain't_, _It's proven_, which violate even colloquial good use.

Exercise:

1. He confessed of his inability to comply to the demand.

2. Is he from Irish descent? Is humor characteristic with the
Irish?

3. She was not to home, but I was reluctant against leaving.

4. He dissented to the opinion of the committee's majority, for
his ideas were utterly different than theirs.

5. He got a few jobs as a carpenter that summer, but they
didn't pay him much, and so he went to loafing around, and he's
been at it ever since.

=Gross Violations of Good Use: Barbarisms, Improprieties, Slang=

=66. Avoid gross violations of good use, particularly (a) barbarisms, (b) improprieties, and (c) slang.=

=a. Barbarisms are distortions of words in good use, or coinages for which there is no need.= Examples: _to concertize_, _to burgle_ or _burglarize_, _to jell_, _alright_, _a-plenty_, _most_ (for _almost_), _performess_, _fake_, _pep_, _tasty_, _illy_, _complected_, _undoubtably_, _nowheres_, _soph_, _lab_, _gents_.

=b. Improprieties are words wrenched from one part of speech to another, or made to perform an unnatural service.= Examples: _to suspicion_, _to gesture_, _to suicide_, _a steal_, _a try_, _a go_, _an invite_, _the eats_, _humans_, _some_ or _real_ or _swell_ (as adverbs), _like_ (as a conjunction).

=c. Slang is speech consisting either of uncouth expressions of illiterate origin, or of legitimate expressions used in grotesque or irregular senses.= Though sometimes (witness eighteenth century _mob_, and nineteenth century _buncombe_) it satisfies a real need and becomes established in the language, in most instances it is short-lived (witness the thieves' talk in _Oliver Twist_, or passages from any comic opera song popular five years ago). Vicious types of slang are:

Expressions of vulgar origin (from criminal classes, the prize
ring, the vaudeville circuit, etc.): _get pinched_, _down and
out_, _took the count_, _bum hunch_, _nix on the comedy
stuff_, _get across_.

Language strained or distorted for novel effect: _performed the
feed act at a bang-up gastronomic emporium_, _bingled a tall
drive that made the horsehide ramble out into center garden_.

Blanket expressions used as substitutes for thinking:
_corking_, _stunning_, _ain't it fierce?_, _can you beat it?_,
_going some_, _just so I get by with it_.

The use of the last-named type is most to be regretted. It leads to a mental habit of phonographic repetition, with no resort to independent thinking. If a man really desires to use slang, let him invent new expressions every day, and make them fit the specific occasion.

Exercise:

1. I disremember what sort of an outfit he wore.

2. Helen's as light-complected a girl as you'll run across, I
calculate.

3. His ad brought a first-rate gent to hold down the job.

4. Thompson hasn't stability, or it seems like it. He ain't got
no gumption. He's too easy enthused.

5. The grub was to of cost us two bits, but we didn't have the
dough. We gets outside the food, and when the cashier ain't
lookin', we runs out the door and beats it.

=Words Often Confused in Meaning=

=67. Do not confuse or interchange the meanings of the following words:=

=_Accept_ and _except_.= _Accept_ means _to receive_; _except_ as
a verb means _to exclude_ and as a preposition means _with the
exception of_.

=_Affect_ and _effect_.= _Affect_ is not used as a noun; _effect_
as a noun means _result_. As verbs, _affect_ means _to
influence in part_; _effect_ means _to accomplish totally_.
"His story affected me deeply." "The Russians effected a
revolution." _Affect_ also has a special meaning _to feign_.
"She had an affected manner."

=_Allusion_ and _illusion_.= _Allusion_ means _a reference_;
_illusion_ means a _deceptive appearance_. "A Biblical
allusion." "An optical illusion."

=_Already_ and _all ready_.= _Already_ means _by this time_ or
_beforehand_; _all ready_ means _wholly ready_. "I have already
invited him." "Dinner is all ready." "We are all ready for
dinner."

=_Altogether_ and _all together_.= _Altogether_ means _wholly_,
_entirely_; _all together_ means _collectively, in a group_.
"He is altogether honest." "The King sent the people all
together into exile."

=_Can_ and _may_.= _Can_ means _to be able_; _may_ means _to have
permission_. _Can_ for _may_ has a certain colloquial standing,
but is condemned by literary usage.

=_Emigrate_ and _immigrate_.= _Emigrate_ means _to go out from a
country_; _immigrate_ means _to enter into a country_. The same
man may be an _emigrant_ when he leaves Europe, and an
_immigrant_ when he enters America.

=_Healthy_ and _healthful_.= _Healthy_ means _having health_;
_healthful_ means _giving health_. "Milk is healthful." "The
climate of Colorado is healthful." "The boy is healthy."

=_Hanged_ and _hung_.= _Hanged_ is the correct past tense of
_hang_ in the sense _put to death, hanged on the gallows_;
_hung_ is the correct past tense for the general meaning
_suspended_.

=_Hygienic_ and _sanitary_.= Both words mean _pertaining to
health_. _Hygienic_ is used when the condition is a matter of
personal habits or rules; _sanitary_ is used when the condition
is a matter of surroundings (water supply, food supply, sewage
disposal, etc.) or the relations of numbers of people.

=_Instants_ and _instance_.= _Instants_ means _small portions of
time_; _instance_ means _an example_.

=_Later_ and _latter_.= _Later_ means _more late_; _latter_ means
_the second in a series of two_. "The latter" is used in
conjunction with the phrase "the former."

=_Lead_ and _led_.= _Led_ is the past tense of the verb _to
lead_. _Lead_ is the present tense.

=_Learn_ and _teach_.= _Learn_ means _to get knowledge of_;
_teach_ means _to give knowledge of_ or _to_. "The instructor
_teaches_ (not _learns_) me physics." "He learns his lessons
easily."

=_Leave_ and _let_.= _Leave_ means _to abandon_; _let_ means _to
permit_.

=_Less_ and _fewer_.= _Less_ refers to quantity; _fewer_ refers
to number. "He has _fewer_ (not _less_) horses than he needs."

=_Liable_, _likely_, and _apt_.= _Likely_ merely predicts;
_liable_ conveys the additional idea of harm or responsibility.
_Apt_ applies usually to persons, in the sense of _having
natural capability_, and sometimes to things, in the sense of
_fitting_, _appropriate_. "It is likely to be a pleasant day."
"I fear it is liable to rain." "He is liable for damages." "He
is an apt lad at his books." "That is an apt phrase."

=_Lie_ and _lay_.= _Lay_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to
lie_. "I lay the book on the table and it lies there." "Now I
lay me down to sleep." A source of confusion between the two
words is that the past tense of _lie_ is _lay_:

I lie down to sleep. I lay the book on the table.
I lay there yesterday. I laid it there yesterday.
I have lain here for hours. I have laid it there many times.

=_Like_ and _as_ or _as if_.= _Like_ is in good use as a
preposition, and may be followed by a noun; _as_ is in good use
as a conjunction, and may be followed by a clause. "He is tall
like his father." "He is tall, as his father is." "It looks _as
if_ (not _like_) it were going to rain."

=_Lose_ and _loose_.= _Lose_ means _to cease having_; _loose_ as
a verb means _to set free_, and as an adjective, _free, not
bound_.

=_Majority_ and _plurality_.= In a loose sense, _majority_ means
the _greater part_. More strictly, it means the number by which
votes cast for one candidate exceed those of the opposition. A
_plurality_ is the excess of votes received by one candidate
over his nearest competitor. In an election A receives 500
votes; B, 400 votes; and C, 300 votes. A has a plurality of
100, but no majority.

=_Practical_ and _practicable_.= _Practical_ means _not
theoretical_; _practicable_ means _capable of being put into
practice_. "A practical man." "The arrangement is
practicable."

=_Principal_ and _principle_.= _Principal_ as an adjective means
_chief_ or _leading_; _principle_ as a noun means a _general
truth_. _Principal_ as a noun means a _sum of money_, or the
_chief official of a school_.

=_Proof_ and _evidence_.= In a law court, _proof_ is _evidence
sufficient to establish a fact_; _evidence_ is _whatever is
brought forward in an attempt to establish a fact_. "The
evidence against the prisoner was extensive, but hardly proof
of his guilt." In ordinary speech, _proof_ is sometimes loosely
used as a synonym for _evidence_.

=_Pseudo-_ and _quasi-_.= As a prefix, _pseudo-_ means _false_;
_quasi-_ means literally _as if_, hence _seeming_, _so-called_.
"Phrenology is a pseudo-science." "A quasi-evolutionary
doctrine."

=_Quiet_ and _quite_.= _Quiet_ is an adjective meaning _calm_,
_not noisy_; _quite_ is an adverb meaning _entirely_.

=_Respectfully_ and _respectively_.= _Respectfully_ means _in a
courteous manner_; _respectively_ means _in a way proper to
each_. "Yours _respectfully_" (not _respectively_). "He handed
the commissions to Gray and Hodgins respectively."

=_Rise_ and _raise_.= _Rise_ is an intransitive verb; _raise_ is
a transitive verb. "I rise to go home." "I raise vegetables."
"I raise the stone from the ground."

=_Sit_ and _set_.= _Set_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to
sit_. "He sets it in the corner and it sits there." The past
tense of _sit_ is _sat_.

I sit down. I always set it in its place.
He sat in this very chair. I set it in its place yesterday.
He has sat there an hour. I have always set it just here.