Chapter VI: Part 6

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Street, Avenue, Road, Railroad, Park, Fort, Mountain, Company,
Brothers, Manufacturing, etc.

In ordinary writing, instead of _&_ write _and_; for _viz._ write _namely_; for _i. e._, write _that is_; for _e. g._ write _for example_; for _a. m._ and _p. m._ write _in the morning_, _this afternoon_, _tomorrow evening_, _Saturday night_. Do not use _etc._ (_et cetera_) when it can be avoided.

=b. In business correspondence, technical writing, tabulations, footnotes, and bibliographies, or wherever brevity is essential, other abbreviations may be used.= Even here, short words should not be abbreviated: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, Utah, March, April, May, June, July.

Exercise:

1. Mr. Gregg & Dr. Appleton were rivals.

2. Harris lacked but one of having a grade of one hundred; _i.
e._, he had the two O's already.

3. His inheritance tax was three thousand $. In Apr. he moved
from Portland, Me., to Sandusky, O.

4. Prof. Kellogg came down Beech St. at a quarter before eight
every a. m.

5. A No. of old friends visited them on special occasions; _e.
g._, on their wedding anniversaries.

=Numbers=

=84a. It is customary to use figures for dates, for the street numbers in addresses, for reference to the pages of a book, and for statistics.=

Right: June 16, 1920. 804 Chalmers Street. See Chapter 4, especially page 79.

Note.--It is desirable not to write _st_, _nd_, or _th_ after the day of the month if the year is designated also. Right: March 3, 1919 (not March 3rd, 1919).

=b. Figures are used for numbers which cannot be expressed in a few words. The dollar sign and figures are used with complicated sums of money.=

Right: The farm comprised 3260 acres. The population of Kansas City, Missouri, was 248,381 in 1910. He earned $437 while attending school. The cost of the improvement was $1,940.25.

=c. In other instances than those specified in _a_ and _b_ numbers as a rule should be written out.= (This rule applies to numbers and to sums of money which can be expressed in a few words, to sums of money less than one dollar, and to ages and time of day.)

Right: The box weighs two hundred pounds. Xerxes had an army of three million men. I enclose seventy-five cents. He owed twelve hundred dollars. Grandfather Toland is eighty-seven years old. The train is due at a quarter past three.

Exercise:

1. For 70 pounds of excess baggage I had to pay $1.00.

2. At 2 o'clock Rice gave him the 2nd capsule.

3. The letter was sent from twenty-one Warner St. November the
eleventh, nineteen hundred and eighteen.

4. Knox earned $5 a day he said; but they paid him only $0.75.

5. At 40 he owned a 2,000 acre farm and had an income of
$10,000 a year.

=Syllabication=

=85a. When a word is broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen there. Do not place a hyphen at the beginning of the second line.=

=b. Words are divided only between syllables:= _depart-ment_, _dis-charge_, _ab-surd_, _univer-sity_, _pro-fessor_ (not _depa-rtment_, _disc-harge_, _abs-urd_, _unive-rsity_, _prof-essor_).

=c. Monosyllabic words are never divided:= _which_, _through_, _dipped_, _speak_ (not _wh-ich_, _thr-ough_, _dip-ped_, _spe-ak_).

=d. A consonant at the junction of two syllables usually goes with the second:= _recipro-cate_, _ordi-nance_, _inti-mate_ (not _reciproc-ate_, _ordin-ance_, _intim-ate_). Sometimes two consonants are equivalent to a single letter: _falli-ble_, _photo-graph_ (not _fallib-le_, _photog-raph_).

=e. Two or more consonants at the junction of syllables are themselves divided:= _en-ter-prise_, _com-mis-sary_, _in-car-nate_ (not _ent-erpr-ise_, _comm-iss-ary_, _inc-arn-ate_).

=f. A prefix or a suffix is usually set off from the rest of the word regardless of the rule for consonants between syllables:= _ex-empt_, _dis-appoint_, _sing-ing_, _pro-gress-ive_. But when a final consonant is doubled before a suffix the additional consonant goes with the suffix: _trip-ping_, _permit-ted_, _omis-sion_.

=g. The best usage avoids separating one or two letters (unless in prefixes like _un_ or suffixes like _ly_) from the rest of the word:= _achieve-ment_, _enor-mous_, _remem-bered_, _dyspep-sia_ (not _a-chievement_, _e-normous_, remember-ed, dyspepsi-a).

=h. The first part of a divided word should not be ludicrous or misleading:= _dogma-tize_, _croco-dile_, _de-cadence_, _metri-cal_, _goril-la_ (not _dog-matize_, _croc-odile_, _deca-dence_, _met-rical_, _go-rilla_).

Exercise:

Place a hyphen between each pair of syllables in each word of
more than one syllable: _thoughtful_, _burrowing_, _thorough_,
_chimney_, _brought_, _helped_, _harshnesses_, _which_,
_murmur_, _superstition_, _ground_, _symmetry_, _ripped_,
_compartment_, _disallow_, _obey_, _opinion_, _opportune_,
_aggressive_, _intellectually_, _complicated_, _encyclopedia_,
_wrought_, _electricity_, _abstraction_, _syllabication_,
_punctuation_, _frustrate_, _except_, _substituting_,
_distressful_.

=Outlines=

Three kinds of outlines are illustrated in this article: (a) the Topic Outline, (b) the Sentence Outline, and (c) the Paragraph Outline.

=86a. A topic outline consists of headings (nouns or phrases containing nouns) which indicate the important ideas in a composition, and their relation to each other. Conform to the following model:=

=The Lumber Problem=

Theme: The decline of our lumber supply requires that we shall
take steps toward reforesting, conservation, and the use of
substitutes for wood.

I The Depletion of our forests
A Former abundance
B Present scarcity (especially walnut, white pine, oak)

II The Causes of the depletion
A Great demand
1 For building
2 For industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.)
3 For fuel, and other minor uses
B Wasteful methods of forestry

III The Remedy
A Reforestation
1 Planting by individuals
2 Planting by the states
3 Extension of the present National Forest Reserves

B The prevention of waste
1 In fires, by insects, etc.
2 In cutting and sawing
3 In by-products (sawing, odd lengths, etc.)

C The use of substitutes for wood (concrete, steel, brick,
stone, etc.)

=b. A sentence outline is expressed in complete sentences. Conform to the following model:=

=The Lumber Problem=

I The depletion of our forests is evident when one compares
A the former abundance, with
B the present scarcity (of walnut, white pine, and oak,
especially).

II The causes of the depletion are:
A the great demand
1 for building,
2 for industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.),
3 for fuel and other minor uses; and
B wasteful methods of forestry.

III The remedies for the depletion are:
A reforestation
1 by individuals,
2 by the states,
3 by extension of the present National Forest
Reserves;
B the prevention of waste
1 in fires, by insects, etc.,
2 in cutting and sawing,
3 in by-products (sawdust, odd lengths, etc.);
and
C the use of substitutes, for wood (concrete, steel,
brick, stone, etc.)

=c. A paragraph outline is a series of sentences summarizing the thought of successive paragraphs in a composition. Conform to the following model:=

=The Disagreeable Optimist=

1. The present age may be called an era of efficiency,
prosperity, and optimism, since efficiency has produced
prosperity, and this in turn has produced "optimism"--a word
recurrent in common literature and conversation.

2. The optimist is often not natural or sincere, because his
thoughts are centered on keeping up an appearance of being
happy.

3. He is intrusive, for he thrusts comfort upon those who wish
to mourn, and repeats irritating epigrams and poems about
cheer.

4. He is undiscriminating, in that he prescribes the same
remedy, "good cheer," for everybody and for every condition.

5. He is sometimes harmful, because he tells us that the world
is going well, when conditions need changing, and need changing
badly.

=d. Mechanical details.= Indent headings that are coördinate (that is, of equal value) an equal distance from the margin. One inch to the right is a good distance for successive subordinate headings. Use Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters to indicate the comparative rank of ideas. When a heading runs over one line, use hanging indention; that is, do not allow the second line to run back to the left-hand margin, but indent it. Make the numerals and letters (_1_, _A_, etc.) stand out prominently. The title of a theme should not be given a numeral or letter.

Faulty indention:

Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal
supply is exhausted are

I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain
districts
II The tides
III The heat of the sun

Correct hanging indention:

Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply
is exhausted are

I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain
districts
II The tides
III The heat of the sun

=e. Ideas parallel in thought should be expressed in parallel form.= Nouns and phrases including nouns are ordinarily used.

Faulty parallelism:
Advantages of a garden:
1 Profitable
2 It affords good exercise
3 Gives pleasure

Right:
Advantages of a garden:
1 Profit
2 Exercise
3 Pleasure

=f. Avoid faulty coördination (giving two ideas equal rank, when one should be subordinated to the other) and _vice versa_, avoid faulty subordination.=

Faulty coördination:

How Seeds Scatter

I By Wind
II Some Seeds provided with parachutes
III Others light, and easily blown about
IV By Water
V By Animals

Right:

=How Seeds Scatter=

I By Wind
A Some seeds provided with parachutes
B Others light, and easily blown about

II By Water

III By Animals

=g. Avoid detailed subordination. Especially avoid a single subheading when it can be joined to the preceding line, or omitted.=

Too detailed:

A The McClellan Orchard
1 Situation
a On a northern slope
2 Nature of soil
a Sandy
3 Kind of fruit
a Apple
b Cherry

Right:

A The McClellan Orchard
1. Situation: a northern slope
2. Nature of soil: sandy
3. Kind of fruit: apple and cherry

Exercise:

1. Give a title to an outline which shall include the following
topics. Group the topics under two main headings, and give the
headings names.

Uses of the grape
The Vine
The Fruit Itself
How Marketed
How Cultivated

2. Place in order the sentences of the following outline on
"Why Keep a Diary?" Subordinate some of the headings to others.

A diary affords great satisfaction in future years.

We sometimes record in a diary information which proves useful.

A few lines a day will suffice.

A diary is not hard to keep.

We may find time for writing in our diary if we do not waste
time at the table or on newspapers.

We may write in our diary just before we go to bed.

A diary will bring back the past.

We all have some moments to kill.

A diary gives us pleasure even in the present.

3. Place in order the headings of the following outline on
"Ulysses S. Grant." Subordinate some of the headings to others.

Obscurity in 1861
Prominence in 1865
Patience
President
General
Perseverance and Resolution
Character
The Turning Point in His Career

=Letters=

The parts of a letter are the heading, the inside address, the greeting, the body, the close, and the signature. For these parts good use prescribes definite forms, which we may sometimes ignore in personal letters, but must rigidly observe in formal or business letters.

=87a. The heading of a letter should give the full address of the writer and the date of writing. Do not abbreviate short words, or omit Street or Avenue.=

Objectionable: #15 Hickory, Omaha.

Right: 15 Hickory Street, Omaha, Nebraska.

Objectionable: 4/12/19; 10-28-'16; May 2nd, 1910.

Right: April 12, 1919; October 28, 1916; May 2, 1910.

The following headings are correct:

106 East Race Street,
Red Oak, Iowa,
August 4, 1916.

423 Michigan Avenue
Chicago, Illinois
May 20, 1918

Prescott, Arizona, June 1, 1920.

Note.--In personal letters the heading may be transferred to the end, below the signature, at the left-hand side. But it must not be so divided that the street address will appear in one place and the town and state in another.

The "closed" form of punctuation (the use of punctuation at the ends of the lines) is best until the student learns what is correct. Afterward, the adoption of the "open" form becomes purely a matter of individual taste and not a matter of carelessness or ignorance.

=b. An inside address and a greeting are required in business letters.= Personal letters contain the greeting, but may omit the inside address, or may supply it at the end of the letter.

The Jeffrey Chemical Works,
510 Marion Street,
Norfolk, Virginia.

Gentlemen:

Mr. Joseph N. Kellogg
1411 Lake Street
Cleveland, Ohio

Dear Mr. Kellogg:

Secretary of Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

My dear Sir:

Greetings used in business letters are:

My dear Sir:
My dear Madam:
My dear Mr. Fisher:
Dear Sir:
Sir:
Sirs:
Gentlemen:
Ladies:

Greetings used in personal letters are:

My dear Miss Brown:
Dear Professor Ward:
Dear Jones,
Dear Mrs. Vincent,
Dear Robert,
Dear Olive,

"My dear Miss Brown" is more ceremonious than "Dear Miss Brown". As a rule, the more familiar the letter, the shorter the greeting.

A colon follows the greeting if the letter is formal or long; a comma, if the letter is familiar or in the nature of a note.

Both inside address and greeting begin at the left-hand margin. The body of the letter begins on the line below the greeting, and is indented as much as an ordinary paragraph (about an inch).

=c. The body of a letter should be written in correct style.=

=1.= Do not omit pronouns, or write a "telegraphic style".

Wrong: Just received yours of the 21st, and in reply would say
your order has been filled and shipped.

Right: I have your letter of March twenty-first. Your order was
promptly filled and shipped.

=2.= The idea that it is immodest to use _I_ is a superstition. Undue repetition of _I_ is of course awkward; but entire avoidance of it is silly.

=3.= Use simple language. Say "your letter"; not "your kind favor", or "yours duly received", or "yours of the 21st is at hand".

=4.= Avoid "begging" expressions which you obviously do not mean, especially the hackneyed "beg to advise".

Wrong: Received yours of the 3rd instant, and beg to advise we
are out of stock.

Right: We received your order of March 3. We find that we have
no more dining-room chairs B 2-4-6 in stock.

Wrong: I beg to enclose a booklet.

Right: I enclose a booklet.

Wrong: Permit us to say that prices have been advanced.

Right: The prices on our goods have been advanced.

=5.= Avoid the formula "please find enclosed". The reader will find what is enclosed; if you use "please", let it refer to what the reader shall do with what is enclosed.

Wrong: Enclosed please find 10 cents, for which send me
Bulletin 58.

Right: I enclose ten cents, for which please send me Bulletin
58.

=6.= Avoid unnecessary commercial slang: _On the job_, _A-1 service_, _O.K._, _your ad_, _popular-priced line_, _this party_, _as per schedule_.

=7.= Get to the important idea quickly. In applying for a position, do not beat around the bush, or say you "wish to apply" or "would apply". Begin, "I make application for ...", "kindly consider my application for ...", or "I apply ..."

=8.= Group your ideas logically. Do not scatter information. A letter applying for a position might consist of three paragraphs: Personal qualifications (age, health, education, etc.); Experience (nature of positions, dates, etc.); References (names, business or profession, exact street address). Finish one group of ideas before passing to the next.

=9.= Do not monotonously close all letters with a sentence beginning with a participle: _Hoping to hear from you ..._, _Asking your coöperation ..._, _Awaiting your further favors ..._, _Trusting this will be satisfactory ..._, _Wishing you ..._, _Thanking you ..._. The independent form of the verb is more emphatic (see 42); _I hope to hear from you ..._, _We await further orders ..._, _We ask coöperation ..._.

=d. The close= should be consistent in tone with the greeting. It is written on a separate line, beginning near the middle of the page, and is followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized. Preceding expressions like "I am", "I remain", "As ever", (if they are used at all) belong in the body of the letter.

Right: I thank you for your courtesy, and remain

Yours sincerely,
Robert Blair

Right: I shall be grateful for any further information you can
give me.

Yours truly,
Florence Mitchell

In business letters the following forms are used:

Yours truly,
Very truly yours,
Yours respectfully,

In personal letters the following are used:

Yours truly,
Yours sincerely,
Sincerely yours,
Cordially yours,

=e. The outside address should follow one of the forms given below:=

Note.--An abbreviation in an address is followed by a period. Punctuation is also correct, but not necessary, after every line (a period after the last line, and a comma after the others).

A married woman is ordinarily addressed thus: Mrs. George H. Turner. But a title belonging to the husband should not be transferred to the wife. Wrong: Mrs. Dr. Jenkins, Mrs. Professor Ward. Right: Mrs. Jenkins, Mrs. Ward. Reverend Mr. Beecher is a correct address for a minister; not "Rev. Beecher". If a title of respect is placed before a name (Professor, Dr., Honorable), it is undesirable to place another title after the name (Secretary, M.D., Ph.D., Principal, Esq.).

=f. Miscellaneous directions.= Writing should be centered on the page, not crowded against the top, or against one side. Letter paper so folded that each sheet is a little book of four pages is best for personal correspondence. Both sides of such paper may be written on. The pages may be written on in any order which will be convenient to the reader. An order like that of the pages in a printed book (1, 2, 3, 4) is best.

Business letters are usually written on one side only of flat sheets 8-1/2 by 11 inches in size. The sheet is folded once horizontally in the middle, and twice in the other direction, for insertion in the envelope.

=g. A business letter should have, in general, the following form:=

1516 South Garrison Avenue.
Carthage, Missouri,
May 14, 1918.

J. E. Pratt, General Superintendent,
The Southwest Missouri Railroad Company,
1012 North Madison Street,
Webb City, Missouri.

Dear Sir:

I apply for a position as mechanic's assistant in the
electrical department of your shops. I am nineteen years old,
and in good physical condition. On June 6 I shall graduate from
Carthage High School, and after that date I can begin work
immediately.

I have had no practical experience in electrical work. But I
have for two years made a special study of physics, in and out
of school. I worked last summer in the local garage of Mr. R.
S. Bryant. In addition, I have become familiar with tools in my
workshop at home, so that I both know and like machinery.

For statements as to my character and ability, I refer you to
R. S. Bryant, Manager Bryant's Garage; Mr. Frank Darrow
(lawyer), 602 Ninth Street; W. C. Barnes, Superintendent of
Schools; and C. W. Oldham, Principal of the High School--all of
this city.

Respectfully yours,
Howard Rolfe

=h. Formal notes and replies are written in the third person (avoiding _I_, _my_, _me_, _you_, _your_) and permit no abbreviations except _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Dr._ =

Mrs. Clarence King requests the company of
Mr. Charles Eliot at dinner on Friday,
April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.

102 Pearl Street,
April the seventeenth.

In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour mentioned, in order to avoid a misunderstanding; in declining an invitation, only the day need be mentioned. The verb used in the reply should be in the present tense; not "will be pleased to accept", or "regrets that he will be unable to accept"; but "is pleased to accept", or "regrets that circumstances prevent his accepting".

Mr. Charles Eliot gladly accepts the invitation of Mrs. King to
dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.

514 Poplar Avenue,
April the eighteenth.

=Paragraphs=

=88a. The first lines of paragraphs are uniformly indented, in manuscript, about an inch; in print, somewhat less. After a sentence, the remainder of a line should not be left blank, except at the end of a paragraph.=

=b. The length of a paragraph is ordinarily from fifty to three hundred words, depending on the importance or complexity of the thought.= In exposition, the paragraphs should be long enough to develop every idea thoroughly. Scrappy expository paragraphs arouse the suspicion that the writer is incoherent, or that he has not given sufficient thought to the subject. Short paragraphs are permissible, and even desirable, in the following cases:

1. In a formal introduction to the main body of a discourse, or in the formal conclusion. (In some instances the paragraph may consist of a single sentence.)

2. In the body of a composition, when a brief logical transition between two longer paragraphs is necessary.

3. In short compositions on complex subjects, where space forbids the development of each thought on a proper scale. (But, as a rule, the student should limit his subject to a few simple ideas, each of which can be developed fully.)

4. In newspapers, where brevity and emphasis are required. (But the student should not take the journalistic style as a model.)

5. In description or narration meant to be vivid, vigorous, or rapid.

6. In dialogue.

=c. In representing dialogue, each speech, no matter how short, is placed in a separate paragraph.=

Right:

"Listen!" he said. "There was a noise
outside. Didn't you hear it?"

"No," I whispered. It was dark in the room, except for a faint
light at the window, and I felt my way cautiously to his side.
"What is it? Burglars?"

"I believe it is."

"I can't hear anything."

"Listen! There it is again."

"Pshaw!" I had to laugh aloud. "Thompson's cow has got into the
garden again."

Note that a slight amount of descriptive matter may be included in a paragraph with the direct discourse, the only requirement being that a change of speaker shall be indicated by a new paragraph.

When special emphasis is desired, a quotation may be detached from a preceding introductory statement.

Right: The speaker turned gravely about, and facing the front
row, he said slowly and solemnly:

"Small boys should be seen and not heard."

In exceptional cases a long, rapid-fire dialogue may, for purposes of compression, be placed in one paragraph. Dashes should then be used before successive quotations to indicate a change of speaker.

Omissions from a dialogue (as when only one side of a telephone conversation is reported), long pauses, and the unfinished part of interrupted statements, may be represented by a short row of dots.

Exercise:

Arrange in paragraphs, and insert quotation marks:

1. Help! I cried, rolling over in the narrow crevasse, and
wondering dazedly how far I had fallen through the snow. A
muffled voice came from above: We'll have a rope down to you in
a minute. Tie that bottle of brandy on the end of it, I
suggested, and it'll come faster. [The student will here insert
a sentence of his own to complete the dialogue.]

2. Good morning, James, said the deacon, suspiciously. How are
you? and where are you going? I'm all right, answered the boy,
and I'm goin' down to the creek. As he spoke, he tried to hide
something bulky underneath his coat. You oughtn't to go fishing
on Sunday. [Add another sentence to finish the dialogue.]

=89.= MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE

The following sentences illustrate errors in the use of capitals, italics, numbers, abbreviations, etc. Make necessary changes.

1. I met him at kansas city at a dinner of the commercial club.

2. The senate and the house of representatives are the two
branches of congress.

3. In today's chicago herald the union pacific railroad
advertises reduced rates to yellowstone park and the northwest.

4. There are 30 men in each section in chemistry, but only 25
in each section in french.

5. Early in pres. wilson's administration troops crossed the
rio grande river. Pres. Carranza protested.

6. In nineteen ten the population of new york city (including
suburbs) was 4,766,883.

7. Send the moving van to thirty walnut street at eight
o'clock.

8. I like Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice better than George
Eliot's Adam Bede.

9. May I call for you about 7:30 p. m., Miss Reynolds?

10. The note draws 6 per cent interest, and is payable Jan.
1st, 1921.

11. He will remain in town until Apr. 20th, and will then go
away for the Summer. He is going abroad to study the spanish
and italian languages.

12. Grays elegy in a country churchyard is perhaps the best
known poem in english literature.

13. Enclosed please find $4, for which send me the New Republic
for one year.

14. In reply to yours of 3-7-18 wish to advise that we are out
of stock.

15. I enclose $0.10 for a copy of bulletin #314 of the dept. of
Agriculture. Thanking you, I remain ... yours Respectively....

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is not used for its own sake. It is used in writing as gestures, pauses, and changes of voice are used in speaking--to add force or to reveal the precise relationship of thoughts. The tendency at present is against the lavish use of punctuation. This does not mean, however, that one may do as he pleases. In minor details of punctuation there is room for individual preference, but in essential principles all trustworthy writers agree.

=The Period=

=90a. Place a period after a complete declarative or imperative sentence.=

=b. Do not separate part of a sentence from the rest of the sentence by means of a period. (See 1.)=

Wrong: He denied the accusation. As every one expected him to
do.

Right: He denied the accusation, as every one expected him to
do.

Wrong: Anderson wrote good editorials. The best that appeared
in any paper in the city.

Right: Anderson wrote good editorials, the best that appeared
in any paper in the city. [Or] Anderson wrote good
editorials--the best that appeared in any paper in the city.

Exception.--Condensed or elliptical phrases established by long and frequent use may be written as separate sentences. They should be followed by appropriate punctuation--usually by a period.

Examples: Yes. Of course. Really? By all means!

Note.--The student should distinguish clearly between a subordinate clause and a main clause. A subordinate clause is introduced by a subordinate conjunction (_when_, _while_, _if_, _as_, _since_, _although_, _that_, _lest_, _because_, _in order that_, etc.), or by a relative pronoun (_who_, _which_, _that_, etc.). Since a subordinate clause does not express a complete thought, it cannot stand alone, but must be joined to a main clause to form a sentence.

=c. Place a period after an abbreviation.=

Bros. Mr. e. g. Ph.D. LL.D. etc.

If an abbreviation falls at the end of a sentence, one period may serve two functions.

Exercise:

1. The hen clucks to her chickens. When she scratches up a
worm.

2. Before my brother could forewarn me. I had touched my tongue
against the cold iron. On which it stuck.

3. The commission had the services of two men of international
reputation. Charles Newman, Esq. and Gifford Bailey,
Ph D.

4. Since Hugh had fished only in creeks. He was surprised that
the lines were let down a hundred feet or more. The right
distance for codfish.

5. Between 1775 and 1825 Virginia furnished the nation its
leaders. Such as the author of the Declaration of Independence.
The orator of the Revolution. The leader of the Revolutionary
army. The chief maker of the Constitution. Four of our first
five Presidents. And our greatest Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court.

=The Comma=

There are five principal uses of the comma:

to separate clauses (a-d)
to set off a parenthetical element (e)
to mark a series (f-g)
to introduce a quotation (h)
to compel a pause for the sake of clearness (i)

=91a. A comma is used between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_, or any other coördinating conjunction.=

Right: The hour arrived, but Forbes did not appear. [The comma
emphasizes the contrast.]

Right: She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching
the house. [The comma prevents the combination _looked for a
man_.]

Right: He gave the money to Burke, and Reynolds received
nothing. [The comma prevents confusion.]

Exception.--If the clauses are short and closely linked in thought, the comma may be omitted (She came and she was gone in a moment. McCoy talked and the rest of us listened.) If the clauses are long and complicated, a semicolon may be used (See 92b).

Note.--No comma should follow the conjunction. Wrong: He was enthusiastic but, inexperienced. Wrong: They went before the committee but, not one of them would answer a question.

=b. Do _not_ use a comma between independent clauses which are _not_ joined by a conjunction. Use a period or a semicolon.= (This error, the "comma splice," betrays ignorance of what constitutes a unified sentence. See 18.)

Wrong: The circus had just come to town, every one wanted to
see it.

Right: The circus had just come to town. Every one wanted to
see it.

Wrong: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan, his
mother desired to make an angel of him.

Right: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan. His
mother desired to make an angel of him.

Wrong: My courses required very hard study, did yours?

Right: My courses required very hard study. Did yours? [Or] My
courses required very hard study; did yours?

Wrong: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation,
indeed he will do so with alacrity.

Right: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation.
Indeed he will do so with alacrity. [Or] He will assist you
without the slightest hesitation; indeed he will do so with
alacrity.

Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are not joined by conjunctions, but which are parallel in structure and leave a unified impression, may be joined by commas.

Right: He sowed, he reaped, he repented.

=c. An adverbial clause which precedes a main clause is usually set off by a comma.=

When long:

Right: While I have much confidence in his sincerity, I cannot
approve his decision. [The comma marks the meeting point of
clauses too long to be easily read together. Brief clauses do
not require the comma. Right: Where thou goest I will go.]

When ending in words that link themselves with words in the main clause:

Right: If Jacob finds time to plow, the garden can be planted
tomorrow. [The comma prevents _plow the garden_ from being read
as verb and object.]

When not closely connected with the main clause in meaning:

Right: Although they were few, they were resolute. [Here the
comma reveals the distinctness of the two stages of thought. In
the sentence _If it freezes the skating will be good_ the
distinctness of the two thoughts is less emphatic, and the
comma may be omitted.]

Note.--The comma is usually omitted when the adverbial clause follows the main clause.

Right: The score stood twelve to twelve when the first half
ended. [The adverbial clause is linked closely with the element
it modifies, the predicate; punctuation is unnecessary. If the
_when_ clause were placed before the element it does not
modify, the subject, a comma should be inserted.]

=d. Restrictive clauses should not be set off by commas; non-restrictive clauses should be set off by commas.= (A restrictive clause is one inseparably connected with the noun or pronoun it modifies; to omit it would change the thought of the main clause. A non-restrictive clause is less vitally connected with the noun or pronoun; to omit it would not affect the thought of the main clause.)

Right: Men who are industrious will succeed. [The relative
clause restricts the meaning; it is inseparably connected with
the noun it modifies, and to omit it would change the thought
of the main clause.]

Right: Thomas Carlyle, who wrote forty volumes, was of peasant
origin. [The relative clause is non-restrictive; it is not
inseparably connected with the noun it modifies, and to omit
it would not change the thought of the main clause. Thus:
Thomas Carlyle was of peasant origin.]

Right: Where is the house that Jack built? [Restrictive.]

Right: I went to Jack's house, which is across the street.
[Non-restrictive.]

Wrong: Students, who are lazy, do not deserve to pass. [The
sentence as it stands says that all students are lazy, and that
none of them deserve to pass. Without the commas, the sentence
would mean that such students as are lazy do not deserve to
pass.]

Right: Students who are lazy do not deserve to pass.

=The rule stated above for clauses applies also to phrases.=

Right. She, hearing the voice, turned quickly. [_Hearing the
voice_ is non-restrictive. It does not identify _she_, and the
thought of the main clause is complete without it.]

Right: Books pertaining to aeronautics are in demand.
[_Pertaining to aeronautics_ is restrictive. It explains what
books are referred to, and without it the meaning of the main
thought is changed.]

Right: Our country, made up as it is of democratic people,
lacks the centralized power of a monarchy. [Non-restrictive.]

Right: A country made up of democratic people must be lacking
in centralized power. [Restrictive. _Made up of democratic
people_ explains _country_ and is essential to the thought of
the sentence.]

=e. Slightly parenthetical elements are set off by commas:=

Direct address or explanation:

Write soon, Henry, and tell all the news.

They intend, as you know, to build a great dam across the
river.

His father, they say, was frugal and industrious.

I, on my part, however, am unalterably opposed to the
expenditure.

He was, according to such reports as have reached me,
altogether in the right.

Mild interjections:

Well, we shall see.

Come now, let's talk it over.

But alas, the cupboard was bare.

The custom is, oh, very old.

Absolute phrases:

This being admitted, I shall proceed to my other evidence.

Geographical names which explain other names and dates which explain other dates:

The convention met at Madison, Wisconsin, on March 24, 1916.

Words in apposition:

We arrived at Austin, the capital of Texas.

It was Archie, my best friend in boyhood.

Exception.--The comma is omitted (1) When the appositive is
part of a proper name. Right: William the Silent, Alexander the
Great. (2) When there is unusually close connection between the
appositive and the noun it modifies. Right: My one confidant
was my brother Robert. (3) When the appositive is a word or
phrase to which attention is called by italics or some other
device which sets it apart. Right: The word _sequent_ is
derived from Latin. Right: The expression "That's fine" is one
which I use indiscriminately.

Note.--When the parenthetical element occurs in the middle of a sentence, "set off by commas" means _punctuate before and after_.

Wrong: I was, madam at home yesterday.

Right: I was, madam, at home yesterday.

Wrong: I am to say the least, provoked.

Right: I am, to say the least, provoked.

=f. Consecutive adjectives that modify the same noun are separated from each other by commas. If, however, the last adjective is closely linked in meaning with the noun, no comma is used before it.=

Right: A short, slight, pitiable figure.

Right: A shrewd professional man. [_Shrewd_ modifies, not _man_
alone, but _professional man_.]

Right: A bedraggled old rooster. [_Old rooster_ has almost the
force of a compound word. _Bedraggled_ modifies the general
idea _old rooster_.]

Note.--The commas in a series of adjectives are used to separate the adjectives from each other. No comma should intervene between the final adjective and the noun. Wrong: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened, youngster. Right: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened youngster.

=g. Words or phrases in series are separated by commas.=

When the series takes the form _a, b, and c_, a comma precedes the _and_.

Confusing: The railroads in question are the New York Central,
Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio. [The reader might surmise
that the words _Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio_ represent
a single line or even three different lines.]

Right: The railroads in question are the New York Central,
Pennsylvania, and Chesapeake and Ohio.

Confusing: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs and honey.
[Omission of the comma after _eggs_ suggests a mixture.]

Right: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey.

=h. A comma should follow an expression like _he said_ which introduces a short quotation.= (For longer or more formal quotations use a colon.)

Right: He shouted, "Come on! I dare you!"

Right: Our captain replied, "We're ready."

But for indirect quotations, a caution is necessary. Do not place a comma between a verb and a _that_ or _how_ clause which the verb introduces.

Wrong: He explained, how the accident occurred.

Right: He explained how the accident occurred.

Wrong: The chauffeur told us, that the gasoline tank was empty.

Right: The chauffeur told us that the gasoline tank was empty.

=i. A comma is used to separate parts of a sentence which might erroneously be read together.=

Confusing: Long before she had received a letter.

Better: Long before, she had received a letter.

Confusing: We turned the corner and the horse stopped throwing
us off.

Better: We turned the corner and the horse stopped, throwing us
off.

Confusing: Through the alumni gathered there went a thrill of
dismay.

Better: Through the alumni gathered there, went a thrill of
dismay.

Wrong: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie or cake and ice
cream.

Right: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie, or cake and
ice cream.

Right: The man whom everybody had for years regarded as a crank
and a weakling, is now praised for his sagacity and his
strength.

Right: In a situation so critical as to require the utmost
coolness of mind, he lost his wits completely. [Here the
confusion might not be serious if the comma were omitted, but
separation of the long introduction from the main clause is
desirable.]

=j. Do not use superfluous commas:=

=1.= To mark a trivial pause:

Needless use of comma: In the road, stood a wagon.

Needless use of commas: The taking of notes, is a guarantee,
against inattention, in class.

Slight pauses in a sentence are taken care of by the good sense of the reader. Do not sprinkle commas when the sentence is moving along freely with no complication in the thought.

Right: In the road stood a wagon.

Right: The taking of notes is a guarantee against inattention
in class.

=2.= To separate an adjective from its noun:

Wrong: A tall, solemn, antique, clock stood in the hallway.
[The first two commas separate the adjectives from each other.
There is no reason why _antique_ should be separated from the
noun.]

Right: A tall, solemn, antique clock stood in the hallway.

=3.= Before the first word or phrase in a series unless the comma would be employed if the word or phrase stood alone:

Wrong: He made a study of, gymnastics, medicine, and surgery.

Right: He made a study of gymnastics, medicine, and surgery.

Wrong: He had learned, to be prompt, to think clearly, and to
write correctly.

Right: He had learned to be prompt, to think clearly, and to
write correctly.

Exercise:

1. Before the workmen finished eating the tunnel caved in.
Three Italian laborers were crushed, the others with the
foreman escaped.

2. Sneed the new chairman proposed that the convention should
meet at Cheyenne Wyoming. The suggestion however was according
to reports not adopted.

3. He had a pen and an ink bottle was in the cupboard. By
washing poor widows can earn but scant living.

4. Saunders asked, how I liked the Overland car as compared
with the Chalmers, the Hudson and the Buick. I started to reply
but at that moment we were interrupted.

5. People, who steal watermelons, say the stolen melons are
sweetest. Farragut who was born in Tennessee was the North's
ablest naval commander. The developer is a chemical, which
reduces the silver salt.

=The Semicolon=

The semicolon represents a division in thought somewhat greater than that represented by a comma, and somewhat smaller than that represented by a period. It may represent grammatical separation and logical connection at the same time; that is, it may indicate that two statements are separate units in grammar, and are yet to be taken together to form a larger unit of logic or thought.

=92a. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are not joined by a conjunction.= (For a possible exception see 91b.).

Wrong: He was alarmed in fact he was terrified.

Right: He was alarmed; in fact he was terrified.

Right: He drew up at the curb; he leaped from the car.

Note.--Very often the writer may choose freely between the semicolon and the period; in such instances the use of the semicolon implies greater logical unity between the clauses than the use of the period would show. Unless this logical unity is distinct, the period is to be preferred.

=b. The semicolon is sometimes used between coördinate clauses which are joined by a conjunction if the clauses are long, or if the clauses have commas within themselves, or if obscurity would result were the semicolon not used.= (Otherwise, see 91a.)

Right: Very slowly the glow in the heavens deepened and
extended itself along the eastern horizon; but at last the
bright-red rim of the sun showed above the crest of the hill.

Right: He arrived, so they tell me, after nightfall; and
immediately going to a hotel, called for a room.

Confusing: She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the
music, and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a
delight to her.

Better. She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the
music; and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a
delight to her.

=c. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are joined by a formal conjunctive adverb (_hence_, _thus_, _then_, _therefore_, _accordingly_, _consequently_, _besides_, _still_, _nevertheless_, or the like).=

Wrong: We have failed in this therefore let us try something
else.

Right: We have failed in this; therefore let us try something
else.

Wrong: He was tattered and muddy, besides he ate like a
cormorant.

Right: He was tattered and muddy; besides he ate like a
cormorant.

Note 1.--If a simple conjunction like _and_ is used in the sentences above, a comma will suffice. But a comma is not sufficient before a conjunctive adverb like _therefore_. Conjunctive adverbs may be clearly distinguished from simple conjunctions (See 91a). They cannot always be easily distinguished from subordinating conjunctions (see 90b, Note), but the distinction, when it can be made with certainty, is an aid to clear thinking.

Note 2.--Good usage sometimes permits a comma to be used before a conjunctive adverb in short sentences where the break in the thought is not formal or emphatic. For instance, when the conjunctive adverb _so_ is used as a formal or emphatic connective, a semicolon is desirable (I won't go; so that's settled). But in the sentence, "I was excited, so I missed the target", a comma is sufficient. For the use of _so_ is here informal, and probably expresses degree as well as result. (Compare "I was so excited that I missed the target").

=d. The semicolon is not used before quotations, or after the "Dear Sir" in letters. Use a comma or a colon.= (See 91h, 93a, and 87b.)

Wrong: Mother said; "Let me get my needle."

Right: Mother said, "Let me get my needle."

Exercise:

1. The eggs tasted musty, they were cold storage eggs.

2. You should have seen that old, formally kept house, you
should have sat in that stuffy and immaculate parlor.

3. I objected to the plan however since he insisted upon it I
yielded.

4. I suppose I must go if I don't he will be anxious.

5. Although the note is due on March 19, you have three days of
grace, consequently you may pay it on March 22.

=The Colon=

=93a. The colon is used to introduce formally a word, a list, a statement or question, a series of statements or questions, or a long quotation.=

Right: Only one man stood between Burr and the presidency:
Jefferson.

Right: My favorite novels are the following: _Ivanhoe_, _Henry
Esmond_, and _The Mill on the Floss_.

Right: The difficulty is this: Where is the money to come from?

Right: The measure must be considered from several standpoints:
Is it timely? Is it expedient? Is it just? Is it superior to
the other measures proposed?

Right: I shall do three things next year: study hard, take care
of my health, and enter into various student activities.

Right: Webster concluded with the following peroration: "When
my eyes shall be turned for the last time to behold the sun in
heaven," etc., etc.

=b. The colon may be used before concrete illustrations of a general statement.=

Right: The colors were various: blue, purple, emerald, and
orange.

Right: The day was propitious: the sun shone, the birds sang,
the flowers sent forth their fragrance.

Exercise:

1. The city must have these improvements paved streets more
schools better sanitation and a park.

2. A guild comprised men of a single class tailors,
fishmongers, or goldsmiths.

3. Everything was favorable, it was a wheat-raising district,
there were no rival mills, the means of transportation were
excellent.

4. The personal adornments of the eighteenth century "blood"
were elaborate, wigs, cocked hat, colored breeches, red-heeled
shoes, cane, and muff.

5. The chief of the engineers reported "The route, taken as a
whole, is practicable enough, but near Clifton, where the yards
must be placed, it leads through a rocky defile."

=The Dash=

=94a. The dash may be used instead of the marks of parenthesis, especially where informality is desired.=

Right: She fell asleep--would you believe it?--in the middle of
the lecture.

Right: That fellow actually--of course this is between you and
me--stole money from his father.

=b. Insert a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.=

Right: The next morning--let's see, what happened the next
morning?

=c. The dash may be used near the end of a sentence, before a summarizing statement or an afterthought.=

Right: When you have carried in the wood and the water, and
milked the cows, and fed all the stock and the poultry, and
mended the harness--when you have done these things, you may
consider the rest of the evening your own.

Right: Barnes played a mischievous trick one day--in fact,
Barnes was always into mischief.

=d. The use of the dash to end sentences is childish.=

Childish: At dawn I went on deck--far off to the left was a
cloud, I thought, on the edge of the water--it grew more
distinct as we angled toward it--it was land--before noon we
had sailed into harbor.

Right: At dawn I went on deck. Far off to the left was a cloud,
I thought, on the edge of the water. It grew more distinct as
we angled toward it. It was land. Before noon we had sailed
into harbor.

=e. A dash should be made about three times as long as a hyphen; otherwise it may be mistaken as the sign of a compound word.=

Exercise:

1. The boy left the package on the where did that boy leave the
package?

2. She was haughty independent as a queen in fact and she told
him no.

3. The clatter of the other typewriters, the relentless
movement of the hands of the clock, the calls from the press
room for more copy, these made Sears write like mad.

4. He made her acquaintance what do you think of this by
scribbling his name and address on some eggs he sold to a
grocer.

5. He obtained a position in a big department store--his good
taste was quickly recognized--within a month he was dressing
the windows.

=Parenthesis Marks and Brackets=

=95a.= Parenthesis marks may be used to enclose matter foreign to the main thought of the sentence. (But see also 94a and 91e.)

Right: His testimony is conclusive (unless, to be sure, we find
that he has perjured himself).

=b. A comma or a semicolon used at the end of a parenthesis should as a rule follow the mark of parenthesis rather than precede it.=

Right: If there is snow on the ground (and I am sure there will
be), we shall have plenty of sleighing.

=c. When confirmatory symbols or figures are enclosed within parenthesis marks, they should follow rather than precede the words they confirm.=

Wrong: They earn (3) dollars a day.

Right: They earn three (3) dollars a day. [Or] They earn three
dollars ($3) a day.

=d. Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or passage.= Draw a horizontal line through whatever is to be omitted.

=e. Brackets are used to insert explanatory matter in a quotation which one gives from another writer.= Explanatory matter inserted by the original writer is enclosed within parenthesis marks.

Right: "Bunyan's masterpiece (_The Pilgrim's Progress_),"
declared the lecturer, "is out of harmony with the spirit of the
age that produced it [the age of the Restoration]." (Here the
explanatory words _the age of the Restoration_ are inserted
by the person who is quoting the lecturer.)

Exercise:

1. The supremacy of the horse-drawn vehicle is unless a miracle
happens now gone forever.

2. My count shows (41) forty-one bales of cotton in the mill
yard.

3. [Insert _the Marne_ as your explanation]: "It was this
battle," said the lecturer, "that made the name of Joffre
immortal."

4. [Insert _Florida_ as the explanation of the person you are
quoting]: "In that state oranges are plentiful."

5. It was the opinion of Bailey and events proved him right
that the government must assume control of the railroads.

=Quotation Marks=

=96a. Quotation marks should be used to enclose a direct, but not an indirect, quotation.=

Right: "I am thirsty," he said.

Wrong: He said "that he was thirsty."

Right: He said that he was thirsty.

=b. A quotation of several paragraphs should have quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph.=

=c. In narrative each separate speech, however short, should be enclosed within quotation marks=; but a single speech of several sentences should have only one set of quotation marks.

Wrong: "Will you come? she pleaded.

Certainly."

Right: "Will you come," she pleaded.

"Certainly."

Wrong: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did
this." "There were others whom I had to consider." "I can
mention no names."

Right: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did this.
There were others whom I had to consider. I can mention no
names."

=d. Quotation marks may be used with technical terms, with slang introduced into formal writing, or with nicknames=; but not with merely elevated diction, with good English that resembles slang, with nicknames that have practically become proper names, or with fictitious names from literature.

Permissible: The rime is called a "feminine rime". He is really
"a corker". Their name for my friend was "Sissy".

Better without the quotation marks: He was awed by "the
grandeur of the mountains". "A humbug". "Fetch". "Stonewall"
Jackson. He was a true "Rip Van Winkle".

=e. Either quotation marks or italics may be used with words to which special attention is called.= (See the examples under 91e, Exception, 3.) Quotation marks are used with the titles of articles, of chapters in books, of individual short poems, and the like. Italics are used with the titles of books or of periodicals, with the names of ships, and with foreign words which are still felt to be emphatically foreign.

=f. A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single quotation marks; a quotation within that, in double marks.=

Right: "It required courage," the speaker said, "for a man to
affirm in those days: 'I endorse every word of Patrick Henry's
sentiment, "Give me liberty, or give me death!"'"

=g. When a word is followed by both a quotation mark and a question mark or an exclamation point, the question mark or the exclamation point should come first if it applies to the quotation; last, if it applies to the main sentence.=

Wrong: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet"!

Right: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet!"

Wrong: Did Savonarola say, "I recant?"

Right: Did Savonarola say, "I recant"?

Note.--Regarding the position of a comma, semicolon, or period at the end of a quotation, usage differs. Printers ordinarily place commas and periods inside the quotation marks, and semicolons outside, from considerations of spacing. But logic, not spacing, should determine the order, and all three marks should be treated alike. They should be placed within the quotation marks if they were a part of the original quotation; otherwise outside. In quoting manuscript, the quotation marks should enclose exactly what is in the original. In quoting oral discourse, a certain liberty is necessarily allowed.

Correct: He said calmly, "It is I."

Also correct, but not commonly used: He said calmly, "It is I".

Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: He began,
"Our Father which art in heaven." [The period should follow the
quotation mark, since there is no period in the original
quotation.]

Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: Can you
tell me the difference between "apt," "likely," and "liable";
between "noted" and "notorious"?

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The Century Handbook of WritingChapter VI: Part 6

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