Chapter XXII: 1878-1903 (2)

1347 Rienzi made tribune in Rome.

1348 The great plague in Italy.

1350 War breaks out between Venice and Genoa over the seizure
of some Venetian ships by the Genoese. The Pepoli cede Bologna
to Giovanni Visconti, brother and successor of Lucchino.

1351 Giovanni Visconti makes an unwarranted attack on the
Tuscan cities. The Florentines drive his army back. The Genoese
fleet under Paganino Doria wins many victories on the Adriatic
and in Negropont.

1352 Defeat of the Venetians and Aragonese by the Genoese in
the Bosporus. The Eastern emperor gives the Genoese the entire
command of the Black Sea.

1353 Fra Moriale organises his free company. Genoa allies
herself with Hungary. After a disastrous defeat by Venice
and Aragon off the Sardinian coast, she gives up to Giovanni
Visconti who refits the fleet which

1354 destroys that of Venice in the Morea. Death of Giovanni
Visconti; he is succeeded by his three nephews. Charles IV of
Germany arrives in Italy and refuses to join the Visconti.
Rienzi returns to Rome from exile. He is made senator, abuses
his power and is killed.

1355 Conspiracy of Marino Falieri, doge of Venice. He is
beheaded. Charles IV received by Pisa and Siena, who pay dearly
for their hospitality. Venice makes peace with Genoa. The
Raspanti restored in Pisa. The Genoese take Tripoli with the
help of Venice.

1356 The Genoese throw off the yoke of the Visconti. League of
north Italian lords goes to war with the Visconti. The marquis
of Montferrat takes Asti from them. Louis of Hungary renews
struggle with Venice. Jacopo de’ Bussolari delivers Pavia from
the Visconti.

1357 Zara, Spalato, and other towns lost to Louis by Venice.
The league assisted by Count Lando’s Free Company defeats
the Visconti on the Oglio. The Raspanti party in Pisa at
instigation of the Visconti begins to annoy the Florentines.

1358 Peace between the Visconti and the league. The Venetians
abandon Istria and Dalmatia to Louis. The Visconti again
besiege Pavia. The Florentines defeat the Great Company.

1359 Pavia capitulates to Galeazzo Visconti. Siege of Bologna
by Barnabò Visconti.

1360 Cardinal Albornoz takes Bologna and Barnabò Visconti is
finally driven away. Chair of Greek literature founded at
Florence.

1361 Barnabò Visconti renews the siege of Bologna. Sir John
Hawkwood invited into Italy. Foundation of the University of
Pavia by Galeazzo Visconti.

1363 Defeats for the Visconti in several places. Sir John
Hawkwood and his company enter service of Pisa. Pisa defeats
Florence.

1364 The Visconti make peace with the league. Peace between
Pisa and Florence. Giovanni Agnello is made doge of Pisa.

1367 Formation of a new league against the Visconti. It
includes the emperor, the king of Hungary, Padua, Ferrara,
Mantua, and Naples. Barnabò threatens Venice.

1368 Charles IV enters Italy. The Visconti pay him a large sum
for peace. Barnabò Visconti invades Mantua.

1369 Charles returns to Germany. Pisa receives its freedom.
Barnabò makes war on Florence, which is assisted by the pope.

1370 Lucca buys its independence from the emperor. Galeazzo
Visconti takes Casale. The Florentines capture San Miniato. The
Eastern emperor Joannes V held in Venice for debt.

1371 Barnabò Visconti captures Reggio.

1372 War breaks out between Venice and Genoa.

1373 Venice makes war on Padua, which is compelled to accept
humiliating peace. Genoa attacks Cyprus, restoring it to the
house of Lusignan.

1375 Truce between the Visconti and their enemies. The papal
legate sends Sir John Hawkwood against the Florentines, who vow
vengeance on the holy see and the French legates. They unite
with Barnabò Visconti against the church and admit Siena, Pisa,
and Lucca into the league, and form the “eight of war.” Eighty
cities and towns throw off the yoke of the legate.

1377 The papal forces punish Faenza and Cesena severely. The
league engages Sir John Hawkwood. It begins to break up.
Bologna makes peace with the pope.

1378 Barnabò makes secret negotiations to betray Florence
to the pope. Florence makes peace with Rome. The Venetians
besiege the Genoese in Cyprus. Defeat of the Genoese fleet off
Antium. Revolt in Florence. Sedition of the ciompi. Silvestro
de’ Medici chosen gonfalonier. Death of Galeazzo Visconti,
succeeded by his son Gian Galeazzo.

1379 The Venetian fleet almost annihilated by the Genoese off
Pola. Pietro Doria captures Chioggia and attacks Venice. Siege
of Treviso by Francesco da Carrara. The town is relieved by
Barnabò Visconti.

1380 The Genoese surrender to the Venetians and make treaty of
peace.

1381 Venice cedes Treviso to Duke Leopold of Austria to save
it from Francesco da Carrara, who has again laid siege to it.
Treaty of Turin. The Albizzi assume the government of Florence.

1384 Leopold of Austria sells Treviso to Francesco da Carrara.

1385 “The Reformers” driven out of Siena. Gian Galeazzo has
his uncle Barnabò put to death, and takes possession of his
dominions, making many reforms. He thus becomes the most
powerful ruler in Italy. The Milan cathedral is started.

1387 Gian Galeazzo, having made an alliance with Francesco
da Carrara of Padua whom Antonio della Scala of Verona is
attacking on behalf of the Venetians, seizes Verona and
Vicenza, the latter of which he refuses to give Carrara as
promised. He now offers himself to the Venetians against Padua.

1388 Galeazzo takes Padua, holds it, captures Treviso, and
threatens Venice. He makes many unsuccessful attempts on the
Tuscan cities. Nice joined to Savoy.

1389 Florence makes alliance with Bologna against Gian Galeazzo
engaging Sir John Hawkwood.

1390 Gian Galeazzo attacks Bologna. He is resisted by Hawkwood.
Francesco Novello da Carrara, assisted by the duke of Bavaria,
takes Padua from Gian Galeazzo. The Florentines engage the
count of Armagnac to invade Lombardy.

1391 Armagnac defeated at Alessandria.

1392 Florence makes peace with Gian Galeazzo. At instigation
of Gian Galeazzo, Jacopo Appiano murders Piero Gambacorti, the
ruler of Pisa, and makes himself master of the city.

1393 Civil war in Genoa.

1394 Death of Sir John Hawkwood.

1395 Gian Galeazzo purchases from the emperor Wencelaus the
title of duke of Milan, and count of Pavia with the investiture
of the twenty-six cities once included in the Lombard League.
The title is to be hereditary.

1396 The Genoese ask the protection of France.

1397 Gian Galeazzo renews war against Florence and Mantua.

1398 The French governor of Genoa is compelled to retire on
account of civil discord in the city. Ten years’ peace between
Gian Galeazzo and Florence and Mantua.

1399 The son of Jacopo Appiano sells Pisa to Gian Galeazzo,
reserving Piombino for himself. Gian Galeazzo receives promise
of surrender from Siena.

1400 Perugia submits to Gian Galeazzo. Paolo Guinigi usurps
sovereignty of Lucca and places himself under Gian Galeazzo’s
protection.

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1401 Rupert of Germany enters Italy to suppress Gian Galeazzo,
but is defeated. Gian Galeazzo proclaimed sovereign lord of
Bologna.

1402 Gian Galeazzo dies of the plague. He divides his
possessions between his two young sons Giovanni Maria (duke
of Milan) and Filippo Maria (count of Pavia) under the care
of their mother Caterina and the condottieri in his service.
The latter place themselves at the head of various cities. The
Guelfs and Ghibellines recover power in many places.

1403 The dominions of Gian Galeazzo begin to break up. Bologna
and Perugia are restored to the papal states. Siena places
herself under the protection of Florence. The Venetians defeat
a French and Genoese fleet.

1404 Francesco Novello da Carrara seizes Verona from the
Visconti. Venice takes Vicenza and leagues with Francesco
di Gonzaga of Mantua to take Verona from the lord of Padua.
Caterina Visconti imprisoned and poisoned.

1405 The Venetians with the lord of Mantua capture Verona and
Padua. Jean Boucicault, French governor of Genoa, to whom the
Pisans have given the protection of their cities, offers to
sell it to Florence. The Pisans resist, and war with Florence
results.

1406 Francesco da Carrara and his sons executed at Venice. Pisa
surrenders to Florence.

1408 Ladislaus of Naples attacks Tuscany, ravages Arezzo and
Siena, and seizes Cortona.

1409 Florence, in alarm at Ladislaus’ ambitions, calls on Louis
of Anjou to prosecute his claim to Naples. Boucicault attempts
to take Milan. During his absence the Genoese drive the French
from their city. Louis returns to Provence.

1410 The Florentine army under Braccio da Montone occupies
Rome. Ladislaus accepts offers of peace.

1411 War breaks out between Hungary and Venice.

1412 The Milanese murder the cruel Giovanni Maria Visconti.
Filippo Maria seizes the city and marries the widow of Facino
Cane. The Venetians drive the Hungarians from Treviso and
regain part of Friuli.

1416 Amadeus VIII joins Piedmont to Savoy.

1417 Muzio Attendolo Sforza, in the pay of Naples, drives
Braccio da Montone and the Florentine army from Rome.

1418 Filippo Maria has his wife executed.

1419 The Milanese general, Francesco Carmagnola, recovers
Bergamo for Filippo Maria.

1420 Carmagnola recovers Parma, Cremona, and Brescia for Milan.
The Venetians recover Dalmatia and Friuli from the Hungarians.

1421 Genoa submits to Carmagnola, but reserves her liberties.

1424 Filippo Maria defeats the Florentines. Disgrace of
Carmagnola.

1425 Continued defeats of the Florentines. Venice unites with
Florence and employs Carmagnola.

1426 Florence, Venice, Ferrara, Mantua, Siena, Savoy, and
Naples unite against Filippo Maria. Francesco Sforza, son of
Muzio Attendolo, enters his service. Carmagnola takes Brescia
from Milan.

1427 The Venetians destroy a fleet collected by Filippo Maria
to conquer Mantua and Ferrara. Carmagnola defeats badly the
duke of Milan’s army near Macalo. Savoy withdraws from the
league and receives territory from Filippo Maria.

1428 Peace made between Milan and the allies. The Florentines
attack and take possession of Lucca.

1430 Niccolo Piccinino, the Milanese general, drives the
Florentines from Lucca. Venice and Florence reunite against
Milan and the war recommences.

1431 Francesco Sforza defeats Carmagnola at Soncino. The
Milanese destroy the Venetian fleet. The marquis of Montferrat
is defeated by Sforza. The allied fleets defeat the Genoese.

1432 The signoria of Venice suspect Carmagnola’s loyalty. They
invite him to Venice and behead him. Sigismund sells the title
of marquis of Mantua to Giovanni di Gonzaga.

1433 Francesco Sforza occupies the March of Ancona, which the
pope cedes to him the following year. Peace of Ferrara between
Milan and the allies. Treaty between Sigismund and Siena and
Florence. Rinaldo degli Albizzi, head of the oligarchy of
Florence, imprisons and banishes Cosmo de’ Medici, the leader
of the opposition.

1434 The Florentines recall Cosmo de’ Medici and place him at
the head of the government. The banished Albizzi flee to Milan
and persuade the duke to make war on Florence.

1435 Filippo Maria leagues with Alfonso of Naples against the
pope. The Genoese throw off the protection of Milan and restore
their independent government.

1436 Renewal of the league between Florence and Venice against
Milan. Genoa joins it. Francesco Sforza enters the service of
the allies.

1438 Sforza returns to the duke of Milan, who has promised him
his daughter in marriage.

1439 The duke of Milan fails to keep his promise and Sforza
returns to the allies. He is successful against Milan.

1441 Peace made between Milan and the allies. Sforza marries
Filippo Maria’s daughter. Venice acquires the principality of
Ravenna.

1443 Pope Eugenius IV plots to wrest the March of Ancona from
Sforza. Alfonso of Naples and the duke of Milan aid him. Sforza
defeats Piccinino at Monteloro.

1444 Sforza holds out against the alliance, which presses him
hard.

1446 Florence and Venice go to the aid of Sforza.

1447 Sforza loses the March of Ancona. Death of Filippo Maria.
The duchy is claimed by Alfonso of Naples, the duke of Orleans,
and by Sforza. Milan and other Lombard cities restore their
independence, but Sforza makes himself master of Milan and
captures Piacenza. Other cities submit to him.

1448 Sforza goes to war with Venice. He takes a large portion
of their territory, burns their fleet, and wins a great victory
at Caravaggio; then makes an alliance with Venice against
Milan, which is afraid of his treachery and shuts him out of
the city.

1449 The Venetians, realising Sforza’s schemes to enslave
Italy, desert him and join the Milanese. Sforza besieges Milan.

1450 The Milanese finally decide to admit Sforza and recognise
him as their duke.

1452 Sforza, having made alliance with Florence, Genoa, and
Mantua, goes to war with Venice. Frederick III sells Borso
d’Este, Reggio, and the duchy of Modena.

1454 Pope Nicholas V brings about the Peace of Lodi, signed by
Milan and Venice.

1455 Alfonso of Naples signs the Peace of Lodi, and joins with
the pope and the north Italian states in a league against the
Turks.

1457 Genoa and Naples go to war. The Council of Ten in Naples
deposes the great doge Francesco Foscari, who dies of grief.

1458 The Neapolitans besiege Genoa. Cosmo de’ Medici and Lucas
Pitti plan to force despot rule upon Florence.

1461 The Genoese free themselves from Naples.

1462 The Venetians ally themselves with Matthias Corvinus
against the Turks.

1463 Venice purchases Cervia from Malatesta IV.

1464 Sforza obtains control of Genoa. Death of Cosmo de’
Medici. His son Piero succeeds to the presidency of Florence.

1466 The Pitti family is defeated in its attempt to subjugate
Florence. The Alberti party is banished. Death of Francesco
Sforza. His son Galeazzo Maria succeeds. He misgoverns the
duchy and alienates the people from him.

1469 Death of Piero de’ Medici. His sons Lorenzo and Giuliano
succeed, but the governing power remains in the hands of the
five citizens who exercised it under Piero.

1470 The Turks take Negropont in Eubœa from the Venetians.
Florence, Modena, Milan, Naples, and the pope form a holy
league against the Turks. Venice and the knights of Rhodes make
alliance with the sultan of Persia for the same purpose. The
conspiracy of Nardi against the Medici.

1471 The pope confers the duchy of Ferrara upon Borso d’Este.

1472 The fleet of the Holy League drives the Turks from the
Grecian archipelago and ravages Smyrna.

1473 The Turks reach the borders of Friuli.

1475 The Venetians garrison the island of Cyprus. The Turks
capture the Genoese ports in the Crimea.

1476 Conspiracy at Ferrara in favour of Niccolo d’Este. It
fails. Assassination of Galeazzo Maria Sforza at Milan, the
result of the Olgiate conspiracy. His son Giovanni Galeazzo
Maria succeeds under regency of his mother.

1477 Revolt of Matteo de’ Fieschi at Genoa.

1478 The Pazzi conspiracy in Florence, aided by Sixtus IV.
Giuliano is murdered. Lorenzo, wounded, escapes. The people
massacre most of the conspirators, among them the archbishop of
Pisa, for which deed Sixtus excommunicates Florence. The pope,
and Naples, and other Italian states begin war on Florence. The
Genoese restore their government.

1479 Venice makes peace with the Turks, giving up Scutari and
fortresses in Illyria and the Morea. Sixtus IV induces the
Swiss to declare war on Milan. They win a victory at Giornico.
Defeat of the Florentines by the Neapolitans at Poggio
Imperiale. The situation of Lorenzo becomes critical. The
pope demands his expulsion from Florence. He goes to Naples.
Lodovico Sforza (Il Moro), uncle of the young Giovanni Galeazzo
Maria, undertakes the government of Milan.

1480 Lorenzo makes treaty with Ferdinand of Naples. On return
to Florence he makes the yoke more oppressive. The pope in fear
of the Turks, who have landed in Italy, becomes reconciled to
Lorenzo and makes treaty with him.

1481 All states of Italy (Venice excepted) unite against the
Turks and recover Otranto, lost the previous year. Sixtus and
the Venetians attempt to seize Ferrara and divide it between
them.

1482 Milan, Florence, and Naples form a league to prevent
Venice and the pope from carrying out their designs.

1483 Sixtus now sides with the league and excommunicates Venice
for persisting in the attack on Ferrara.

1484 Peace of Bagnolo between Ferrara and Venice; the former
gives up some of her possessions.

1485 Innocent VIII begins a war upon Florence, but makes peace
the following year.

1487 Lorenzo de’ Medici wrests Sarzana from the Genoese, who
put themselves again under Milan’s protection.

1489 Galeotto Manfredi, lord of Faenza, stabbed by his wife
as he is about to sell his principality to the Venetians.
Savonarola arrives in Florence and begins to preach reform in
the church.

1492 Death of Lorenzo de’ Medici. His son Piero succeeds.

1493 Lodovico il Moro, wishing to retain his power in Milan,
plots to get rid of his enemy the king of Naples, and invites
Charles VIII of France to revive the Angevin claim to Naples.

1494 The emperor Maximilian makes Lodovico duke of Milan.
Giovanni Galeazzo Maria banished to Pavia. Alfonso II of Naples
attacks Genoa but is defeated by the Swiss. Charles VIII enters
Italy. Sudden and mysterious death of Giovanni Galeazzo Maria.
Charles enters Tuscany. Piero surrenders Sarzana and offers to
give up Pisa and other cities. The people rise and drive Piero
out of Florence. Charles grants the Pisans their liberty and
proceeds to Rome.

1495 Lodovico, alarmed at Charles’ success, forms a league
against him, with the pope, the emperor Maximilian, and
Ferdinand of Spain, in Venice. Charles leaves Naples and with
difficulty returns to France. Formation of the Grand Council by
advice of Savonarola to govern Florence.

1496 Maximilian comes to Italy with an army, but returns to
Germany after a quarrel with Venice. Florence attempts to
regain Pisa.

1498 The Venetians and Florentines struggle for the possession
of Pisa. Milan aids the Florentines. Execution of Savonarola.
Death of Charles VIII in France. His successor, Louis XII,
takes title of duke of Milan and claims the duchy.

1499 Louis makes a treaty with the Venetians for the conquest
of Milan. The French army enters Italy. Flight of Lodovico il
Moro to Germany. Louis XII enters Milan. The rest of Lombardy
submits. Genoa comes under French protection. The Florentines
tire of the war with Pisa and make peace.

1500 The Milanese tire of the oppressive French. Lodovico
returns with an army. Como, Milan, Parma, and Pavia open their
gates. Novara taken after a siege. Lodovico is betrayed at
Novara into the hands of Louis de la Trémouille, the French
general, and sent to France in captivity. Milan again subject
to the French. The French army marches to Naples.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Cesare Borgia begins his conquest of the petty states of
Romagna. He takes Pesaro, Rimini, Forlì, and Faenza.

1502 Cesare seizes the duchy of Urbino with the aid of Louis.
He wars with the Orsini and plans to capture Pisa, and marries
his sister Lucrezia to the son of the duke of Ferrara. The
Florentines create the office of gonfalonier for life.

1503 At death of Pope Alexander VI the dominions of Cesare are
taken from him by Julius II. Venice seizes Faenza and Rimini,
which enrages the pope. The Venetians make peace with the
Turks, renouncing their possessions in the Peloponnesus. Death
of Piero de’ Medici with the French army in Naples. Pietro
Soderini chosen gonfalonier of Florence.

1504 Louis signs treaty of Blois with Maximilian, in which they
propose to divide the republic of Venice between them. Florence
makes another attempt to take Pisa.

1506 Julius II attacks Perugia and Bologna.

1507 Unable to endure the yoke of the French and their own
nobles, the Genoese drive out the French and restore the
republic. Louis at once captures Genoa and puts the doge and
other prominent citizens to death.

1508 Unsuccessful invasion of Italy by Maximilian. The
Venetians defeat him and he is compelled to make truce,
yielding them Trieste. The infamous League of Cambray formed by
the pope, the emperor, Spain, and France against Venice. Savoy,
Mantua, and Ferrara also join.

1509 France declares war on Venice. The Venetians, badly
defeated at Agnadello, give up their possessions in northern
Italy. The Venetians regain Padua. The Florentines capture Pisa.

1510 Julius begins to fear his foreign allies and resolves to
drive the barbarians from Italy with the aid of the Swiss. He
absolves the Venetians and pits the Spanish against the French.
The French are attacked in Genoa, Modena, and Verona.

1511 Julius captures Mirandola; the French take Bologna from
him. Julius forms the holy league with the Spaniards, English,
Swiss, and Venetians against France.

1512 Gaston de Foix relieves the French, besieged in Bologna by
the Spaniards; retakes Brescia, and fights a great battle at
Ravenna with the pope and his allies, in which he is killed.
Maximilian abandons the French. The Swiss occupy Milan and
restore Massimiliano Sforza, son of Lodovico. The pope regains
Bologna and Ferrara, and seizes Parma and Piacenza from the
Milanese. The Medici return to Florence and resume their former
position. Genoa expels the French. Italy passes from the yoke
of France to that of the Swiss, Spaniards, and Germans.

1513 Giovanni de’ Medici becomes Pope Leo X. Alliance between
the Venetians and the French. The latter enter the duchy of
Milan, but are defeated by the Swiss mercenaries at Novara. The
Spaniards attack Venice on behalf of Maximilian, and occupy
Verona, Padua, and Vicenza, acting with great cruelty.

1514 The French are driven out of their last fortresses in
Italy.

1515 Francis I, the new French king, asserts his claim
to Milan, recovers Genoa, and badly defeats the Swiss at
Marignano. He enters Milan, and the Swiss leave Italy forever,
after making peace with Francis. Massimiliano Sforza abdicates.
Venice captures Bergamo and Peschiera. Peace between Francis
and Leo. The latter gives up Parma and Piacenza.

1516 The Venetians capture Brescia and lay siege to Verona.
Treaty of Noyon between Francis and Charles I of Spain.
Maximilian agrees to it. By its terms Venice recovers all the
territory taken from her by the League of Cambray.

1517 Verona restored to Venice. France and Venice renew their
alliance. Leo turns the duke of Urbino out of his duchy and
gives it to Lorenzo de’ Medici.

1518 Treaty of peace signed between Maximilian and Venice.

1519 Death of Lorenzo. The pope annexes Urbino to his states
and attempts to seize Ferrara. Charles V succeeds to the
imperial title.

1521 Leo makes treaty with Charles to drive the French from
Italy. The allies enter Milan; the Sforza are restored. Death
of Leo stops attempts on Ferrara.

1522 The French, defeated, evacuate Lombardy, but retain Genoa,
which is pillaged by the Spaniards.

1524 The French attempt to recover Lombardy. Francis besieges
Pavia.

1525 Battle of Pavia. Defeat and capture of Francis. The way
for Spanish dominion is opened in Italy. The marquis of Pescara
betrays the Sforza party into the hands of the emperor.

1526 Francis, liberated, treats with the pope, the Venetians,
and Francesco Sforza, to deliver Italy from the Spaniards.
Surrender of Sforza and Milan to the Spaniards. The constable
De Bourbon leads the imperial forces to Rome.

1527 Capture and sack of Rome by the Spaniards. The pope a
prisoner, escapes to Orvieto. The Florentines restore their
republican government and drive Alessandro de’ Medici from the
city. A French army under Lautrec enters Lombardy, conquers
Pavia, Genoa, and many other cities. The duke of Ferrara seizes
Modena, and the Venetians Ravenna.

1528 Andrea Doria drives the French from Genoa, and
re-establishes the republic.

1529 Treaty of Barcelona between Charles and the pope,
restoring the Medici to Florence. Peace of Cambray between
Francis and Charles, in which France relinquishes all claims on
Italy to Spain. Francesco Sforza and the duke of Ferrara submit
to Charles. Venice gives up Ravenna and Cervia to the pope. The
republics of Lucca, Genoa, and Siena make themselves dependent
on Charles. The marquis of Montferrat and the duke of Savoy
join the Spanish party and the former is made duke.

1530 Charles crowned king of Italy and emperor at Bologna. Fall
of Florence before the imperial army, after a brave defence by
Francesco Ferrucci. End of the republic. Charles decides the
papal claims on Ferrara in favour of Alfonso d’Este.

1531 Return of Alessandro de’ Medici to Florence with title of
duke of Cività di Penne, obtained from the emperor. The pope
relinquishes Modena to Alfonso and makes him duke of Ferrara.

1535 On death of Francesco Sforza, Charles takes possession of
the duchy of Milan and makes his son Philip governor. For this
act France again attempts to gain a foothold in Italy and sends
an army into Savoy.

1536 Capture of Turin by the French. Sack and burning of Nice.
Montferrat is given to the duke of Mantua.

1537 Assassination of Alessandro de’ Medici. Cosmo of the
younger branch is made duke.

1538 League of Genoa and Venice against the Turks. Andrea Doria
breaks the alliance and is defeated by the Algerine corsair
Barbarossa.

1540 Peace between Venice and the Turks; all the former’s
possessions in the Morea are given up. Paul III forms the
Society of Jesus.

1545 Pope Paul III makes Parma and Piacenza into a duchy for
his son Pier Luigi Farnese.

1546 Cosmo thwarts the plot of Francesco Burlamacchi of Lucca
to restore the liberty of the Tuscan republics. Burlamacchi
executed at Milan.

1547 Gian Luigi de’ Fieschi, with the aid of the French, forms
a conspiracy to throw off the yoke of the Spaniards and Andrea
Doria. Genoa is seized, but Fieschi is drowned and the Doria
remain in control. The duke of Parma is assassinated. The
imperial troops seize Piacenza; the pope seizes Parma.

1552 Pope Julius III gives Parma back to Pier Luigi’s son,
Ottavio. The Sienese drive out the Spanish garrison and admit a
French one.

1553 The French, aided by the Turks, capture a portion of
Corsica from the Genoese, most of which Andrea Doria recovers
the following year.

1554 Cosmo de’ Medici makes a sudden attack on Siena. The
marquis of Marignano undertakes to reduce the city.

1555 Surrender of Siena after a siege of fifteen months. The
Spaniards take possession. Pope Paul IV induces Henry II of
France to break his treaty of peace with Spain. The duke of
Alva invades the papal states. The duke of Guise and the pope
oppose him.

1557 The duke of Alva forces the French to retreat. The pope
makes peace with the Spaniards. Philip gives Cosmo full
sovereignty over Siena.

1559 The French-Spanish war terminated by the peace of
Cateau-Cambrésis. It leaves the king of Spain undisputed lord
of Italy. Savoy and Piedmont (except a few towns) are restored
to Emmanuel Philibert. The only remaining republics are Venice,
Genoa, Lucca, and San Marino. Venice alone is of any importance.

1562 Turin and four other towns are restored by the French to
Emmanuel Philibert. He transfers his capital to Turin, and his
house becomes thoroughly Italian.

1569 Pope Pius V makes Cosmo de’ Medici grand duke of Tuscany.
The emperor protests.

1570 The Turks take Cyprus from the Venetians.

1571 The combined fleets of Venice, Spain, the pope, and the
knights of Malta, defeat the Turks in the Gulf of Lepanto. This
victory delivers Italy from the infidel, but the allies do not
follow it up.

1573 Venice is forced to make peace with the Turks. She gives
up Cyprus and pays a large tribute.

1575 The emperor acknowledges the title of grand duke of
Tuscany.

1576 Great devastation made by the plague in Italy.

1578 Failure of a conspiracy at Florence against the grand duke
of Tuscany.

1580 Charles Emmanuel succeeds his father as duke of Savoy.

1582 Charles Emmanuel fails in an attempt to capture Genoa.

1586 Death of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma. His son
Alessandro succeeds.

1588 The duke of Savoy taking advantage of Francis’ distracted
condition, conquers Saluzzo.

1589 The duke of Savoy invades Provence.

1590 The French drive Charles Emmanuel from Provence.

1597 Death of Alfonso d’Este, duke of Ferrara. Pope Clement
VIII claims his dominions (Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio) from
his kinsman and heir, Cesare d’Este. France sides with the
pope, and Spain with the duke.

1598 Cesare gives up Ferrara to the pope and retires to Modena
and Reggio, where he rules as duke.

1600 Henry IV of France proceeds against the duke of Savoy.

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 Peace of Lyons between Henry IV and Charles Emmanuel. The
latter is allowed to keep Saluzzo, but gives up Bresse, Bugey,
and the Pays de Gex, his possessions in Burgundy.

1606 Pope Paul V attempts to compel Venice to acknowledge
his ecclesiastical supremacy. Hitherto the Venetians have
recognised no chief above their own patriarch. They prepare for
war with the pope. Henry IV mediates. The Venetians in a veiled
manner admit the papal supremacy, but refuse to readmit the
Jesuits, and the pope removes the interdiction.

1613 On the death of Francesco, the duke of Mantua and
Montferrat, his brother Ferdinand succeeds. Charles Emmanuel
invades Montferrat on behalf of his daughter, the late duke’s
widow. Philip III of Spain orders him to evacuate the duchy and
the duke of Savoy goes to war with Spain.

1615 The Spanish governor of Milan attacks Charles Emmanuel.
Venice and the imperial party come to hostilities over the
piracies of the Uscochi, subjects of the empire.

1617 Venice makes alliance with the Dutch.

1618 Conspiracy of Don Pedro de Toledo, governor of Milan, the
duke of Osuna, and the marquis of Bedmar to destroy Venice. It
is betrayed to the Council of Ten and thwarted.

1620 The Catholics in the Grisons revolt against the Protestant
government. Philip III sends the governor of Milan to help the
Catholics. He occupies the Valtelline.

1624 France, Savoy, and Venice unite against Spain in the war
in the Grisons.

1625 The duke of Savoy and a French army make an attempt to
capture Genoa. The Germans and Spaniards invade Savoy and the
duke is obliged to abandon the siege.

1626 On the death of the last of the Della Rovere family the
duchy of Urbino is annexed to the papal states.

1627 On the death of the duke of Mantua, Charles Emmanuel again
seizes Montferrat.

1628 France and Venice oppose the duke of Savoy. Spain and
Austria assist him. The Spaniards seize Casale. Plot of Vachero
and others in Genoa to place the city under the protection of
Charles Emmanuel. It is discovered and its leader executed.

1629 Treaty of Susa between France and Savoy. Spain and the
emperor refuse to ratify it.

1630 Death of Charles Emmanuel, succeeded by his son Victor
Amadeus I. The imperial army seizes Mantua.

1631 The Montferrat question settled by the treaty of Cherasco.
Mantua and Montferrat are given to Charles, duke of Nevers.
Savoy gets a small portion of Montferrat and Pinerolo is ceded
to France.

1637 On death of Victor Amadeus a contest over the regency for
his young son, Charles Emmanuel II, begins.

1639 Capture of Turin by Prince Thomas of Savoy in the contest
for the regency.

1642 The duke’s mother Christina obtains the regency of Savoy
under the protection of France. This leads to the implication
of Italy in the wars of Louis XIII with Germany and Spain.
Civil war breaks out in Italy. The ducal families take the side
of Spain.

1645 War breaks out between Venice and the Turks. The latter
seize a portion of Candia.

1651 The Venetians win a great naval victory from the Turks
near Scio.

1655 The Spaniards besiege Reggio without success. Prince
Thomas of Savoy and the duke of Modena with a French army fail
in an attempt to capture Pavia. Naval victory of the Venetians
over the Turks in the Dardanelles.

1656 Continued naval victories of the Venetians; they hire
mercenaries from the pope, and admit the Jesuits into their
city.

1659 The wars of Louis XIV and Spain ended by the treaty of the
Pyrenees. France retains possession of Pinerolo.

1669 After a long siege the Turks take Candia from the
Venetians. Crete is lost.

1670 After a long reign Ferdinand II, grand duke of Tuscany,
dies, succeeded by his son Cosmo III.

1675 Death of Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy. Victor Amadeus II
succeeds.

1684 The French fleet bombards Genoa, whose citizens have
refused to allow Louis XIV to establish a depot at Savona.
Venice, encouraged by Sobieski’s victories over the Turks,
leagues with the emperor and the Poles against them.

1685 The doge of Genoa and four senators go to Paris to
apologise and make terms with Louis XIV. The Venetians under
Francesco Morosini take many towns in the Morea from the Turks.

1686 The duke of Savoy forbids all religions but the Catholic
to exist in Savoy.

1687 The Venetians complete the conquest of the Morea. They
seize Lepanto, Corinth, and Athens.

1690 Toleration of the Protestants is restored in Savoy, which
joins the league against France. The French take Saluzzo and
other territory from Savoy.

1691 The progress of the French in Savoy is stopped by a German
army. Continued success of the Venetians in Greece.

1694 Siege of Casale by the duke of Savoy.

1695 The war with the Turks begins to turn against the
Venetians.

1696 The duke of Savoy makes peace with France, which gives up
Pinerolo to him.

1699 Treaty of Karlowitz between Venice and the Turks. The
former is confirmed in her conquests in Greece.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1701 The war of the Spanish Succession is begun in Italy.
Tuscany and Mantua side with the French. Prince Eugene of Savoy
defeats the French army.

1702 Prince Eugene captures Cremona and besieges Mantua. The
duke of Vendôme drives him off. Victory of the French and
Spaniards at Santa Vittoria.

1704 The duke of Savoy goes over to the Austrian side. The
French are supreme in Savoy and Modena.

1706 Battle of Turin and great defeat of the French, who lose
all their conquests in Italy. The duke of Savoy recovers his
possessions and obtains Montferrat. Charles III is proclaimed
king of Spain.

1708 The emperor Joseph I claims the duchy of Mantua on the
death of the last duke. The pope attempts to resist, but is
overcome and submits to Joseph’s claim.

1713 The Peace of Utrecht. For his services in the war of
the Spanish Succession, =Victor Amadeus II= receives Sicily
with the title of king and is crowned at Palermo. The emperor
Charles receives Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples. Italy
passes from the power of Spain to that of Austria.

1714 The pope lays claim to Sicily and issues a bull against
Victor Amadeus, who ignores it. Philip V marries Elizabeth
Farnese, which makes him heir to Parma and Piacenza, and a
claimant of Tuscany.

1715 The Turks go to war with the Venetians and reconquer the
Morea.

1716 The emperor assists the Venetians. Prince Eugene captures
Temesvar. The combined fleet captures Santa Maura.

1717 In the dispute with Austria over the succession to the
grand duchy of Tuscany, Philip V of Spain unexpectedly conquers
Sardinia. The allied armies make headway against the Turks.

1718 The Quadruple Alliance--Great Britain, France, Austria,
and the Netherlands--formed against Philip, to take Lombardy
from him. War with the Turks ended by the Peace of Passarowitz.
Venice gives up the struggle against the infidels after five
hundred years. She is now in full decline and takes no part in
the eighteenth-century wars. The Spaniards invade Sicily.

1719 The Spaniards defeated and driven off from Messina. They
leave the island.

1720 Philip agrees to the terms of the Quadruple Alliance.
For his adherence to Philip, Victor Amadeus is compelled to
exchange Sicily for Sardinia, and his realm is henceforth
called the kingdom of Sardinia. Sicily is reunited to Naples.

1723 Gian Gastone succeeds to the grand duchy of Tuscany.

1730 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son, =Charles
Emmanuel III=. The Corsicans revolt against the Genoese to rid
themselves of tyranny.

1731 Death of the last duke of Parma. Don Charles of Spain
succeeds. Victor Amadeus attempts to regain his crown, but is
defeated by Charles Emmanuel and imprisoned in the castle of
Rimini, where he dies in 1732. Charles Emmanuel destroys all
temporal power of the pope in his realm.

1733 The war of the Polish Succession begins. France makes
alliance with Spain and Sardinia. They plan to drive the
Austrians from Italy; to establish Don Charles on the throne
of the Two Sicilies and in the duchies; and to give Milan to
Charles Emmanuel. The latter seizes Milan.

1734 Victory of Charles Emmanuel at Guastalla.

1735 Don Charles goes to Sicily and is crowned king.

1737 Death of Gian Gastone, grand duke of Tuscany, the last of
the Medici.

1738 The Treaty of Vienna settles the disputes of the war
of the Polish Succession. Duke Francis of Lorraine receives
Tuscany. Parma and Piacenza are given to Austria, which keeps
Milan and Mantua. Don Charles acknowledged king of the Two
Sicilies. Charles Emmanuel acquires Novara, and Tortona is
separated from Milan.

1740 War of the Austrian Succession begins. The Bourbon houses
of Spain, France, and the Sicilies oppose the Habsburg-Lorraine
party in the succession of Maria Theresa.

1741 Charles Emmanuel joins the Habsburg cause.

1742 The king of Sardinia attacks Reggio and Modena. The
Spanish army invades Savoy, but is driven back.

1743 The Sardinians defeated by the French and Spaniards, who
seize Parma and Milan. Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor,
sends an Austrian army against them.

1745 Defeat of the French and Spaniards by the king of Sardinia
and the Austrians at Piacenza. The Genoese compelled to admit
the Austrians into the city, but they afterwards expel them.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the war, and redivides
Italy. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla are made into a duchy for
Don Philip, brother of Charles III of the Two Sicilies. The
Austrians keep Milan and Tuscany. Venice, Lucca, and San Marino
remain free, so does Genoa, but, with the duchy of Modena, it
is placed under the protection of France. Until the French
Revolution Italy ceases to be a matter of dispute between the
European nations.

1755 Pasquale Paoli takes command of the Corsicans in their
continued struggle to free themselves from Genoa. He plans to
establish a republic in the island.

1765 Death of the emperor Francis. Tuscany, which, since his
assumption of the emperorship, has been practically an Austrian
province, is given to his son Leopold and becomes a separate
state once more.

1768 Genoa, wearied of the struggle with Corsica, cedes it to
France.

1773 Death of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, succeeded by
his son, =Victor Amadeus III=.

1790 Leopold, succeeding to the empire, makes his son,
Ferdinand III, grand duke of Tuscany.

1792 The French army captures Savoy and Nice and makes them
part of the republic.

1793 Victor Amadeus joins the alliance against France.

1796 The French army under Napoleon Bonaparte crosses the
Alps. Victor Amadeus surrenders his claim to Savoy and Nice,
and gives up Alessandria and Tortona after Bonaparte’s many
victories. The French invade the Austrian dominions and enter
Milan. Bonaparte enters Bologna and founds the Cispadane
Republic, with Bologna as capital. Death of Victor Amadeus,
succeeded by his son, =Charles Emmanuel IV=. Defeat of the
Austrians at Arcola.

1797 Defeat of the Austrians at Rivoli completes conquest of
Lombardy. Mantua surrenders to Bonaparte. He declares war on
Venice and enters the city. Revolt against the republican
party in Genoa; Bonaparte interferes and establishes the
Ligurian Republic. He forms Lombardy, Parma, Modena, the
papal state of Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, and part of Venice
into the Cisalpine Republic, with capital at Milan. Treaty
of Campo-Formio recognises the new republics and gives the
remainder of Venice to Austria.

1798 The French army enters Rome and forms the Tiberine
Republic. Pope Pius VI sent a captive to France. The French
take Piedmont and Charles Emmanuel retires to Sardinia.

1799 The French garrison gives up Rome to the English. The
French directory declares war against Austria and Tuscany. The
allies under Kay and Suvarroff defeat the French many times in
northern Italy. Milan is taken. The Austrians take Ancona and
Coni.

1800 Bonaparte recovers his lost possessions in Italy. Battle
of Marengo. Genoa and Tuscany given up to Bonaparte.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1801 Bonaparte deposes Ferdinand III; makes Tuscany into the
kingdom of Etruria, and gives it to =Louis=, son of the duke of
Parma.

1802 The Cisalpine becomes the Italian Republic and Bonaparte
is president. Piedmont annexed to France. Charles Emmanuel
abdicates in favour of his brother =Victor Emmanuel I=.

1803 Death of Louis of Etruria. His wife, Maria Louisa, rules
as regent for his young son, =Charles Louis=.

1805 The emperor =Napoleon= makes the Italian Republic into
a kingdom and is crowned king; Eugène Beauharnais viceroy.
The Ligurian Republic is annexed to France. Lucca is made a
principality, and with the kingdom of Etruria given to Elisa
Bonaparte.

1806 By the conditions of the Peace of Pressburg the Venetian
possessions of Austria are added to the kingdom of Italy.
Pauline Bonaparte cedes Guastalla to the kingdom.

1807 Elisa Bonaparte cedes Etruria to the kingdom of Italy.

1809 Napoleon seizes the papal states and occupies Rome. He is
excommunicated by the pope.

1810 The papal states are added to the French Empire.

1814 The English capture Genoa. The pope returns to Rome by
Napoleon’s permission. Fall of Napoleon. Genoa, instigated by
England, makes a vain attempt to restore the Ligurian Republic.

1815 By the Treaty of Paris and Congress of Vienna, Victor
Emmanuel I receives back the kingdom of Sardinia with the
addition of Genoa. Venice and Milan are formed into the
Lombardo-Venetian province of Austria. Lucca is given to the
Parmesan Bourbons who are to recover Parma and Piacenza at
the death of Maria Louisa, Napoleon’s wife, to whom they are
allotted as a duchy. Ferdinand III is restored to Tuscany, and
he is to receive Lucca when the Parmesan house takes possession
of its own territory. Francis IV is made duke of Modena and he
is to receive Lunigiana from the grand duke of Tuscany when
the latter takes possession of Lucca. The papal states are
restored to Pope Pius VII. San Marino remains undisturbed, the
only Italian republic. Murat drives the pope from Rome, but is
defeated and escapes to Corsica. All the Italian sovereigns are
in strict alliance with Austria through whose influence they
hold their thrones.

1821 The people of Turin and Alessandria demand constitutional
governments, and war with Austria. Rather than grant any
concession Victor Emmanuel abdicates in favour of his brother
=Charles Felix=. The movement is suppressed by Austria.

1824 Leopold II succeeds as grand duke of Tuscany.

1825 By Charles Felix’s order the poor in his kingdom are
forbidden instruction in reading and writing.

1830 Duke Francis of Modena intrigues with the liberal party,
in an attempt to obtain the succession to Sardinia.

1831 Revolt of Ciro Menotti in Modena. Francis deserts the
liberals. The duke of Modena and the duchess of Parma forced to
flee. Republican revolt in Romagna against the pope. He calls
on Austria for aid, which is given. The duke of Modena and
duchess of Parma are restored; the revolt in Romagna put down.
Execution of Menotti and his companions. Disappointment of the
liberals in not receiving help from France. Mazzini founds the
“Young Italy” party. Death of Charles Felix and the end of the
elder branch. =Charles Albert= of the Savoy-Carignano line
succeeds. Mazzini calls on him to defy Austria.

1832 The French, jealous of the Austrian garrisons in the papal
states, seize Ancona.

1833 Mazzini makes a raid on Savoy. It fails and he flees to
England.

1837 Charles Albert issues a new code for his kingdom.

1838 The French and Austrians withdraw their garrisons from the
papal states.

1844 Revolt of the Bandiera at Cosenza.

1846 Cardinal Mastai Ferretti is elected pope (Pius IX). He
declares himself a liberal and begins a new policy of reform.
The Austrians remonstrate.

1847 Pius forms the national guard in his states. The Austrians
seize Ferrara. Charles Albert turns from the Austrian party
and declares for reform and the liberation of Italy. Death of
the duchess of Parma. The Bourbons return from Lucca, which is
added to Tuscany.

1848 Metternich refuses to grant any of the demanded reforms
in Lombardo-Venetia. Following the example of Ferdinand
II of the Two Sicilies, the king of Sardinia, the grand
duke of Tuscany, and the pope, grant their people liberal
constitutions. The revolutionary troubles in Vienna and Hungary
incite Lombardo-Venetia to insurrection. The Milanese drive
Marshal Radetzky and the Austrian troops out of the city.
Other cities join the Milanese. The duke of Modena flees.
Venice rises against the Austrians. They leave the city, and a
provincial form of government is set up under Daniele Manin.
Charles Albert declares war on Austria. Peschiera surrenders to
him and he defeats Radetzky at Goito. Lombardo-Venetia votes
for annexation to Sardinia. Charles Albert is badly defeated
by Radetzky at Custozza and makes armistice. The Austrians
re-enter Milan. All the provinces except Venice return to
Austrian rule. Insurrection in Rome. Assassination of the
pope’s minister, Count Rossi. Pius flees to Gaeta.

1849 Revolt in Tuscany; the grand duke flees to Gaeta and a
provincial government is set up in Florence. A republic is
declared in Rome with Mazzini at the head. Gioberti retires
and Rattazzi assumes the leadership of the democratic party in
Piedmont. The war with Austria is renewed and Charles Albert
is completely defeated by Radetzky at Novara. He abdicates
in favour of his son =Victor Emmanuel II=. Genoa attempts to
restore the republic, but the revolt is put down. The French,
jealous of Austria’s power, send an army to restore the pope.
Rome is defended by Garibaldi, but is forced to capitulate. The
French garrison the city and declare for the papal government.
The Florentines recall Leopold, and the duke of Modena returns.
Venice surrenders to the Austrians. Treaty of peace between
Sardinia and Austria. Italy’s struggle for liberty is crushed.

1850 The pope returns to Rome. His policy is now entirely
against reform. The Siccardi law, abolishing ecclesiastical
courts and privileges, passed in Piedmont. Reform progresses
quickly under Victor Emmanuel.

1853 Count d’Azeglio resigns office of chief minister in
Piedmont; succeeded by Count Cavour, who allies himself with
Rattazzi and the democratic party. He begins his work for the
unification of Italy.

1855 Sardinia makes alliance with England and France against
Russia. A Sardinian army is sent to the Crimea.

1856 At Congress of Paris, Cavour lays the grievances of Italy
before the European powers and obtains assurance of Napoleon
III’s assistance.

1858 Cavour meets Napoleon at Plombières and arranges for a
Franco-Italian war against Austria.

1859 Austria demands disarmament of Sardinia. France and
Sardinia declare war. Napoleon declares he will free Italy.
Romagna frees itself from the pope. A revolt in Tuscany causes
the grand duke to flee. Battle of Magenta forces the Austrians
out of Lombardy. Great victory of the allies at Solferino.
Peace of Villafranca. Austria gives up western Lombardy to
Sardinia. The exiled dukes are to be restored. Fear of Prussia
deters Napoleon from carrying out his high purpose, and he
simply agrees to an Italian confederation of which Austria, as
ruler of Venice, will be a member. Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and
Romagna, object to the confederation and ask for annexation
to Sardinia, which decides Victor Emmanuel not to agree to
Napoleon’s plan.

1860 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna vote to become subject
to Sardinia. Napoleon agrees to this in return for the cession
of Savoy and Nice to France. Garibaldi liberates southern
Italy. The people of the Two Sicilies vote for annexation to
Sardinia. Umbria and the Marches also annexed. Only Rome and
Venice remain to be liberated.

1861 First Italian parliament at Turin. Victor Emmanuel
declared king of Italy. Death of Cavour.

1862 Garibaldi invades Sicily with a volunteer army. Owing
to objections from France, the Italian ministry is forced to
oppose him. He is defeated and wounded at Aspromonte.

1864 The September convention. Napoleon agrees to a gradual
withdrawal of the French troops from Rome. Victor Emmanuel
promises not to attack the pope’s territory. Florence is made
the capital of Italy.

1866 The Prusso-Austrian war breaks out. Alliance of Italy
and Prussia. The Italian army is defeated several times, but
after the Prussian victory of Königgrätz (Sadowa) Austria
cedes Venice to France. Treaty of Vienna. Venice with the
Quadrilateral of fortresses (Verona, Legnago, Peschiera, and
Mantua) is given to Italy. Austria keeps the Istrian and
Dalmatian provinces. The withdrawal of the French troops from
Rome is completed.

1867 Mazzini urges the Italian people to seize Rome. Garibaldi
makes the attempt. He defeats the papal troops at Monte
Rotondo. Victor Emmanuel pleads to have his agreement to the
September convention respected. The French regarrison Rome.
Garibaldi surrenders to the French and papal forces at Mentana,
and is arrested by the Italian government.

1870 The French leave Rome at the outbreak of the
Franco-Prussian War. Mazzini incites the republicans to seize
Rome. He is arrested and imprisoned at Gaeta. The fall of
Napoleon III releases Victor Emmanuel from the agreement of
the September convention and he enters Rome. The pope appeals
in vain to the king of Prussia and retires to the Vatican.
The papal territories are annexed, and the unity of Italy is
complete.

1871 The capital of Italy transferred to Rome.

1874 The Jesuits are ordered to leave Italy. Garibaldi enters
the chamber of deputies and takes the oath of allegiance.

1878 Death of Victor Emmanuel, succeeded by his son =Humbert=.

1882 Death of Garibaldi.

1885 Italy assumes the government of Massowah.

1887 Formation of the “Triple Alliance” between Italy, Germany,
and Austria. War begins in Massowah.

1888 Italy annexes Massowah. War with the Abyssinians begins.

1891 Treaty with Great Britain concerning the boundaries of
territories in East Africa. Renewal of the Triple Alliance.
Commercial treaty with Austria and Germany. Dispute with the
United States over the massacre of eleven Italian prisoners at
New Orleans.

1892 Indemnity paid by the United States. Diplomatic relations
renewed.

1893 The Aigues-Mortes riots. The bank scandals.

1895 Treaty with France respecting Tunis. Disastrous defeat
of the Italians at Adowa in Abyssinia. Treaty of peace with
Abyssinia recognising independence of Ethiopia.

1898 Bread riots in many places owing to rise of prices. An
Italian fleet attempts to enforce payment of the award to
Signor Cerruti for robbery and imprisonment by Colombia. The
matter is peacefully adjusted.

1900 Assassination of Humbert. His son =Victor Emmanuel III=
succeeds.

1903 Italy allied with England and Germany to enforce payment
of debt by Venezuela. The matter is settled by arbitration.
Death of pope Leo XIII; cardinal Sarto succeeds as Pius X.

THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

_The Hohenstaufens (1198-1266 A.D.)_

1198 =Frederick II=, son of the emperor Henry VI who has
conquered Sicily from the Normans, crowned king of Sicily
(Frederick I of Sicily) with his mother Constanza as regent.
Death of Constanza. Pope Innocent III assumes the guardianship
of Frederick, aged four.

1200 Innocent sends an army to Sicily which defeats Markwald,
who has claimed the guardianship of Frederick.

1201 Markwald, regent of Sicily. He dies and is succeeded by
Capparone. Sicily continues to be the prey of rebellious nobles
and adventurers.

1208 Frederick takes up the reins of government.

1210 The emperor Otto IV threatens to invade Sicily, which he
claims as part of the empire.

1211 Innocent excommunicates Otto and offers the crown of
Germany to Frederick.

1212 Frederick leaves Sicily to dispute the German crown with
Otto. He is crowned king of Germany at Mainz. Civil disorders
recommence in Sicily.

1215 Innocent crowns Frederick king of Germany at Aachen.

1220 Frederick crowned emperor at Rome. He returns to Sicily
and transfers a large colony of Saracens from the mountains to
Nocera.

1231 Frederick has a compilation made of the Norman laws and
ordinances.

1233 Frederick revisits Sicily to quell the republican
pretensions of the eastern cities.

1243 Saracen revolt in the mountainous districts.

1250 At Frederick’s death the crown passes to his son, =Conrad=
king of the Romans. In Conrad’s absence his natural brother
Manfred is regent.

1251 Innocent IV, in his attempts to further the cause of
William of Holland, excommunicates Conrad, and incites
rebellions in Sicily and southern Italy. Manfred puts them down.

1252 Innocent rejects offers of peace from Conrad, who then
attacks the pope. Capua is captured and Naples besieged.

1253 Surrender of Naples to Conrad. Innocent offers Richard,
earl of Cornwall, the crown of Sicily, but he declines it.

1254 Death of Conrad; his son =Conradin=, two years of age,
succeeds him. Manfred retains the regency. He opposes the papal
forces which have advanced into Apulia, and defeats them at
Foggia. Manfred takes Nocera.

1255 The citizens of Messina expel the papal governor. The
legate, having lost a large convoy, agrees to peace with
Manfred. Pope Alexander IV, who has offered the crown of Sicily
to Prince Edmund of England, refuses to ratify the peace. The
English parliament will not vote funds to enable Edmund to take
the Sicilian throne.

1256 Manfred drives the papal authorities from Sicily and makes
himself supreme there.

1258 On false rumour of Conradin’s death =Manfred= is crowned
at Palermo. He assumes the leadership of the Ghibellines in
Italy.

1259 Alexander IV excommunicates Manfred.

1260 Manfred sends aid to the exiled Ghibellines of Florence,
enabling them to win the battle of Montaperti.

1263 Pope Urban IV offers Sicily and Apulia to Charles of
Anjou, brother of Louis IX of France.

1264 The pope proclaims a crusade against Manfred.

1265 Charles of Anjou is crowned king of Sicily at Rome by the
pope. With an army of crusaders he proceeds against Manfred.

_The House of Anjou (1266-1282 A.D.)_

1266 Defeat and death of Manfred at battle of Benevento.
=Charles I= acknowledged king. He enters Naples in triumph.
The seat of government is transferred from Palermo to Naples.
Charles at once makes himself unpopular by his oppression.