Chapter X: The Mound Builders.1 (2)

In this cut we have no difficulty in recognizing an eagle. It is
represented as soaring high in the air. On the bluffs above it is
a wolf effigy, and several conical and long mounds. In the cut
preceding this the eagle and the hawk are hovering over the
feeding elks, while in this cut a flock of hawks are watching
some buffaloes feeding in the distance. This group of effigies
was found on the banks of the Kickapoo River.

Hawks and Buffaloes.

Goose and Duck. Our next cut represents a wild goose with a long
neck and beak followed by a duck with a short neck, flying
towards the lake.

Water-loving animals, such as salamanders and turtles, are
represented in still another way, two projections on each side of
a central figure. The next following cut represents a turtle. The
tail was not always added. The salamander closely resembles the
turtle, but notice the difference in the body, and still
different is the cut of the musk-rat (see later). Fishes are
figured as a straight embankment of earth tapering to a point.

Turtle.

The same system that was observed in the location of signal
mounds is to be noticed in the arrangements of these groups of
effigy mounds. They are not alone. One group answers to another
on a distant hill, or is in plain view of another group in the
valley below. Distant groups were so related, each commanding a
wide extent of country, and thus group answers to group, and
mound to mound, for miles away, making a complete system
throughout the region.

Salamander and Musk-rat and Man-shaped Mound.

We notice this as to the location of the mounds. When we examine
the mounds themselves we observe no little skill in the way they
represent the animals. They often impressed on them something
more than mere animal resemblances. “There are groups where the
attitudes are expressive of a varied action. Certain animals,
like the weasel or mink, being seen with a bird so near that,
apparently, it might be caught by a single spring; and still
others, like the wolf or wild-cat, are arranged head to head, as
if prepared for combat; and still others, like the squirrel or
coon, are in the more playful attitudes, sometimes apparently
chasing one another over hill or valley; and again situated
alone, as if they had just leaped from some tree, or drawn
themselves out of some den or hole.”46

Nor is the effigy of the human form wanting. It is found in
several localities throughout the State. This cut shows us one
such effigy. This was the beginning of a long train of animal
mounds, presumably representing bears, found near the Blue
Mounds, Wisconsin.47 We can not observe that any more importance
was ascribed to the effigy of a human being than to that of an
animal.

In casting about for suitable explanation for the erection of
these animal mounds, we find ourselves lost in conjecture as to
the motive which induced these people to prepare these earthen
effigies. We may be sure that it was for some other reason than
for amusement, or to give exercise to an artistic feeling. Only
in very few instances do we detect any arrangements which would
imply that they were in the nature of defenses. In some cases the
effigies are so arranged as to form a sort of inclosure, some
portion of the figure being prolonged to an unusual extent and
thus inclosing a space that may have been utilized for a village
site. This group on the Wisconsin River illustrates this point.
Here the area thus partially inclosed, is about an acre. It is a
singular fact that these inclosures are almost always triangular
in shape.48 But it is manifest that a simple earth wall would
serve for defense much better than these forms. They probably
were not burial mounds, as few contain human remains, and it is
not yet certain that these remains were not intrusive burials.49
It seems, therefore that they must have been in some manner
connected with the religious life of the people.

Emblematic Mound Inclosure.

If we examine the various groups scattered throughout the State,
this belief is strengthened. It is found, for instance, in nearly
every group, that some one effigy is the principal one, and is
placed in a commanding position, about which the other forms are
arranged. It is also thought that the same effigy is the
principal or ruling effigy over a wide district. In illustration
of this, it can be stated that in the south-eastern part of the
State the turtle is always the ruling effigy. In any group of
effigies it is the principal one. It seems to watch over and
protect the others. In subordination to it are such forms as the
lizard, hawk, and pigeon. Passing to the North, the turtle is no
longer the important figure. It is replaced by the wolf, or
wild-cat. This is now the principal form, and if the turtle is
sometimes present, it is of less importance.

So marked is the fact we have just stated that Mr. Peet says,
“that sometimes this division assumes almost the character of a
river system, and thus we might trace what seems to be the
beginning in this country of that which prevailed on classic soil
and in Oriental regions—namely, river gods and tutelar divinities
of certain regions, each tribal divinity having its own province,
over which it ruled and on which it left its own form or figure
as the seal of its power and the emblem of its worship.”50

Looking for some explanation of this, we may find a key in the
known customs of various Indian tribes, and the lower races of
men. It is known that a tribe of Indians is divided into smaller
bands, which are called gens or clans. A gens may consist of
several hundred persons, but it is the unit of organization. It
takes the place of a family among civilized people. These various
bands are generally named after some animal. In the beginning
these names may have been of no special significance, but in
course of time each band would come to regard themselves as
descendants of the animal whose name they bore. Hence the animal
itself would be considered sacred in their eyes, and its life
would seldom be taken by members of that gens.

The animal thus honored by the gens was, in the Indian dialect,
the totem of the clan. This organization and custom we find
running all through the Indian tribes. In many tribes the Indians
were wont to carve a figure of their totem on a piece of slate,
or even to carve a stone in the shape of the totem, which carved
or sculptured stone they wore as an ornament, or carried as a
charm to ward off evil and bring them good luck.51 We need only
suppose that this system was very fully developed among the Mound
Builders of Wisconsin, to see what important bearing it has on
these effigy mounds.

A tribe located on one of the fertile river valleys of Wisconsin
was composed of various gens or clans. On some common point in
proximity to their villages, or some spot which commanded a wide
view of the surrounding country, each gens would rear an effigy
of its totem, the animal sacred to them. In every tribe some gens
would be the most powerful, or for some cause the most respected,
and its totem would be given in the largest effigy, and would be
placed in the most commanding position. In a different locality
some other tribe would be located, and some other totem would be
regarded as of the most importance.

In this light effigy-mounds are not mere representatives of
animal forms. They are picture-writings on a gigantic scale, and
are the source of much true history. They tell us of different
tribes, the clans which composed them, the religious beliefs, and
the ruling gens of the tribe. Contemplating them, we seem to live
again in the far-off past. The white man disappears; waving
forests claim their ancient domain, and the rivers, with a more
powerful current, roll in their olden channels. The animals whose
forms are imaged here, go trooping through the forest or over the
fertile bottom lands. The busy scenes of civilization give place
to the placid quiet of primeval times, and we seem to see
peaceful tribes of Mound Builders paying a rude veneration to
their effigy-gods, where now are churches of a more
soul-satisfying religion.

But there is still another point to be learned from an
examination of these ancient mounds. Not only are they totems of
the tribes, but they were looked on in some sense as being
guardian divinities, with power to protect the homes of the
tribe. This is learned by studying the location in which they are
placed. They occupy all points of observation. In other parts of
the Mound Builders’ country, wherever we find signal-mounds we
find corresponding positions in Wisconsin occupied by groups of
effigy-mounds, or if one only is present, it is always the one
which, from the considerations we have stated, was regarded as
the ruling effigy of that section. It is as if their builders
placed them as sentinels to guard the approaches to their homes,
to give warning of the arrival of hostile bands. This is further
borne out by finding that mounds placed in such positions
frequently show evidence of the action of intense fire, and so we
conclude they were used as signal stations also. So we need not
doubt but that the region thus watched over by these
effigy-mounds, group answering to group along the river banks, or
in the valleys below, was at times lit up by the signal fires at
night; or the warning column of smoke by day betokening the
presence of dancer.52

Bird Mound, surrounded by a Stone Circle.

Before leaving the subject of effigy-mounds, we must refer to
some instances of their presence in other localities. This cut is
an eagle effigy discovered in Georgia. Only one other instance,
also occurring in Georgia, is known of effigy-mounds in the
South. Measured from tip to tip of the wings, the bird, in this
case, is one hundred and thirty-two feet. This structure is
composed of stones, and a singular feature is the surrounding
circle of stone.53

Big Serpent Mound.

Several examples of effigy-mounds are found in Ohio. The most
notable one is that known as the Great Serpent Mound, in Adanis
County. We give an illustration of it. The entire surrounding
country is hilly. The effigy itself is situated on a tongue of
land formed by the junction of a ravine with the main branch of
Brush Creek, and rising to a height of about one hundred feet
above the creek. Its form is irregular on its surface, being
crescent-shaped, with the point resting to the north-west. We
give in a note some of the dimensions. The figure we give of this
important effigy is different from any heretofore presented. We
are indebted for the plan from which the drawing was made to Rev.
J. P. MacLean, of Hamilton, Ohio. Mr. MacLean is a well-known
writer on these topics. During the Summer of 1884, while in the
employ of the Bureau of Ethnology, he visited the place, taking
with him a thoroughly competent surveyor, and made a very careful
plan of the work for the Bureau. All the other figures published
represent the oval as the end of the works. Prof. Putnam, who
visited the locality in 1883, noticed, between the oval figure
and the edge of the ledge, a slightly raised, circular ridge of
earth, from either side of which a curved ridge extended towards
the sides of the oval figure. Mr. MacLean’s researches and
measurements have shown that the ridges last spoken of are but
part of what is either a distinct figure or a very important
portion of the original figure. As figured, it certainly bears a
very close resemblance to a frog, and such Mr. MacLean concludes
it to be.

There is both a similarity and a difference between this work and
those of Wisconsin. The fact that it occurs isolated, the other
effigies in Ohio being many miles away, shows that some special
purpose must have been subserved by it. There the great numbers
gave us a hint as to their purpose. In this case, however, nearly
all observers conclude that it was a religious work. Mr. MacLean,
after describing these three figures, propounds this query: “Does
the frog represent the creative, the egg the passive, and the
serpent the destructive power of nature?” Not a few writers,
though not acquainted with the presence of the frog-shaped
figure, have been struck with the combination of the egg and the
serpent, that plays such an important part in the mythology of
the Old World. We are told that the serpent, separate or in
combination with the circle, egg, or globe, has been a
predominant symbol among many primitive nations. “It prevailed in
Egypt, Greece, and Assyria, and entered widely into the
superstitions of the Celts, the Hindoos, and the Chinese.”
“Wherever native religions have had their scope, this symbol is
sure to appear.”54

Even the Indians have made use of this symbol. On Big Medicine
Butte, in Dakota Territory, near Pierre, is a train of stones
arranged in the form of a serpent, which is probably the work of
the Sioux Indians. Around about on the hill is the burying-ground
of their chiefs. This was to them sacred ground, and no whites
were allowed near. The stones are about the size of a man’s head,
and are laid in two rows, from one to six feet apart. The length
in all is three hundred and fifty feet, and at the tail, stones,
to represent rattles, are rudely carved. The eyes are formed by
two big red bowlders. No grass was allowed to grow between the
two rows of stone.55

It seems reasonable to suppose that the few isolated effigy
mounds we have outside of Wisconsin were built to subserve a
different purpose than those in that State. Mr. Peet has made
some remarks on their probable use that seem to us to cover the
ground, and to do away with any necessity of supposing on the
part of its builders an acquaintance with Old World mythologies.
Nature worship is one of the earliest forms of worship. The
prominent features of a landscape would be regarded as objects of
worship. Thus, for example, the island of Mackinac resembles in
its outline the shape of a turtle; so the island was regarded as
sacred to the turtle, and offerings were made to it. A bluff on
the same island at a distance resembles a rabbit; accordingly, it
was called by that name, and offerings were made to it. It is
quite natural that the effigy-mound builders should seek to
perpetuate by effigy some of these early traditions.

In the case of the Big Serpent mound this point is worth
considering. The ridge on which it stands is not only in the
midst of a wild, rough region, but is so situated that it
commands a wide extent of country. In shape this tongue of land
is also peculiar. It is a narrow, projecting headland, and would
easily suggest the idea of a serpent or a lizard. “This, with the
inaccessibility of the spot, would produce a peculiar feeling of
awe, as if it were a great Manitou which resided there; and so a
sentiment of wonder and worship would gather around the locality.
This would naturally give rise to a tradition, or would lead the
people to revive some familiar tradition and localize it.”56 The
final step would be to make an effigy.

It seems to us very hazardous to draw any conclusions as to the
religious beliefs of the Mound Builders from this effigy, or
combinations of effigies. It also seems to us reasonable to
suppose that but one figure was intended to be represented. A
very slight prolongation of the serpent’s jaws and the limbs of
the frog would connect them, in which case we would have some
amphibious creature with an unduly extended tail, or perhaps a
lizard. We must remember that the whole figure has been plowed
over once or twice, so that we are not sure of the original
outlines. We can not tell why they should represent a portion of
the body as hollow, but neither can we tell why the head of the
supposed serpent should be represented as hollow. We do not find
any important earth-works near here. The hill on which it is
placed commands a very extensive view of the surrounding country.
Within the oval a pile of stones showed evidence of a
long-continued fire, which would indicate that this was also a
signal-mound. Prof. Putnam thinks it probable that there was a
burial place between it and the large conical mound not far
away.57

In the vicinity of Newark, Ohio, are two examples of effigy
mounds. This cut represents what is called the alligator mound,
but it is probably the effigy of a lizard. The position which
this mound occupies is significant. It is on the very brow of a
hill about two hundred feet high, which projects out into a
beautiful valley. The valley is not very wide. Directly across
was a fortified camp, in the valley below it was a circular work,
and a short distance below on another projecting headland was a
strongly fortified hill. The great works at Newark were six miles
down the valley, but were probably in plain view. That it was
perhaps a signal station, is shown by the presence of traces of
fire.

Alligator Mound.

The length of this effigy is two hundred and five feet, the
breadth of the body at its widest part, twenty feet, average
height about four feet.58 The effigy mounds of Wisconsin, and the
other few examples mentioned, are among the most interesting
objects of aboriginal work. Except in a few favored instances,
they are rapidly disappearing. To the leveling influence of time
is added the assistance of man, and our knowledge of them will
soon be confined to existing descriptions, unless something is at
once done to preserve them from destruction. Interesting mementos
of a vanished race, we turn from their contemplation with a sigh
of regret that, in spite of our efforts, they are still so
enwrapped in doubt.

Mounds and effigies by no means complete the description of Mound
Builders’ remains. One of the most interesting and mysterious
class of works is now to be described. Early travelers in Ohio
came here and there upon embankments, which were found to inclose
tracts of land of various sizes. It was noticed that the
embankments were often of the form of perfect circles, or
squares, or sometimes octagons, and very often combinations of
these figures. It was further evident that the builders sought
level, fertile lands, along the various river courses. They very
seldom built them on undulating or broken ground. Often have the
very places where civilized man has laid the foundation of his
towns proved to be the sites of these ancient works of the Mound
Builders, and thus it has happened that many of the most
interesting works of antiquity have been ruthlessly removed to
make way for the crowded streets and busy marts of our own times.

The larger number of inclosures are circular, often of a small
size. Where they occur separately they either have no gateway, or
but one. Sometimes the circles are of very large size,
surrounding many acres. Sometimes, though not very often, a ditch
was also dug inside the embankment. This last circumstance is by
many regarded as a strong proof that the primary object of these
circles was not for defense.59 But an inclosure of this kind,
even with the ditch on the inside, if surmounted by a row of
pickets or palisades, would prove a strong position against
Indian foes armed with bow and arrow. The Mandans constructed
defenses of this kind around their villages.60 As to the original
height of the walls, in the majority of cases it was not very
great, generally from three to seven feet.

It is estimated that in Ohio alone there are fifteen hundred
inclosures, but a large number of them have nothing especially
worthy of mention. Some, however, are on such a large scale that
they call from all more than a passing glance. In contemplating
them, we feel ourselves confronted by a mystery that we can not
explain. The ruins of the old world excite in us the liveliest
feeling of interest, but we know their object, their builders,
and their probable antiquity. The mazy ruins at Newark, and other
places in Ohio, also fill the mind with astonishment, but in this
case we are not certain of their antiquity, their builders are
unknown, and we can not conjecture with any degree of certainty
as to their use. Before so many uncertainties imagination runs
riot, and we are inclined to picture to ourselves a scene of
barbaric power and magnificence.

High Bank Works.

One beautiful specimen of this work is found in this cut. It
occurs on the right bank of the Scioto river, five miles below
Chillicothe. Here we notice a combination of the octagon and the
circle. The areas of each are marked. The octagon is nine hundred
and fifty feet in diameter, and nearly regular in shape. In 1846
its walls were eleven or twelve feet high, by about fifty feet
base. It will be noticed that there is a gate at or near each
angle of the octagon except one, and in front of that angle was a
pit, from which some of the earth to form the walls was taken.
Facing each gateway a mound was placed, as if to guard the
entrance.

The circle connected with the octagon is perfect in shape, and is
ten hundred and fifty feet in diameter. Its walls were only about
half the height of the octagon. We notice some other small
circular works in connection with the main work. In this case the
parallels are not very regular, and seem to be connected with one
or more circular works. In a work situated but a few miles from
the one here portrayed, the parallels extend in one direction
nearly half a mile, only one hundred and fifty feet apart. They
terminate on the edge of a terrace. The object of such parallels
is as yet unknown. In some cases, after extending some distance,
they simply inclosed a mound.

It is easy enough to describe this work and give its dimensions,
but who will tell us the object its builders had in mind? The
walls themselves would afford but slight protection and if they
were for defense, must have been surmounted with palisades. Works
that were undoubtedly in the nature of fortified camps, are found
in this same section, and one of the strongest was located not
more than twelve miles away; but such defensive works differ very
greatly in design from regular structures such as we are now
describing. A very eminent scholar, Mr. Morgan, has advanced the
theory that the walls were the foundations on which communal
houses, like the Pueblos of the West, were erected.61 But this is
mere theory. All traces of such habitations (if they ever
existed) are gone, the usual _debris_ which would be sure to
accumulate around house-sites, is wanting, and the walls
themselves seem unfit for such purpose.62

They may have been embankments surrounding towns and cultivated
fields, but little has yet been found which can be cited as
proofs of residence within the area so inclosed. We should not be
surprised, however, if such would ultimately prove to be the
case, since we now know that the Mound Builders of Tennessee did
fortify their villages by means of embankments and ditches.63 A
number of writers think that these regular inclosures were in
some way connected with the superstitions of the people. In other
words, that they were religious in character. Mr. Squier remarks,
“We have reason to believe that the religious system of the Mound
Builders, like that of the Aztecs, exercised among them a great,
if not a controlling, influence. Their government may have been,
for aught we know, a government of the priesthood—one in which
the priestly and civil functions were jointly exercised, and one
sufficiently powerful to have secured in the Mississippi Valley,
as it did in Mexico, the erection of many of those vast
monuments, which for ages will continue to challenge the wonder
of men. There may have been certain superstitious ceremonies,
having no connection with the purpose of the mound, carried on in
inclosures especially dedicated to them.”64 Another late writer
to whom we have several times referred, tells us there is no
doubt but what a “religious view” was the controlling influence
in the erection of these works, and that they express a
“complicated system of symbolism,” that we see in them evidence,
of a most powerful and wonderful religious system.65 Still such
assertions are easier made than proven, and until we know
somewhat the purpose for which they were used, how are we to know
whether they were sacred or not?

Casting conjectures, for the moment, aside, let us learn what we
can from the works themselves. From their large extent they could
only be reared by the expenditure of great labor. This implies
some form of government sufficiently centralized and powerful to
control the labors of large bodies of men. Moreover, they were
sufficiently advanced to have some standard of measurement and
some way of measuring angles. The circle, it will be remembered,
is a true circle, and of a dimension requiring considerable skill
to lay out. The sides of the octagon are equal, and the alternate
angles coincident.

Every year the plow sinks deeper into these crumbling
embankments, and the leveling forces of cultivation are
continually at work, and the time is not far distant when the
curious traveler will with difficulty trace the ruins of what was
once, to the Mound Builders, a place of great importance.

Square and Circle Embankment. The more usual combination was that
of a square and a circle. An example is given in this cut, which
is a plan on a very small scale, of works which formerly existed
in Circleville. One peculiar feature about this work was that a
double wall formed the circle, with a ditch between the two
walls. In the next cut we notice a peculiar combination of these
two figures. The square is inclosed within the circle. Whatever
we may ultimately decide as to the larger works, it would seem as
if this could only be explained as in the nature of a religious
work. We can see no reason for constructing a defensive work, or
inclosing a village, or erecting foundations for houses of such a
shape as this. They must have been in some way connected with the
superstitions of the people.

Square inscribed in a Circle.
Circle and Ditch. A peculiar feature is also noticed in reference
to some of the smaller circles in this section. The cut at left
illustrates it. The circle has a ditch interior to the
embankment, and also a broad embankment of about the same height
with the outer wall, interior to the ditch, running about
half-way around the circle. A short distance from the circle was
one of those elevated squares, one hundred and twenty feet square
at the base, and nine feet high.66 It may be that this square was
the foundation on which stood a temple, in which case the circle
might have been dedicated to religious purposes also.

The great geometrical inclosures are especially numerous in the
Scioto Valley. All the works we have described were in the near
neighborhood of Chillicothe, and works as important as these are
scattered all up and down the valley. We must also recall how
well provided this valley was with signal mounds. All indications
point to the fact that here was the location of a numerous
people, ready to defend their homes whenever the warning fires
were lit. Although Mound Builders’ works are numerous in the
valley of the two Miami Rivers, Cincinnati being the site of an
extensive settlement, yet they were not such massive structures
as those in the Scioto. This would seem to indicate that these
valleys were the seats of separate tribes.67 But this Eastern
tribe must have occupied an extensive territory, since works of
the most complicated kind are found at Newark.

All indications point to the fact that near this latter place was
a very important settlement of the Mound Builders. Several
fortified works exist a few miles up the valley; signal-mounds
are to be seen on all heights, commanding a wide view, and the
famous alligator mound is placed, as if with the design of
guarding the entrance to the valley. No verbal description will
give an idea of the works, so we refer at once to the plan. This
will give us a good idea of the works as they were when the first
white settlers gazed upon them. They have nearly all been swept
away by modern improvements, excepting the two circular works and
the octagon. Here and there fragments of the other works can
still be traced.

Mound Builders’ Works, Newark, Ohio.

Two forks of the Licking River unite near Newark; the bottom
between these rivers comprising several square miles, was
occupied by these ancient earth-works. By reference to the plan,
we see the works consisted of mounds of various sizes, parallel
walls, generally of a low elevation, small and low embankments,
in the form of small circles and half-circles. There are also
several large works consisting of a circle and octagon combined,
one large circle, and a parallelogram. The circular structure at
‘E,’ is undoubtedly one of the best preserved and most imposing
in the State. There are many inclosing larger areas, but none
more clearly defined. As this is now included in the fair-grounds
of Licking County, it is preserved from destruction, and will
remain a monument of aboriginal work long after all traces of the
others have disappeared. “At the entrance, which is towards the
east, the ends of the walls curve outwards for a distance of a
hundred feet, leaving a passage way eighty feet wide between the
deep ditches on either hand.” From this point the work, even now
presents an impressive appearance. The walls are twelve feet in
perpendicular height, and about fifty feet base. There is a ditch
close around it on the inside, seven feet deep by thirty-five
feet wide. The area inclosed is about thirty acres.

Eagle Mound. In the center is an effigy-mound, represented by
this cut. It represents a bird on the wing, and is called the
Eagle Mound. The long mound in the body of the bird has been
opened, and it was found to contain an altar, such as has been
already described. Was this a place of sacrifice, and did this
wall inclose a sacred area? Our question remains unanswered. We
can dig in the mounds, and wander over the embankments, but the
secret of the builders eludes us.

A mile to the north-west of the part of the work just described
are the Octagon and works in connection with it. The Octagon is
not quite regular, but the sides are very nearly equal. At each
angle is a gateway, interior and opposite to which is a mound, as
if to guard the opening. The cut gives a view of the Octagon,
looking in through one of these gateways. At present, however,
but a small portion is in the forest. Most of it is under
cultivation, but the work can still be easily traced, and is one
of the best preserved in the State. A portion of it, still in the
forest, presents the same appearance to-day as it did to the
first explorer. When a stranger for the first time wanders along
the embankment and ascends the mounds, he can not fail to
experience sensations akin to those of the traveler when he comes
upon the ruins of some Old World city. We wish that for a brief
space of time the curtain of the past would up-roll, and let us
view these works while yet their builders flourished here.

Gateway of Octagon.

Connected with the Octagon by parallel walls three hundred feet
long and placed sixty feet apart, is the smaller circle, “F.”
This is a true circle, and is upwards of half a mile in
circumference. A portion of it lying in the woods, still retains
its primitive form, but the larger part is now under cultivation.
There is no difficulty, however, in tracing its entire length.
The most interesting feature in connection with this part of the
work is immediately opposite the point of entrance from the
octagon, and is represented in our next cut. At this point it
seems as if the builders had started to make parallel walls, but
afterwards changed their design and threw across the opening a
large mound. From this mound a view of the entire embankment
could be obtained. It is called the Observatory Mound. It has
been so often dug into that it is now really in ruins, but is
still too steep to be plowed over.

Observatory Mound, Newark Works.

It is scarcely necessary to describe the works further, except to
state that three lines of parallel embankments lead away from the
octagon. Those extending south have been traced for upwards of
two miles, and are gradually lost in the plain. It was the
opinion of Mr. Atwater, one of the earliest investigators, that
these lines connected with other works thirty miles away, in the
vicinity of Lancaster.68 Small circles are numerous in connection
with these works. It has been suggested by several that they mark
the sites of circular dwellings. The larger ones, indicated by
the letter “G,” are more pretentious. They have the ditch and
embankment, which we have already described. Many interesting
coincidents in dimensions will be perceived between portions of
this work and those described in the Scioto valley.69

Although we have devoted considerable space to this branch of the
Mound Builders’ work, we must still find space to describe the
works at Marietta, which possessed some singular features. This
cut gives us a correct plan of the works as they were when in
1788 the first settlers arrived at the mouth of the Muskingum to
lay out their town. The growth of the beautiful town of Marietta
has completely destroyed these works, except the elevated
squares, A and B, the large mound and inclosing circle at X, with
a portion of the adjoining embankments, and a small fragment of
the parallel walls forming what has been called the “Graded Way.”
The elevated squares are the finest examples of “temple” mounds
remaining in the Ohio Valley. The circle and ditch with the
conical mound inclosed is also a fine example of that class of
works. From the summit of the mound an extensive view is to be
had both up and down the Ohio.

Works at Marietta, Ohio.

The gateways of the smaller square were guarded by mounds, which
were wanting in the larger one. We would call especial attention
to the two embankments which led from the larger square towards
the river. They were six hundred and eighty feet long, and one
hundred and fifty feet apart.70 Some have supposed these walls
were designed to furnish a covered way to the river. But as Mr.
Squier remarks, we would hardly expect the people to go to the
trouble of making such a wide avenue for this purpose, nor one
with such a regular grade. Besides, the walls did not reach the
river. The work seems to be simply a passage way, leading from
one terrace to the other, but why the builders should have made
such a massive work, we can not explain. It has been called the
“Sacred Way,” and this name may possibly be applicable, but it is
only conjectural. Some twenty years ago these two massive and
beautiful embankments were still preserved, thanks to the care of
the early settlers, who planned a street to pass between them,
which was named the _Via Sacra._ These words still remain on a
corner signboard; but alas for sentiment! the banks, so long
revered, have been utilized for brick-working.

Graded Way, Piketon, Ohio.

Several instances of these graded streets or ways have been found
in connection with the Mound Builders’ works. Sometimes they lead
from one terrace to another, sometimes directly to the water. One
of the latter kind formerly existed near Piqua, Ohio.71 This cut
is a view of a graded way near Piketon, Ohio. In this case,
though the difference in level between the second and third
terrace is but seventeen feet, these ancient people laid out a
graded ascent some ten hundred and eighty feet long, by two
hundred and ten feet average width. The earth was thrown out on
either side, forming embankments. From the left hand embankments,
passing up to the third terrace, there could formerly be traced a
low embankment running for fifteen hundred feet, and connected
with mounds and other walls at its extremity.

Some have supposed that formerly the river flowed at the
extremity of this graded way, and a passage way to the water was
thus furnished. Squier says, in this connection: “It is
sufficient to observe that the river now flows half a mile to the
left, and that two terraces, each twenty feet in height,
intervene between the present and the supposed ancient level of
the stream. To assent to this suggestion, would be to admit an
almost immeasurable antiquity to the structure under
consideration.” The casual observer would say that it was
intended to afford an ascent from one terrace to the other. But
as the height was only seventeen feet, we can not see why it was
so necessary to have a long passage way of easy grade from one
terrace to the other. It was evidently built in connection with
the obliterated works on the third terrace. This interesting
remain is now utilized as a turnpike, and the passing traveler
but little recks he is going over one of the most ancient
causeways in the land. It may be that ceremonious processions,
with stately tread, utilized this causeway in years long since
elapsed. Speculation, always an unsafe guide to follow, is
especially so in this case, and so we leave this memento of a
vanished people as much an enigma to us as to its first
explorers.

We have described but a few of the sacred inclosures of Ohio, but
enough have been given to give us a fair idea of all. We wish now
to call attention to another class of remains. We have seen how
the works we have been describing are lacking in defensive
qualities. This becomes more marked, when we learn there are
works, beyond a doubt, defensive in character, in which advantage
is taken of all circumstances which would render the chosen
retreat more secure. In the first place, strong natural positions
were selected. They chose for their purpose bluffy headlands
leading out into the river plain. A people surrounded by enemies,
or pressed by invaders, would naturally turn their attention to
such heights as places susceptible of defense. Accordingly, it
does not surprise us to find many heights occupied by strong and
complicated works. Generally the approaches to them were rugged
and steep on all but one or two sides, and there they are guarded
by walls of earth or stone.

A fine example of a fortified hill was discovered in Butler
County, Ohio, a few miles below the town of Hamilton. This hill
is the highest one in the immediate vicinity. By reference to the
figure, we see that on all sides, except towards the north, the
approach was steep and precipitous, almost inaccessible.

Fortified Hill, Hamilton, Ohio.

The wall is not of regular shape. It runs around on the very brow
of the hill, except in one or two places, where it cuts across a
ridge. In 1843 this wall was still about five feet high and
thirty-five feet base. The earth and stone of which the wall is
made were evidently gathered up from the surface of the hill. In
some places holes had been excavated, probably for the double
purpose of securing materials for the wall, and providing
reservoirs for water against a time of need. There are but four
openings in the wall, and each is very carefully guarded. The
complicated walls guarding the main entrance to the north are
especially noticeable. There are no less than four inner walls
besides the crescent shaped embankment on the outside. The signal
mound was about five hundred feet to the north of the main
opening. The stones on the surface of the mound all show the
action of fire.

If we were uncertain of the uses of the other class of
inclosures, which have been named Sacred Inclosures, we have no
need to hesitate as to the character of this work. Every thing in
reference to it betokens that it was a defensive work. The valley
of the Big Miami, in which it occurs, was a favorite resort of
the Mound Builders. On the opposite side of the river, to the
south, was a square and an ellipse combined, and several other
large works were ranged along the river in the course of a few
miles. We need scarcely doubt that this was a citadel in times of
need, and that when warning columns of smoke or flaming fires
showed the approach of an enemy, the old and the sick, the women
and the children, fled hither for protection, while the warriors
went forth to battle for their homes.

We will call attention to but one more of these fortified hills,
but this is on a magnificent scale. It is known as Fort Ancient,
and is situated on the Little Miami River, about forty miles east
of Cincinnati. It was not only a fort, but was also a fortified
village site, and has some features about it which are regarded
as of a religious nature. The hill on which it stands is in most
places very steep towards the river. A ravine starts from near
the upper end on the eastern side, gradually deepening towards
the south, and finally turns abruptly towards the west to the
river. By this means nearly the whole work occupies the summit of
a detached hill, having in most places very steep sides. To this
naturally strong position fortifications were added, consisting
of an embankment of earth of unusual height, which follows close
around the very brow of the hill. This embankment is still in a
fine state of preservation, but is now annually exposed to
cultivation and the inroads of cattle, so that it will not be
long before it will be greatly changed if no effort be made to
preserve it.

Fort Ancient.

This wall is, of course, the highest in just those places where
the sides of the hill are less steep than usual. In some places
it still has a height of twenty feet. We notice the wall has
numerous breaks in it. Some of these are where it crosses the
ravines, leading down the sides of the hill. In a few cases the
embankment may still be traced to within a few feet of a rivulet.
Considerable discussion has ensued as to the origin and use of
these numerous gateways. Mr. Squier thinks that these openings
were occupied by timber work in the nature of blockhouses which
have long since decayed. Others, however, think that the wall was
originally entire except in a few instances, and that the breaks
now apparent were formed by natural causes, such as water
gathering in pools, and musk-rats burrowing through the walls,
and we are told that such an opening was seen forming in the year
1847.72 No regular ditch exists inside the wall, the material
apparently being obtained from numerous dug holes.

It will be seen that the works could be naturally divided into
two parts, connected by the isthmus. More than one observer has
pointed out the resemblance in general outline of this work to a
map of North and South America, but of course the resemblance, if
any, is entirely accidental. Mr. Peet has called attention to the
resemblance which the walls of the lower inclosure bear to two
serpents, their heads being the mounds, which are separated from
the body by the opening which resembles a ring around the neck.
Their bodies are the walls, which, as they bend in and out, and
rise and fall, much resembles, he thinks, two massive green
serpents rolling along the summit of this high hill. If any such
resemblance occurs, we think it purely accidental. In relation to
the wall across the isthmus, it has been thought to have been the
means of defending one part of the work should an enemy gain
entrance to the other. It has also been supposed that at first
the fort was only built to the cross wall on the isthmus, and
afterwards the rest of the inclosure was added to the work.

The total length of the embankment is about five miles, the area
enclosed about one hundred acres. For most of this distance the
grading of the walls resembles the heavy grading of a railroad
track. Only one who has personally examined the walls can realize
the amount of labor they represent for a people destitute of
metallic tools, beasts of burden, and other facilities to
construct it.

Now, what was the object of this work? We think it was not simply
a fort, but rather a fortified village. That it must have
required the work of a numerous body of people, is undoubted, and
if they lived elsewhere, where are the works denoting such a
fact? We would further suggest that, if this was the seat of a
tribe, each of the two divisions might have been the location of
a phratry of the tribe, by a phratry, meaning the subdivision of
a tribe. We would call especial attention to the two mounds seen
just outside of the walls at the upper end. From these mounds two
low parallel walls extended in a north-easterly direction some
thirteen hundred and fifty feet, their distant ends joining
around a small mound. As this mound was not well situated for
signal purposes, inasmuch as it did not command a very extensive
view, and as the embankments would afford very little protection,
unless provided with palisades, it seems as if the most
satisfactory explanation we have is that it was in the nature of
a religious work.

Mr. Hosea thinks he has found satisfactory evidence that between
these walls there was a paved street, as he discovered in one
place, about two feet below the present surface, a pavement of
flat stones.73 From this, as a hint, he eloquently says:
“Imagination was not slow to conjure up the scene which was once
doubtless familiar to the dwellers at Fort Ancient. A train of
worshipers, led by priests clad in their sacred robes, and
bearing aloft the holy utensils, pass in the early morning, ere
yet the mists have risen in the valley below, along the gently
swelling ridge on which the ancient roadway lies. They near the
mound, and a solemn stillness succeeds their chanting songs; the
priests ascend the hill of sacrifice and prepare the sacred fire.
Now the first beams of the rising sun shoot up athwart the ruddy
sky, gilding the topmost boughs of the trees. The holy flame is
kindled, a curling wreath of smoke arises to greet the coming
god; the tremulous bush which was upon all nature breaks into
vocal joy, and songs of gladness bursts from the throats of the
waiting multitude as the glorious luminary arises in majesty and
beams upon his adoring people. A promise of renewed life and
happiness. Vain promise, since even his rays can not penetrate
the utter darkness which for ages has settled over this people.”
Thus imagination suggests, and enthusiasm paints a scene, but,
from positive knowledge, we can neither affirm nor deny its
truth.

Most of the works of the Mound Builders are noticeable for their
solidity and massiveness. We see this illustrated in the great
walls of Fort Ancient. Some of our scholars think this is a
distinguishing feature of the Mound Builders’ work.74 It seems to
us that it is difficult to make this a distinguishing feature, as
we have no means of knowing how much “massiveness” is required in
a work to entitle it to be considered a work of the Mound
Builders. Should this distinction be established, however, we
have to notice that while in the western part of the State of
Ohio the Mound Builders’ inclosures are more often of the
defensive sort, the type changes to the eastward, where, as in
the Scioto Valley, we find the so-called sacred inclosures in
larger numbers. In the State of Ohio, then, there were at least
two well defined types of works by the Mound Builders. But if we
split the Mound Builders up into tribes, where shall we draw the
line between them and our later Indians?

Fortified Headland, Northern Ohio.
Inclosures, Northern Ohio.

Scattered through Ohio, but especially abundant in the northern
part of the State, is a class of works which has excited
considerable comment. This cut illustrates a work of this kind.
It was located near where Cleveland now stands. The defense
consists mainly in the location. The wall seems to have been
rather of a secondary affair. The hill was too steep to admit
approach to it except from the rear, where the double wall was
placed. With both of these works a ditch was dug outside the
wall. These works did not always consist simply of fortified
headlands. This cut is of a portion of the works formerly
existing near Norwalk, Ohio. The circular work, D, is shaped much
like the sacred inclosures, though not on so large a scale. In
the larger work, at B, we notice a truncated mound. The ditch is
on the outside of the circles. This cut is of a work formerly on
the banks of the Black River. Here we have a square inclosure,
defended by two embankments and a ditch.

Square Inclosure, Northern Ohio.

This class of works was formerly common not only in Ohio and
Western New York, but they were also to be observed in other
sections of the country. They existed alike in the valley of the
two Miami Rivers, and in that of the Scioto. They were also found
throughout the South. Even Wisconsin, the home of the effigy
Mound Builders, is not destitute of this class of remains. The
peculiar interest attaching to them arises from the fact that in
some places, at least, we have good reason to assign their
construction to Indian tribes. Those of Western New York were
very thoroughly studied by Mr. Squier. When he commenced his
investigations, he was under the impression that he was dealing
with the remains of a people very similar, at least, to those who
built the massive works in the Ohio Valley and elsewhere, but he
was led to the conviction that they were the works of the
Iroquois Indians, and as further proof that such was the case, we
are told that since the palisades that once inclosed places known
to be villages of the Iroquois have disappeared, there is no
difference to be observed between the appearance of the ruins of
such a village site and any of the earthworks in Western New
York. But we have just stated that the remains last mentioned are
identical with those found in Northern Ohio, and indeed over a
wide extent of country. The conclusion seems to be, then, that
one large class of works in many points resembling Mound
Builders’ works, found widely distributed throughout the
Mississippi Valley, were really the works of Indians.75 But we
are approaching a subject we do not wish to discuss just yet. We
simply point out that not all the remains of prehistoric people
in the Mississippi Valley are referable to the Mound Builders.

We have tried to point out the more important works that are
ascribed to them. It must of necessity occur in a work of this
nature that the review should be very brief, yet we have touched
on the different classes of their works. But before leaving this
part of our field we must mention some anomalous works, and refer
to others which, if they can be relied on as works of the same
people, certainly imply a great advance on their part.